Confucianism exam

Kongzi on Human Nature

"Human nature" refers to an innate disposition The relevant one for the debate that arises in Confucianism is whether people are innately selfish ( bad) or innately selfless (good) Thus, 1. The claim that human nature is bad means that humans are innately selfish 2. The claim that human nature is good means that humans are innately selfless 3. The claim that human nature is neutral means that human nature is neither good nor bad. The first two views do not imply that we can't act against human nature. It only means that it's initially difficult to do so. A common assumption of the third view is that external influences determine whether one is good or bad. Finally, all views assume that there is a universal human nature.

Mozi's Criticism of Extravagant Clothes and Housing

"What is the purpose of clothes? It is to protect us from the cold of winter and the heat of summer. The proper way to make clothes is such that they keep us warm in winter and cool in summer and that is all. Whatever does not contribute to these ends should be eliminated. What is the purpose of a house? It is to protect us from the wind and cold of winter, the heat and rain of summer, and to keep out robbers and thieves. Whatever does not contribute to these ends should be eliminated." Similar to Mozi's other condemnations extravagant clothes and housing is immoral because it is partial

five vermin

1. Confucians 2. Wandering __orators__ 3. Private __swordsman___ 4. Draft __dodgers_____ 5. _merchants__ of _luxerious__ Goods

we can interpret Mengzi as making the following argument in this passage:

1. If human nature is neutral then becoming a virtuous person would be abrasive 2. Becoming a virtuous person is not abrasive. 3. Therefore, human nature is not neutral.

Ren is the most important virtue for the following two reasons

1. It sets humans apart from other animals. It is thus the _essential_feature of humans. 2. It is the virtue from which all other virtues are derived. Hence, it is the foundational_ virtue.

Some manifestations of xiao

1. Putting parents__needs before ones own__. 2. Making your family_name respectful__. 3. Honoring _dead family members___. 4. Not being __rebellious_. Xiao also applies to superiors in general. Bad superiors - ren takes precedent, but see next one A general assumption: your parents, older relatives, and superiors are morally upright people. But what if your superiors are abusive jerks? See De

Mengzi's Counter Argument

6A1 begins in the following way: Gauzi states, "Human nature is like a willow tree; righteousness is like cups and bowls. To make human nature benevolent (ren) and righteous (yi) is like making a willow tree into cups and bowls." In other words, ren and yi aren't innate- they are learned by external factors. Mengzi replies with the following questions: "Can you, sir, following the nature of the willow tree, make it into cups and bowls? You must violate and rob the willow tree, and only then can you make it into cups and bowls, must you also violate and rob people in order to make them benevolent and righteous? If there is something that leads people to regard benevolence and righteousness as misfortunes for them, it will surely be your doctrine, will it not?" The general suggestion behind Mengzi's questions is that there is not an abrasive quality to acting according to the Confucian virtues (i.e. in a selfless manner). So, we can interpret Mengzi as making the following argument in this passage: 1. If human nature is neutral then becoming a virtuous person would be abrasive 2. Becoming a virtuous person is not abrasive. 3. Therefore, human nature is not neutral.

Dao

: translation: "way" For Kongzi's philosophy, the "dao" or "Way" refers to the proper __system of ethics___. So, the junzi perfectly follows the dao because the junzi exemplifies all the Confucian virtues.

vice

A vice is a _disposition__ to act in a morally bad way. Note: as we'll see, what is considered a morally good action and morally bad action will change depending on the moral theory at hand.

Virtue

A virtue is a __disposition___to act in a morally good way.

Consequentialism

According to consequentialism, what makes an action right or wrong are the consequences of the action. So, for Mozi, impartial actions are right because they bring social peace whereas partial actions are bad because they bring about social unrest. Mozi's endorsement of the Golden Rule is tempered by his consequentialism. Hence, it should be understood as The Modified Golden Rule Do to others what you want done to yourself only if what you want done to yourself has social harmony as a consequence

Han Feizi's Legacy

Among all the views we looked at from classical Chinese political thought, Han Feizi's __worked__. It was __promoted__ by the Qin dynasty (which followed the Warring States Period) and brought about ___social stability__ (although it was later vilified).

Xunzi emphasis of moral education??? Bonus question on exam

Because human nature is bad, Xunzi emphasizes the importance of study to learn the Way. He compares the process of reforming one's nature to making a pot out of clay or straightening wood with a press-frame. Without the potter, the clay would never become a pot on its own. Similarly, people will not be able to reform their nature without a teacher showing them what to do. Xunzi's concern is primarily moral education; he wants people to develop into good people, not people who know a lot of facts. He emphasizes the transformative aspect of education, where it changes one's basic nature.

A Nice Summary Passage of Han Feizi's Views

Chapter 49 states: When handing out rewards, it is best to make them substantial and dependable, so that the people will prize them; when assigning penalties, it best to make them heavy and inescapable, so that the people will fear them; when framing laws, it is best to make the unequivocal and fixed, so that people will understand them. Thus, if a ruler dispenses rewards and does not revoke them, carries out punishments and does not pardon them, supports his rewards with praise, and accompanies his penalties with condemnation, then both the worthy and unworthy will do their utmost to serve him.

virtue ethics

Confucian philosophy is a system of_virtue ethics__. Such a system of ethics demarcates actions as either virtuous or vicious, and claims that one ought to act in a virtuous manner.

the most well-known schools (at least from a contemporary perspective)

Confucianism Mohism Legalism Daoism

De

De:__virtue__ Other common translations: "virtue" and "charisma." In general, de is __power__ to __spread virtues_to others. Back to the case of jerk superiors: If your superiors are abusive jerks, then you should focus on developing de because (a) you'll be acting according to ren and (b) you'll be acting according to xiao.

Explanation 2: failure to nourish yi

Evil actions come about because we haven't developed yi enough to realize the right course of action from the bad one. An important consequence: Mengzi emphasis on the cultivation of yiover the cultivation of ren is a substantial difference from Kongzi. Kongzi thought if we focus on cultivating ren then the cultivation of yi would follow. However, Mengzi thought we need to focus on cultivating yi since we are naturally disposed to act according to ren.

Mengzi on the Explanation of Evil

Explanation 1: external circumstances In other words, Gauzi is claiming that human nature is neutral. But Mengzi replies by making an analogy to a mountain stream of water: "Water surely does not distinguish between east and west. But does it not distinguish between upward and downward? Human nature's being good is like water's tending downward. In short, Mengzi is claiming that external circumstances cause one to deviate from our innate goodness An important consequence: Moral education needs to be emphasized and put into practice. In this way Mengzi is reinforcing Kongzi's philosophy.

The Structure of Social Harmony

First, each _individual_of the society is to be virtuous. The basic five social relationships will consequently be virtuous. Therefore, social harmony (more or less) will be achieved.

Kongzi on the Role of Government

For Kongzi, the government's most important role is to help cultivate virtue in the people Thus, spreading moral education is the government's central task. Nonetheless, the government should also help provide material comforts since poverty and hunger aren't entirely helpful for achieving the government's primary task.

Mozi's Criticism of Funerals

From Chapter 25: However, if by following their [the Confucian sage's] words and implementing their plans concerning lavish funerals and prolonged mourning one really cannot enrich the poor, increase the population, bring stability to precarious situations and order to chaos, then these things clearly are not benevolent and right or the proper task of filial children. Mozi's reasons for his condemnation here is simply that these are partial acts, especially in regards to monetary affairs.

Human Nature

Han Feizi agreed with his teacher: human nature is bad.

Han Feizi Historical Background

Han Feizi lived from 280 - 233 BCE. He was the last great thinker of the Zhou dynasty. He studied under Xunzi. Although he wasn't the founder of legalism, he was the philosophy's most organized and skilled promoter. His book is simply called the Han Feizi. Personal Life: Han Feizi wasn't a notable public speaker because he had a stuttering problem, although he was a very accomplished writer. Eventually he had a falling out with an emperor and was imprisoned. Facing a harsh sentence of execution, Han Feizi knowingly drank poison given to him by a friend, thus dying by suicide.

Critique of Confucianism and Mohism

Han Feizi's criticism of Confucianism and Mohism was quite simple: neither __worked___

Anti-Confucianism

Han Feizi's legalism is an anti-Confucian system. For one, it is a top down approach to bringing about social harmony. For another, Han Feizi put Confucians on the list of "__five vermin__." These are groups of people that Han Feizi believed used state resources without contributing anything in return.

Legalism

Han Feizi's response to the political-social problems was the theory of legalism. Legalism in general: a form of government promoting strict punishment for those who break the laws and favors for those who follow the laws. Moreover, legalism maintains that everyone is beholden to the law.

Xunzi on human essence (chapter 5)

Here is Xunzi's account of human essence from Chapter 5: ...What is that by which humans are humans? I say: it is because they have distinctions... Now the ape's form is such that it also has two legs and no feathers. However, the gentleman sips ape soup and eats ape meat. Thus, that by which humans are humans is not that they are special in having two legs and no feathers, but that they have distinctions...And so among human ways, none is without distinctions. Of distinctions, none are greater than social divisions, and of social divisions, none are greater than rituals, and of rituals, none are greater than those of the sage-kings. In short, Xunzi claims that human essence is the ability to make distinctions especially social ones. It is worth noting how radically different this view is from Kongzi's and Mengzi's. Both Kongzi and Mengzi relate human essence to an emotional feature. On the other hand, Xunzi claims that it's an intellectual quality.

Kongzi

His name literally means "_Master Jong__." 'Kong' is a word uttered to express thankfulness when prayers are granted. "Confucius" comes from a 1600 Jesuit and Latinized interpretation of his name.

Mengzi's Arguments for his View:

In 2A6, Mengzi can be read as making two different arguments for the innate goodness of human nature. The Argument from Sage-Kings: 1. All humans have the same nature. 2. Sage-kings have a good nature 3. Therefore, all humans have a good nature The Argument from a Child in Danger: 1. All humans have the same nature. 2. All people have the disposition to save a child in danger (without the aim of receiving rewards). 3. This disposition is indicative of a good nature. 4. Therefore, all humans have a good nature.

Kongzi on Human Nature and How this Impacts Kongzi's View of Ren

In earlier notes, we saw that Kongzi claims that ren is the essential feature of humans. However, if this is true, then Kongzi should claim that human nature is good. He does not, so we need to modify this claim slightly. Hence, from now on we'll understand Kongzi's view as the following: the potential for ren is the essential feature of humans.

Han Feizi has potential replies to each of these concerns

In response to the first: Language that is subtle and mysterious is something that even the wisest people find difficult to understand. So if when making laws for the masses, you use language that even the wisest people find difficult to understand, then no one will comprehend or follow your laws. The implication is that laws should be stated in an __unambiguous___ way and lacking any ___conditional exceptions______. In response to the second: Now, there are no more than ten officers in the whole world who are virtuous and honest, and yet the offices within the borders of a single state number in the hundreds. So if one insists on employing only officers who are virtuous and honest, there will not be enough men to fill the offices of the state...Therefore, the Way of an enlightened ruler is to unify the laws and not seek after wisdom, to establish proper methods and not yearn for honesty. In this way, the law will not be defeated and the offices will all be free of corruption and treachery. The implication is that developing virtue is not as important as __social order__. Hence, it's not a problem if people are __vicious___as long as they __abide by laws___.

Kongzi Extremely Basic Biography

Kongzi was born into an impoverished family in the small state of Lu in the Shandong peninsula in northeastern China. His father was a low-ranking _aristocrat__ and his mother a concubine. Kongzi had a socially humiliating youth, often working petty odd jobs, like caring for livestock, or accounting. At 50 Kongzi was appointed Minister of __Public Works___ and then _Minister of Crime__. Later he had a falling out with his superiors and was forced into exile. In 484 BCE, however, he returned to Lu, spending the last five years of his life teaching and editing books.

Two Views on Achieving Social Harmony:

Kongzi's view is a bottom up approach. This is a strategy for restoring peace to society that emphasizes change in individual citizens over change in governmental policies The contrast is the top down approach. This is a strategy for restoring peace to society that emphasizes change in the policies over change in the citizens. Structure laws to make people act virtuous Of all the people we'll look at in this section, only _____Han Feizi_________ obviously fits into the second view.

Li

Li: propriety Other common translations: "correctness," "ritual," "etiquette," and "customs." Li isn't technically a virtue. However, we can think of it as outward expression of ren. It's important to note that properly following li is to be motivated by ren. Kongzi treats li as the most important expression of ren

Mengzi on Human Nature

Mengzi believed that human nature is good Mengzi provides an argument against the view that human nature is neutral and gives an argument for his view.

Mengzi's Project

Mengzi defended Confucianism as he understood it. So, he accepted Kongzi's ethics and political theory. The text attributed to him is titled Mengzi. It is divided into 7 parts which are in turn divided into two parts. So, for example, 1A2 is Book I, First Part, Section 2. Mengzi is most well-known for his view on human nature

Mengzi: historical background

Mengzi was born in the 4th century BCE, at least a hundred years after Confucius died. He is often considered the second most important Confucian philosopher. The common Latinized version of his name is Mencius Not much historical fact is known about Mengzi, although it's traditionally believed that he was trained under Kongzi's grandson, Zisi

Mozi's Universal Love

Mozi aimed to establish a unified code of ethical conduct by providing a simple principle upon which we can evaluate an action as right or wrong. The principle of impartiality- named "universal love"—can be stated two different ways: An action is right just in case it is impartial An action is wrong just in case it is partial To be partial is to be biased toward someone (or something). To be impartial is to be unbiased toward someone (or something). Let's look closer at Mozi's actual statements from Chapter 16.

Expressions of Li

Mozi condemned common, Confucian expressions of li. Funerals: Music Extravagant Clothes and Housing

Mozi

Mozi lived from 480 - 390 BCE, so he lived after Kongzi, but before Mengzi and Xunzi. His name literally translates as "Master Ink." Some scholars think that Mozi was either an ex-convict or an ex-slave because the face of convicts and slaves were often times tattooed. He was a paramilitary leader of a small utopian minded society. His text is simply called Mozi. It was probably not actually written by him, but is instead a compilation of his teachings put together by his students. His Philosophy is called Mohism and his followers are called Mohists

Mengzi on Human Essence

Notice as well that 2A6 ends by stating that "From this we can see that if one is without a heart of compassion, one is not a human." This is more or less stating that ren is the essential feature of humans.

Two Reading Kongzi on Human Nature

On the one hand, Kongzi can be read as claiming that human nature is _neutral__. This reading derives from the Analects 17.2: The Master said, 'By nature people are similar; they diverge as the result of practice.' On the other hand, Kongzi can be read as being _silent_ about human nature. This reading derives from the Analects 5:13: Zigong said, "The Master's cultural brilliance is something that is readily heard about, whereas one does not get to hear the Master expounding upon subjects of human nature or the Way of Heaven."

Consequences of Consequentialism

One interesting consequence of Mozi's consequentialism is his insistence that we ought to believe in ghosts. The underlying argument: 1. We should act in ways that bring about social harmony 2. Beliefs in ghosts will do this. 3. Therefore, we should believe in ghosts

The Golden Rule

Our teacher Mozi says, "If people regarded other people's states in the same way that they regard their own, who then would incite their own state to attack that of another? For one would do for others as one would do for oneself. If people regarded other people's cities in the same way that they regard their own, who then would incite their own city to attack that of another? For one would do for others as one would do for oneself. If people regarded other people's families in the same way that they regard their own, who would incite their own family to attack that of another? For one would do for others as one would do for oneself. Notice that this passage includes the golden rule.

Xunzi on Human Nature (First Part of Chapter 23) Let's look at Chapter 23 of the Xunzi:

People's nature is bad. Their goodness is a matter of deliberate effort. Now people's nature is such that they are born with fondness for profit. It they follow along with this, then struggle and contention will arise, and yielding and deference will perish therein. They are born with desires of the eyes and ears, a fondness for beautiful sights and sounds. If they follow along with these, then lasciviousness and chaos will arise, and ritual and the standards of righteousness, proper form and good order, will perish therein. Thus, if people follow along with their inborn nature and dispositions, they are sure to come to struggle and contention, turn to disrupting social divisions and disorder, and end up in violence. Xunzi is straightforward: we are disposed to act in selfish ways (especially in regards to profit and pleasure.) Human nature is thus bad. As the passage also indicates, if our innate dispositions remain unchecked, then social chaos follows.

The Confucian Virtues

Ren Yi Xiao De Li

Ren

Ren: _human heartedness__or __humanity____ Other common translations: "benevolence," "moral character," "love (compassion for others)," "human goodness," and "true-manhood." In general, ren is the disposition of __deep concern for the welfare of others___. Thus Kongzi describes ren as "love" for one another.

An important consequence:

Since ren isn't innate, it can't be the essence of humans. Xunzi is thus in disagreement with Mengzi on human essence. So, then, what is the essence of humans for Xunzi?

Moral Education is thus extremely important for Xunzi. This is suggested in the continuation of Chapter 23

So, it is necessary to await the transforming influence of teachers and models and the guidance of ritual and the standards of righteousness, and only then will they [people in general] come to yielding and deference, turn to culture and order, and end up under control. Looking at it in this way, it is clear that people's nature is bad, and their goodness is a matter of deliberate effort. Thus, crooked wood must await steaming and straightening on the shaping frame, only then does it become straight. Notice that at the end Xunzi brings up the analogy of correcting crooked wood. This is a direct reference—and rebuttal—to Mengzi's analogy in 2A6 (i.e. the argument from abrasiveness). In fact, chapter 23 continues by giving a counter argument to Mengzi's claim that human nature is good.

The Steward of Caps and the Steward of Coats

Strictly following one's assigned duties is just as important as following laws. Here's another section from chapter 7 "Marquis Zhao of Han once became drunk and fell asleep. The Steward of Caps, seeing that his ruler was cold, placed the Marquis' cloak over him. When Marquis Zhao awoke he was pleased by this, and asked his attendants, "Who covered me with my cloak?" So, the lesson: don't overstep your __duties__ and don't shirk them, otherwise you will be punished by __death____.

The Analects

The Analects is said to be a collection of short sayings by and about Kongzi (referred to in the text as "__the Master_"). It is divided into 20 books which were written with brushed ink on strips of bamboo strung together. Tradition has it that shortly after Kongzi's death his disciples assembled the Analects in order to preserve his teachings. However, the traditional view of the Analects' origin is likely _false_. The work was probably assembled over the course of the 200 - 300 years after Kongzi's death, which in turn left a lot of time for interpretation, editing, and rearranging. So, some scholars conclude that the Analects likely contain nothing that Kongzi actually said—there might be nothing of his original statements left at all!\

Government and Political Climate of the Period

The Eastern Zhou dynasty was a __feudalism___, which is a system of regional government in which wealthy land owners (called lords) offer protection and land to others (vassals) in return for certain services (typically farming). The Eastern Zhou Dynasty was neither peaceful nor prosperous because lords were constantly at battle with one another for land. The remarkable and constant warring between feudal lords caused historians to name the period we're interested in the __Warring States Period___. Note: technically, this period began shortly after the start of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.

The Rectification of Names

The Five Binary Relationships involve a normative claim, a claim about what one ought to do. This aspect of the Five Binary Relationships is called the Rectification of Names. The Rectification of Names states the following: One out to act in a way that virtuously satisfies the obligations implied by one's role in the relevant relationship.

Confucian Critiques of Legalism and Replies

The Master said, "If you try to guide the common people with coercive regulations and keep them in line with punishments, the common people will become evasive and will have no sense of shame." There are two ways we can interpret this criticism: 1. People will become evasive insofar as they manipulate legal statements in their favor. 2. People will have no sense of shame insofar as they become __vicious __.

The two basic features of legalism

The two basic features of legalism are the two handles Chapter 7 defines them as follows: "The way an enlightened ruler controls his ministers is through the use of two handles, and nothing more. These two handles are punishment (death) and favor (praise). What is meant by punishment and favor? To kill or execute—this is what is meant by "punishment." To venerate and reward—this is what is meant by "favor." Those who serve as minsters are fearful of execution and penalties and regard being venerated and rewarded as something beneficial. So if the ruler of men personally exercises his power to punish and grant favors, then the assembled ministers will all fear his might and turn to the benefits he offers them." One "handle" regards those who break the law. It is the punishment of _death__. The other "__handle__" regards those who follow the law. It is praise and __veneration__. Han Feizi's legalism is thus a system of government that rules by _fear__ and _self interest__.

The Five Binary Relationships

There are five basic _social_ relationships between people: 1. __Parent-Child___ 2. Husband - Wife 3. _Elder sibling- Younger sibling_ 4. Ruler - Subject 5. __Friend- Friend___ Obviously, someone can be in more than one role. Every citizen is at least in the domain of the Ruler-Subject relation. Each relationship has a _superior_ and an _inferior__. The most fundamental of these roles is the _parent-child__relationship, for if it goes awry (especially in youth), then the other relationships are likely to go awry as well.

Philosophy before Kongzi

There of no established "philosophical thinking" before Kongzi. Nonetheless, Kongzi's influence was not as a revolutionary thinker—he was a _synthesizer and a __transmitter__ of past traditions.

The Rise of Political Philosophy

There were so many different political philosophies developing in response to social unrest that the period is said to have developed the __Hundred Schools of Thought__ This slogan represents the fact that there were many "competing" responses to the social unrest.

Mozi's Criticism of Music

This is why our teacher Mozi says, "Musical performance is wrong!" Our teacher Mozi says, "Now let us suppose that the great bells, drums, zithers, and lutes have all been properly prepared. What pleasure would kings, dukes, and great men find in reverently listening to them all by themselves? Their enjoyment must come from listening to them in the company of common folk or gentlemen. But if they listen in the company of common folk or gentlemen, then those gentlemen must neglect the business of governing...These days, when kings, dukes, and great men put on musical performances, they divert such vast resources that could be used to produce food and clothing for people." Musical performances are immoral because they are partial

Two implications of The Rectification of Names

Two implications: 1. If one does not act in such a way, then one cannot be justifiably called by the name of the role. 2. If one does act in such a way, then one can be justifiably called by the name of the role.

Virtue, Vice, and Context

When analyzing some action in terms of virtuous or vicious behavior, one has to pay attention to the context in which the action occurred.

Xiao

Xiao: _filial piety_ Another common translation: "filiality" In general, xiao is respect and honor for one's __parents__ and _ancestors_.

Xunzi's explanation for goodness (chapter 2)

Xunzi needs an explanation for goodness since believes that people are naturally bad. Xunzi's explanation is implied in a short passage from Chapter 2: The petty man is the opposite [of the junzi]. He is utterly disorderly, but hates for people to criticize him. He is utterly unworthy, but wishes for people to consider him worthy. His heart is like that of a tiger or a wolf, and his conduct like that of beasts, but he hates for people to consider him a villain. Xunzi's underlying explanation is simple: Every person desires to be perceived as a good. Hence, people do good in order to be perceived as good. Notice that this explanation is claiming that we only do good deeds because of selfish desires.

Xunzi: historical background

Xunzi was born sometime near the end of the 4th century BCE and died sometime around 3rd century CE. He was a respected scholar and court figure during his time. He was a defender of Confucian as well. Nonetheless, Xunzi differed from Kongzi and Mengzi on two important points: 1. Human nature 2. Human essense Xunzi's text is simply called the Xunzi and divides into chapters.

Xunzi's Counter Argument to Mengzi

Xunzi's underlying counter argument to Mengzi can be summarized as follows: 1. If people are innately good, then Confucianism is useless 2. Confucianism is not useless 3. Therefore, people are not innately good. Another way of thinking about the first premise is that moral training would be superfluous if people were naturally good. So, Xunzi's basic underlying principle seems to be this: if a disposition is innate then it doesn't have to be cultivated

Yi

Yi: _rightness__ Other common translations: "justice" or "righteousness" In general, yi is the inner sense of which actions are in accord with ren and its __manifestations__in any given situation. Kids, dogs, may lack intelligence to understand Let's consider some examples. See:__Analects 15.18 17.23_____

Three domains of li:

__Ceremonies___: Li is expressed by following the elaborate rules for social events such as marriages, military events, government holidays, strict observance of public holiday, etc. ___Customs___: Li is expressed by following the expected everyday social norms__with precisions____. ___Proper relationships__: Li is expressed by adhering to an __expected role_in relationships.

Two further characterizations of ren:

__Conscientiousness__: being _attentive_ to other's concerns. _Altruism____: being __selfless___. In the Confucian context, this is to follow the _silver rule_: do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you This is different than the_golden rule_: do to others what you want done to you.

Hence, given the cultural climate, the one over-arching question at the forefront was:

____What is the best way to restore peace to society?___ The violence rampant in the culture of the time period had one positive effect: it prompted many great thinkers to ponder about the methods for achieving long lasting social peace.

Junzi

literal translation: "lord's son;" common translation: "gentleman." In a nutshell, the junzi is the _morally excellent_person. Such a person exemplifies all the Confucian virtues. In the Analects, Kongzi's discussion of the virtues often appeals to the junzi.