Content Area 3: Early Europe and Colonial America, Set 4

What theological perspective does the print, Allegory of Law and Grace show?

Allegory of Law and Grace visually depicts Luther's theology. One of the most basic and critical points was the concept of salvation through faith and God's grace. Luther's theology rejected the premise that "good works," could play any role in attaining salvation. In Allegory of Law and Grace a tree divides the picture plane into regions, the left "law" side and the right "grace/Gospel" side, which contrast the roles each play and the defines their relationships.

Who was the viceroy who commissioned the Codex Mendoza, and who were the artists commissioned?

Around 1541, Antonio de Mendoza, who was the first viceroy of New Spain, commissioned a codex from indigenous artists—coming from a long Nahuatl literate tradition.

What significance does the Delphic Sybil have in its larger physical context?

Around the edges of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, interspersed between the webs and pendentives are twelve prophetic figures all representing the coming of Christ. Seven of these are Old Testament Prophets, and the remaining five are the female Sibyls of the Classical World. The alternating male and female figures are seated on thrones and are portrayed with books or scrolls. It is interesting to note that the Classical Sibyls were included to symbolize that the Messiah was to come for all the people of the world and not just the Jews

How did religion play a role in the different styles in the Low Countries?

Because of the religious and political connections of Flanders, its art reflects a much closer tie stylistically to the other strongly Catholic regions, such as Spain and Italy. The north, on the other hand, began developing a strikingly different style of art.

What was one of the diseases afflicting patients to whom this hospital attended?

Ergotism was a common, but terrifying disease. It is this disease that was called Saint Anthony's Fire, and was portrayed in the fully open right panel of the triptych in the panel depicting the Temptation of Saint Anthony.

In what ways was Caravaggio's art revolutionary in its portrayal of subjects?

He is also known for drastically moving away from traditional portrayals in his religious works, sometimes to such an extent that his patrons required a second version.

Why did Sinan the Great move away from the segmented-style mosques?

He wanted to move away from the segmented-style mosques that did not exhibit the degree of monumentality and unity that he wanted, so he used the central plan, as in Hagia Sophia. In this way, the mihrab on the wall that faced Mecca, was visible from almost anywhere within the mosque.

Whose student had Titian been?

He was the student of Giorgione and Bellini, both who explored the expression of poetry in painting, creating works of mystery and mood. Titian continued this approach, although his works are less ambiguous than his former master's, Giorgione.

How did Caravaggio use value contrasts in his style, and what was this technique called?

His style, which used heightened light and dark contrasts and in which subjects are masked in shadow and illuminated by a dramatic light is known as tenebrism.

How is this Bruegel's work significant in the history of European art?

His work is significant in the history of Western art by raising the importance of landscape painting as its own genre, rather than only used as a backdrop for other subjects.

What earlier structure was influential in the design of the façade of Il Gesu, and what other work was influential in its interior design of space? What does the style of the interior of Il Gesu express in its choices of Classical motifs and highly emotional spirituality?

Il Gesu owes a debt to the influence of Alberti's Santa Maria Novella in Florence for its façade. Niches on the façade hold statues, and the entire façade has a unified, harmonious effect. The interior owes a debt to Alberti's Sant' Andrea in Mantua in its interior design of space. The interior of the church, in typical Counter-reformation style, uses Classical motifs and even possibly repurposed Classical pilasters, but expressing a new and highly emotional Christian impact.

What political change in the Netherlands caused a split in the style and art of the north and south areas?

In the 17th century, the Netherlands split into the Protestant North (Dutch Republic) and the Catholic South (Flanders), which was ruled by Spain.

In what way does Raphael represent the Classical world and the idea of philosophy as a means to seek truth in this fresco of the School of Athens?

In this fresco, Raphael portrays the great philosophers, mathematicians, and scientists from the Classical world, grouping them according to the topics of their discussion, such as in the center, Plato and Aristotle each hold their treatises while Plato points upward (representing his philosophies), and Aristotle points to the earth, which represents his source of insight as observations of the natural world.

In what way does the expression of this work reveal the humanist ideals of the Renaissance?

In this series of works, Raphael uses two frescos to represent Truth, one using theology and one philosophy, which is this work. That both means of understanding are compatible expresses the Renaissance humanist view.

Why is the Venus of Urbino significant in the study of Renaissance painting?

In this work, Titian established the standard for the reclining female that later artists were to emulate and use as inspiration for their own art. The diagonal of her figure is balanced by the diagonal created in the color of red in the lower left corner portraying her couch, and the red of the background woman's red skirt, which also parallels the other colors in the foreground: the white linen and ivory skin, and dark curtain.

What are some of the theories surrounding the style in which Michelangelo portrayed these female figures of the sybils?

Michelangelo portrayed all the female sibyls as muscular and powerful, which shows their strength and importance. Perhaps this was done to communicate their mythological divine status—that they were more than human, or perhaps it was an early statement of the strength and equal importance of women, or perhaps it was simply because Michelangelo's aesthetic sense was so influenced by the sculptural qualities of the figure's muscle and bone, that he enjoyed portraying more masculine qualities in his art, or perhaps it is also because of the availability of models, who were primarily male.

What kind of technical challenges and processes did Michelangelo use to paint the Flood?

Michelangelo worked slowly and laboriously on this scene: there are twenty-nine sections of plaster on the painting of the Flood (indicating the amount of the image that was painted at each time) some sections were possibly plastered by his assistants. Shortly after Michelangelo began painting this fresco, he noticed mold growing on the plaster, which indicated it was drying too slowly. He discovered that for the humid Roman climate, more sand was needed in the plaster. After he began increasing the proportion of sand in the plaster, no more of the frescos had problems.

In what way were works like this connected to the Reformation of Northern Europe?

Northern European art of the Reformation shows the drastic changes in worldview and religious focus that became a part of the political, social, and artistic world of the Reformation.

What kind of text is included in the print, Allegory of Law and Grace, and how is the human figure used to express the dichotomy presented?

On either side of the tree, which is "dead" on the law side, and "alive" on the grace side, a nude figure appears, but on the law side, the figure flees from a tormenting devil, while on the grace side, he receives Christ's sacrifice, and is made whole. Additionally, at the bottom of the panel are six columns of Bible texts, emphasizing the teachings portrayed in the image.

What was one of Sinan's goals in designing the Mosque of Selim II? What was one of the remarkable quality of Sinan's work?

One of his goals was to surpass the achievement of the Hagia Sophia, making a dome larger than the one of that monument. Another remarkable quality of Sinan's work is that it integrates not only the square with the dome, but also integrates the octagon with these shapes.

Who was Peter Paul Rubens, and how was his art significant?

Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish artist, as well as an influential ambassador, traveling extensively. Rubens was known for his swirling compositions, filled with emotional impact and energy, typical of Counter-reformation art.

In what style is the Entombment of Christ painted, and what qualities suggest this?

Pontormo includes all the characteristics of early Mannerist painting, which breaks from the harmonious, rationally structured compositions of the earlier Renaissance. He uses intense, light colors to emphasize the emotional impact, places his figures in a swirling, energetic design, rather than a stable pyramidal format. Instead of having a strong mass in the center of the painting, this area is empty, symbolic of the loss and grief the figures are experiencing. The figures themselves are slightly distorted from a realistic representation, with small heads in proportion to the rest of the body, and each figure is twisting, moving, stepping, or falling dramatically.

What does this etching, Self-Portrait with Saskia, portray?

Rembrandt shows himself and Saskia wearing historical clothing: Rembrandt in a fur-trimmed overcoat and a stylish 16th-century beret tilted at an angle, a plume on its side, and Saskia in an old-fashioned veil. The image is likely an expression of the idea that 'love brings forth art'.

How does Triumph in the Name of Jesus increase the drama and emotional intensity of the painting?

Some of the artwork literally extends into real space, like stage sets, which is consistent with the theatricality of the work and the drama intended to be part of the experience. Additionally, thin glazes of darker paint enhance shadows on the actual architectural framework in order to increase the illusion of the three-dimensionality and reality of the forms that break the border into real space.

What is some of the important information the frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza provides, and how is it portrayed?

The Codex provides information about the pre-conquest Aztec empire and daily life in the early conquest period. In this image, the history and organization of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan (the place of the prickly pear cactus) is portrayed. The city was built in the middle of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico in 1325. It shows the physical organization of Tenochtitlan, divided into four triangular sections separated by blue diagonals, representing canals.

For use in what context was the Isenheim altarpiece made?

The Isenheim altarpiece is a triptych of complex construction— built like a cabinet of statues covered by two layers of folding wings. Here we see the large altarpiece closed. The altar was commissioned for the choir of a monastery church adjacent to their hospital.

What is the identifying information for the Isenheim altarpiece, and what is the difference between its closed and open imagery?

The Isenheim altarpiece was painted by Matthias Grunewald. c. 1512-1516 A.D. using oil on wood. When closed, Grunewald portrayed saints who were especially connected to the themes of illness and suffering. St. Anthony is pictured on one wing, St. Sebastian on the other. Using these and the images of the suffering Savior as both a means to comfort and to inspire, since the work was displayed in a church connected to a hospital. When opened, the altarpiece reveals scenes of the risen Christ, the Nativity, and the Annunciation. The scene of the Resurrection is in many ways, a combination of Transfiguration, Resurrection, and Ascension, as Christ is above the ground and hovers over a guard, His glory shining in a huge halo of multiple colors and pure white skin.

Who were some of the artists whose work was used to decorate The Sistine Chapel?

The Renaissance artists who contributed work to fill this chapel include Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael Sanzio, Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini and Sandro Botticelli.

What is the history of the Sistine Chapel and its decorations?

The Sistine Chapel was built by Pope Sixtus IV in 1475 as the pope's chapel, and the chapel is named in his honor. Shortly after its completion in 1481, Pope Sixtus commissioned many of the finest painters to paint frescos on the walls 30 years before Michelangelo's famous works were commissioned. The ceiling was originally painted by Piero Matteo d'Amelia, whose work was destroyed in the repainting commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1508 from Michelangelo.

What is the emphasis in movement of the interior space in the nave of Il Gesu?

The aisles are used to house individual chapels instead of an ambulatory space. The focus is toward the altar. The transepts have also been reduced to large side chapels, rather than extending outward and breaking the forward thrust of the dominant shape of the nave. This strong forward emphasis became the prominent design of Catholic churches.

What are some of the important qualities revealed in the plan of the Mosque of Selim II?

The central dome is dominant, and the mihrab, which is at the top center of the dome in this orientation, can be seen pointing to the southeast, toward Mecca. The integration of the square and octagonal base can also be seen clearly, with the half-domes alternating with the shallow alcoves of the flat arched sides.

What is the basic process for making an etching?

The etching process is one of the intaglio methods of printing, in which incised lines (either cut into the plate with a sharp tool, as in drypoint, or using acid baths, as in an etching), in which ink is added, and when pressed, the damp paper squeezes up into the lines and absorbs the ink.

What is the identifying information for the frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza?

The frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza was commissioned by the Viceroyalty of New Spain. c. 1541-1542 A.D. and made using ink and color on paper.

What was the intended purpose of the Codex Mendoza, and how did this intended purpose change?

The intention was to send the Codex to the Spanish King, Emperor Charles V, but it never arrived because it was taken by French pirates enroute.

In what sequence did Michelangelo paint the Genesis scenes on the ceiling, and what is the symbolism in this painting?

The painting of the Flood was the first of the Genesis scenes that Michelangelo produced on the ceiling. The image the Ark is, of course, The Church is symbolized by the ark, in which the righteous will be saved.

Who was the patron for Hunters in the Snow (and the other works in its series), and what tradition does this painting continue?

The series was originally created for a local Antwerp merchant, but only five of the six survive today. The surviving paintings include Hunters in the Snow, The Gloomy Day, The Return of the Herd, Harvesters, and Haymaking, each representing about two months of the year. This series continues the tradition of Late Gothic manuscript art, such as Books of Hours, which depict the different seasons through landscape and the human activities in each of the seasons.

How does the interior structure of the Sistine Chapel influence the design of the frescos it contains?

The unified architectural structure of the chapel's interior facilitates the unified sequence of narrative paintings, rather than separate windows in which images are placed, Three tiers of fresco narrative paintings make up each of the sidewalls. The altar wall, also loosely divided into three tiers, portrays a single narrative of the final judgment, which Michelangelo painted for Pope Paul III decades after he had completed the ceiling.

What is the identifying information for Il Gesu, and for what purpose was Il Gesu founded?

This cathedral is called Il Gesu, and was built in Rome, Italy. The architect who designed the plan of the church was Giacomo da Vignola, and the architect responsible for designing the façade was Giacomo della Porta. It was built in the 16th century A.D of brick, marble, fresco, and stucco. Il Gesu was founded as the mother church of the Jesuit order and is located in the heart of Rome.

What is the identifying information for Triumph of the Name of Jesus, including its location?

This ceiling fresco is called Triumph of the Name of Jesus, and is located in Il Gesù, which is located in Rome, Italy by Giovanni Battista Gaulli between 1676-1679 A.D. The fresco, Triumph in the Name of Jesus is located above the nave, which includes the same initials, IHS, in light with a cross above them in the central area of the painting portraying the light of Heaven.

What is the identifying information for Self-Portrait with Saskia, and at what point in Rembrandt's life did he make this etching?

This etching is called, Self-Portrait with Saskia, by Rembrandt van Rijn in 1636 A.D. Rembrandt made this etching only two years after his marriage to Saskia, who became one of the artist's favorite models.

What is the identifying information for the School of Athens, and in what context was it made?

This fresco is entitled, School of Athens, and was painted by Raphael in 1509-1511 A.D. Raphael's School of Athens is part of a fresco series for the Pope Julius II private offices and library in the Vatican. He completed four works that each expresses an important category of understanding: Truth, Good and Beauty.

What is the identifying information for the Sistine Chapel?

This is the Sistine Chapel ceiling and altar wall frescoes, located in Vatican City, Italy. Michelangelo painted the ceiling frescos c. 1508-1512 A.D., and the altar frescos c. 1536-1541 A.D.

What is the identifying information for the Venus of Urbino, and who was Titian?

This painting is called Venus of Urbino, and was painted by Titian. c. 1538 A.D. using oil on canvas. Titian was a Venetian artist who was instrumental in the change to painting on canvas, replacing the popular wood panels of the earlier Renaissance and medieval period. He worked on a canvas under-painted with a red ground, which gave his works a rich warmth.

What is the identifying information for the Hunters in the Snow, and how does this painting relate to the larger work of which it is part?

This painting is entitled Hunters in the Snow and was painted by Pieter Bruegel the Elder in 1565 A.D. using oil on wood. This is one of six panel paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder portraying landscape scenes that represent different seasons.

What is the identifying information for the Entombment of Christ?

This painting is entitled, Entombment of Christ, painted by Jacopo da Pontormo from 1525-1528 A.D. It uses oil on wood as the media.

How does Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici fit into the larger series of which it is a part, and what does this series depict?

This painting is one of a series of twenty-four monumental paintings that Rubens painted for Marie de' Medici, who was one of the most powerful women in Europe.

What is the identifying information for the print of Allegory of Law and Grace?

This print is entitled, Allegory of Law and Grace, made by Lucas Cranach the Elder. c. 1530 A.D. using woodcut and letterpress. It is based on an oil painting of the same title.

What is the identifying information for Mosque of Selim II? Who was the architect, and how does this structure relate to the rest of his work?

This work is entitled the Mosque of Selim II, built in Edirne, Turkey by Sinan between 1568-1575 A.D. of brick and stone. The Mosque of Selim II was designed by the architect known as Sinan the Great when he was almost 80 years old. It was his crowning achievement.

What is the identifying information for the Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici?

This work is entitled, Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici and is from the Marie de' Medici Cycle by Peter Paul Rubens, painted between 1621-1625 A.D using oil on canvas.

What is the identifying information for the Calling of Saint Matthew, and who was Caravaggio?

This work is the Calling of Saint Matthew by Caravaggio, c. 1597-1601 A.D. using oil on canvas.Michelangelo Merisi, known to history as Caravaggio, after the name of his hometown, was one of the most influential Italian Baroque artists.

What is shown when the inner layer of wings (shown) is opened, along with the predella?

When the two wings portraying the Nativity and the wings on the predella are opened, the three-dimensional inner cabinet of the altarpiece is shown.

How did Rubens emphasize Marie de' Medici's power in Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici?

While her life was not a heroic, legendary one, her commemorative paintings exaggerate her importance and influence in order to make her seem almost divine. Rubens completed these works in four years, and painted all the figures, but his workshop artists completed the other parts of the paintings. Rubens used every mythological and allegorical metaphor he could in order to dramatize the events of her life.