Criminal Justice Final Exam

Strategic Dimension Substantive Focus

-Police must see a broad range of problems to deal with that affect the quality of live and cause crime. Police do not act alone. They must engage partners in the community to solve problems.

OPEN SELECTIVE ENFORCEMENT REQUIRES:

1.Enforcement Policy Statements that are written and published for the officers and the public. 2.Studies of Enforcement Policy to find good quality policy 3.Use of Professional Staff in Policy Making. 4.Public Participation in the policy creation done in public bureaucracies. Coordination of Policy With Prosecutors and Judges so that policy does not cause conflict with the rest of the criminal justice system

Routine Activities Theory and the Problem Analysis Triangle

Crime does not occur if the Potential offender is controlled By a handler, places are Protected by managers, and/or Targets/Victims are protected By Guardians. Who should these people be? Largely they must be citizens

Restorative Justice

restores the community to wholeness

Future Issues

•A major issue is continued Population Growth -The U.S. population was 334 million in 2020. -It will be 347 mil 2025, 380 mil in 2040, and 398 mil in 2050 -Population density is increasing as cities expand up in housing space as much as out. •The more dense a population is the greater the probability of interpersonal Conflict. •Denser populations will produce more Serial killers, Mass Murders, and Stress Murders. •Denser populations lead to more mental illness and Suicide.

Justice - Did you consider?

•Benevolence •Mercy •Leniency •Returning good for evil •Doing that which is right

Community Oriented Policing - Philosophical Dimension

•Broad Police Function -Fear reduction, order maintenance, service -Beyond crime fighting •Citizen Input -Work closely with citizens -The use of Meetings, surveys Neighborhood Variation

•So, Problem Oriented Policing Involves:

•Community Engagement -Citizens have responsibility. -Police need to get them involved -One needs to build Community where it does not exist -Empowerment of citizens

What is Evidence-Based Policing?

•Evidence based has become increasingly common in the world of criminal justice policy and practice, especially policing •Sherman (1998) was likely the first to articulate the principles of an evidence-based approach to policing. Sherman focused on two dimensions of a research orientation in policing: •(I)using the results of scientifically rigorous evaluations of law-enforcement tactics, strategies and policies to guide decisions; and •(II) generating and applying analytic knowledge from internal and external sources •Evidence-based policing is not just about the process or products of evaluating police practices, but also about the translation of that knowledge into digestible and useable forms and the institutionalization of that knowledge into practice and policing systems. •Relationships between the scientific community and law enforcement, and the views of officers of education, haven't always been positive in the history of policing. •Evidence-based policing necessitates strong partnerships and increased communication and collaboration among researchers, analysts, and law enforcement officers.

Future Issues

•Information has become the most valuable thing in the global economy. •Computer and Cyber crimes are expanding in frequency and becoming more complex. •Cyber crime has become an international political and terrorist weapon. •We have more internet users and more low income and less educated users. These users are more vulnerable to cyber crime. -

Doing Justice

•Maintain or Restore Balance or proportion •Greatest good for greatest number and the least harm for the fewest •A just society does both: common good and individual good. •These conflict •How well is the conflict resolved?

Competing Values influence images of Justice. One must balance between these.

•Stability and Change •Personal Security and Moral Responsibility •Knowledge and Privacy •Triumph and Community •Uniformity and Individualism

The Revolution in Public Expectations

- One consequence of the technological revolution has been the parallel revolution in public expectations about the quality of life - The data on civilian complaints supports the argument made herein concerning police services generally: the availability of a service or remedy stimulates demand for that service, thereby altering basic expectations

Compstat

- managerial process that uses crime analysis info - Crime analysis, crime mapping, GIS - limitation is on crime focusing excluding all other police work - limitation is lack of citizen input

•Police Professional changes

-Departments will expand use of Early Intervention and Employee Assistance systems. -Accountability methods will expand due to public demand. -Citizen oversight will also expand. -The demand for community input will continue. -A movement to require higher education will continue. -Better and more extensive coordination among police agencies will occur. -Many other changes can be listed.

Strategic Dimension Substantive Focus

-Police must see a broad range of problems to deal with that affect the quality of live and cause crime. -Police do not act alone. They must engage partners in the community to solve problems.

FACTORS LEADING TO THE SEPARATION OF THE POLICE FROM THE PUBLIC

1.Social Change a.Police as a major source of Socialization Lag Behind social change and act to reinforce the status quo (partly due to Law). b.As Diversity has increased in society, police have been in control of those that resist diversity. 2.American attitude toward Authority is negative •We fear and dislike authority. •We support Equal Opportunity, Due Process, and Fairness •We want Propriety in government behavior •We do not want Arbitrary or Capricious behavior on the part of government. 3. Very little Self-Policing as in Neighbors on Watch is done in the U.S. 4. Police Discretion may be hard to accept as people may be treated differently for the same behavior. 5. The U. S. legal system and courts are an Adversary System •Criminal Law requires the police to oppose citizens in court. •Legal processing places police and the public in Direct Conflict. •Tort Liability, law suits against the police also put the public and police in direct conflict. 6. Alienation and Isolation (Culture) •Routinezation of work means that police learn how not to react emotionally to horrible events. The public does not understand this lack of reaction. •It is part of the Professional Detachment police learn by experience, but it makes police seem unapproachable. •Occupational Stress may cause police to withdraw from citizens to only be with other officers. 7. The Education required of police officers and their academy Training is unrealistic and inadequate compared to the complexity of their job and the public's desire for excellent performance. 8. Overcriminalization of behaviors in the law place police in conflict with large numbers of citizens. •This is the effect of Legal Moralism on occasion where the morals of one group are imposed on the whole society. This was what occurred in Prohibition last century. •It may be what is changing with modification of marijuana laws. Perhaps of third of the population uses this drug. •It has occurred over time and may be changing with the LGBTQ rights movement. Sexual preference was the cause of many laws that are changing. 9. Dynamics of Perception due to selective contact. •This causes We-They Thinking with the police seeing everyone but themselves in a negative light. •It contributes to Stereotyping that can be effective in raising suspicion, but can lead to discrimination. 10. Prejudice exists. Officers are products of their society. The come into policing with biases and prejudice. These affect their decision making. . Professionalism and Autonomy The public wants the police to be professionally trained and to perform professionally. Yet, this separates police from the public. They become different from the rest of us. The idea of a profession means that the profession decides what is excellent, what is best. This runs contrary to the concept of democracy and citizen control of government. Yet, we do not what police to act on the whim of a few political leaders.

Evidence Based Policing

Evidence based policing moves beyond the limits citied for COMPSTAT. - systems feed information to appropriate decision-makers - data bases are created to examine trends - critical thinking is to be used to provide analysis - results, accountability are the goals - the systems are to be institutionalized

The Code

"As a law enforcement officer my fundamental duty is to serve mankind; to safeguard lives and property; to protect the innocent against deception, the weak against oppression or intimidation, the peaceful against violence and disorder; and to protect the constitutional rights of all people to liberty, equality and justice. -Police leaders must ensure that their officers fully understand the nature and significance of the commitment this brief passage suggests.

The Myth of the Watchman

•Historians have not yet reconstructed a full picture of police behavior in the nineteenth century. •Historians have established that police officers had a few purposes. •get and hold the job. •exploit the possibilities for graft •do as little actual patrol work as possible. •surviving on the street •go through the motions of "real" police work • •Kelling, and Moore have no grounds for offering this as a viable model for contemporary policing.

Social Justice The Role of Government

•How do we as a society deal with (prevent or remove) the causes of crime, harm, or wrong? •We fail to be a just society if we fail to prevent or remove the causes. •Life, Liberty, pursuit of happiness, domestic tranquility, & general welfare are for all citizens, equally, fairly. How do we do this?

Future Issues

•Human Trafficking will become a more significant issue. -People will be victims of trafficking for work at little or no pay, a form of slavery. -Many will be victims of Sex Trafficking. •This will continue to involve children. -As transplant medical procedures continue to improve the trafficking in human body parts will expand. •Terrorism will remain a problem.

Early Problem-Solving Evaluations

•In the 1980s, the problem-solving movement began to take shape. The National Institute of Justice, required that the problem-solving system follow five basic principles: •Officers of all ranks and from all units should be able to use the system as part of their daily routine. •encourage the use of a broad range of information •encourage a broad range of solutions, including but not limited to the criminal justice process. •The system should require no additional resources and no special units. •Any large police agency must be able to apply it.

Research Findings (In 1960-1980 found that traditional policing had little effect on crime as had been thought.)

•Increasing police does not reduce crime -Kansas City Experiment found no difference in crime in zones with double the police patrols, normal patrols, and reduced to zero patrols. •Random motorized patrol does not reduce crime -Simply driving around does not find crime. Crime happens most often indoors while police patrol is outside on the streets. •2 person cars are not more effective nor safer -Little difference was found between 1 and 2 officer patrols in officer safety Saturation patrol causes only temporary crime reduction and some displacement of crime to other areas

Forms of Justice

•Informal •Supported by -Morals -Customs -Conventions -Informal social control •Formal •Supported by -Law -Systems of Social Control

Future Issues

•Internally in the population the Elderly will become a larger proportion of the population as the post WWII baby boom continues to move past age 65. -Those over 65 will be 55 million by 2020 and 80 mil by 2050. -The elderly are Victims of crime greater than their proportion in the population. -They are demand and producers that call for police services. They are voters that place political pressure on police. -The elderly will increasingly become part of those that commit crime -Will deterrence have any effect on them? They may be Stubborn. Due to the effects of age and various diseases they may not be rational when approached by police. -Their needs in relationship to the needs of the young will cause Intergenerational Conflict.

Retributive Justice

•Pay society back -Retribution •Pay the offender back -vengeance

Broken Window Theory

•Philip Zimbardo, a Stanford psychologist, reported in 1969 on some experiments testing the broken-window theory. •He arranged to have an automobile without license plates parked with its hood up on a street in the Bronx and a comparable automobile on a street in Palo Alto, California. Untended property becomes fair game for people out for fun or plunder, and even for people who ordinarily would not dream of doing such things and who probably consider themselves law-abiding •From the earliest days of the nation, the police function was seen primarily as that of a night watchman: to maintain order against the chief threats to order—fire, wild animals, and disreputable behavior. •Solving crimes was viewed not as a police responsibility but as a private one. •But, as the crime wave that began in the early 1960s continued without abatement throughout the decade and into the 1970s, attention shifted to the role of the police as crime-fighters. •From the earliest days of the nation, the police function was seen primarily as that of a night watchman: to maintain order against the chief threats to order—fire, wild animals, and disreputable behavior. •Solving crimes was viewed not as a police responsibility but as a private one. •But, as the crime wave that began in the early 1960s continued without abatement throughout the decade and into the 1970s, attention shifted to the role of the police as crime-fighters. •Over the past two decades, the shift of police from order-maintenance to law-enforcement has brought them increasingly under the influence of legal restrictions, provoked by media complaints and enforced by court decisions and departmental orders. •The order-maintenance functions of the police are now governed by rules developed to control police relations with suspected criminals. •For centuries, the role of the police as watchmen was judged in terms of it attaining a desired objective •Once we begin to think of all aspects of police work as involving the application of universal rules under special procedures, we inevitably ask what constitutes an "undesirable person" and why we should "criminalize" vagrancy or drunkenness. •How do we ensure, in short, that the police do not become the agents of neighborhood bigotry? The limit, roughly, is this—the police exist to help regulate behavior, not to maintain the racial or ethnic purity of a neighborhood. •The key is to identify neighborhoods at the tipping point—where the public order is deteriorating but not unreclaimable, where the streets are used frequently but by apprehensive people, where a window is likely to be broken at any time, and must quickly be fixed if all are not to be shattered •Most police departments do not have ways of systematically identifying such areas and assigning officers to them. •But the more important requirement is to think that to maintain order in precarious situations is a vital job

False Pretense of Full Enforcement

•Police often believe that the law requires full enforcement, so they publicly act as if they do. Yet, it is not possible. •Why if no probability of prosecution? •What if •Enforcement by arrest is physically impossible •Enforcement is less important than another duty •Enforcement is impossible due to resource limits •Legislative intent may not be for full enforcement. Laws are passed for their educational effect on occasion.

The Subject Matters of Justice include:

Theological Philosophical Social •Political Criminal Economic

Corrective Justice

corrects the harm or wrong

Problem Context and Policing Models

•Addressing Problems occurs at three levels. •Problem Solving -One person, block, neighborhood -Unique problem •Problem Oriented Policing -Mid-level effort -Focus is on a problem as it varies in a neighborhood •Community Oriented Policing -Large scale -All crimes in Housing area or across the city.

Generations of Community Policing

•As a result of the research and pressure to connect with citizens, Community Oriented Policing (COP) formed. •W. Oliver believes that COP has experienced three generations. •Innovation where the concept was created and experiments were conducted. •Diffusion where the concept spread though out the U. S. and the world. •Institutionalization when COP has become part of the philosophy and practice of policing routinely.

The Subject Matters of Justice include:

•Theological •Philosophical •Social •Political •Criminal Economic

Future Issues

•Drug Crime will continue to be a major social issue. -The opioid epidemic/crisis continues. -Synthetics are expanding. Many that are sold are not the actual drug, but are highly toxic fakes. -Drug crime continues to be global in nature. •Drug Advances due to research in medicine will produce new substances for people to abuse. Remember about 60% of the drugs illegally used in the U.S. are actually prescription medications.

Alternative Images of Justice

•Truth •Right Action by government -Rule of law •Freedom from Oppression •Utility •Fairness Impartial attention to consideration of competing claims Do you see the difference? Justice is fairness or should be fairness Or Justice should be fair •Equality or Equity -Uniform and constant feature -Likes treated alike

Policing and Broken Windows

- Wilson, Kelling and Moore argue, because it has neglected "the little things" the law enforcement equivalents of broken windows. - Two developments in the 1930s launched a radical reorientation of police patrol which were increased use of the patrol car and the development of the Uniform Crime Reports system - Wilsonian theory emphasized the suppression of crime as the primary mission of policing. His text "Police Administration" became the "the bible of police management. - lost in the process were the personal aspects of routine policing

Historical Frame Work

- the historical framework presented by Wilson, Kelling and Moore consists of the components: the near term (the last fifteen years); the middle term (last fifty years),and the long-term (all of police history before the last fifty years) -one of the most important developments of the past 15 years has been the expansion of our knowledge about all aspects of policing - Wilson, Kelling, and Moore's reading of the last fifty years of police history are mixed but can be excused in large part because they have drawn upon the available historical scholarship.

The Technological Revolution

- the mid-century revolution in American policing involved not just the patrol car, but the car in conjunction with the telephone and the two-way radio - These served to bring police officers into far more intimate contact with people than ever before

Predictive Policing

- using data to make predications about what crimes are likely to occur, where and when - creating responses to these predicted crimes to prevent or intervene

•Environmental changes

-Regardless of cause, Climate change is happening. Storms are more frequent and severe and sea levels are rising. Both cause concerns for the police. Police provide emergency response. Property disputes will occur as dwellings on coasts are lost. -Urban sprawl will continue as population increases so that police jurisdictions become larger. Will resources keep pace? -Traffic congestion in larger and more dense cities will become much worse. -Extinctions of animals and plants are occurring. This makes environmental crimes important.

OPEN SELECTIVE ENFORCEMENT IS CORRECT

Any Agency With Discretionary Power Has the Power to Say How It Will Use Its Power 1. Police Policies Should Be Known to the Public because they are a public agency in a democracy. Citizens have a basic function to guide and advise public agencies on policy. 2. Open Selective Enforcement Creates Fairness In the U.S. we operate by the Rule of Law that requires public notice of all law. This extends to policy extends to policy that says how the law will be enforced. 3. Truth Is Valued in Society

Research Findings Continued

•Fear Producing crime is not encountered on patrol -Again, crime occurs most often in private places, especially violent crime. It cannot be discovered by driving around. •Improving response time has no effect on arrests -Most crime is reported long after the offender has left. This can be as much as days in larceny and burglary. It may be hours in violent crime. Rapid response is effective only when the offense is still in progress. •Crimes are not solved through criminal investigation, but by immediate arrest or witness id -Studies of investigation found that what soled crime was arrest by patrol officers or the information given to them by victims and witnesses. Detectives primarily process information after crimes are solved.

The Selective Enforcement Issue

Concerning Enforcement Policy the Police Have Three Choices: 1.They can attempt Full Enforcement a.Real, Complete attempting to enforce all laws, all the time, against all people. 2.They can establish policy and rules to engage in Selective Enforcement a.Unguided, no research, planning, or analysis is completed. Leadership simply establishes policy they believe is adequate. 3.Open Selective Enforcement 1.The department engages in Administrative rule making to find policy that meets known problems, is legal, fits community desires, and is professionally acceptable.

The Future

•Futuristics or Futurology -Taking the future as an object of inquiry and studying it. -The Future is not predetermined, may be predictable, can be influenced by choices made in the present. •Alternative futures may exist -Possible: futures that can happen. -Probable: futures that are most likely to happen. -Preferable: A Value-Driven, Managerial, decision-making goal caused by planned action.

Our Legacy

Moving forward, we will have to be more thoughtful about which technologies to deploy. Technology is sometimes a benefit, sometimes a curse. Of course, we should pursue effective and appropriate technological solutions to our problems.

COMMUNITY SERVICE

Programs Which Involve The Public and Provide Them With a Service. An example is a bicycle rodeo to teach children the rules of the road when riding bikes. Service activities are still only a flow of work and information out from the police to the public.

Police Public Relations

Providing Information to The Public About Crime, Police Policy & Programs, And Prevention. The flow of information is only from the police out to the public. This is important for democracy. Agencies need to keep the public informed.

What If Police are the Cause of Separation of the Public & Police

To the extent that police cause the separations from the public, they should be studied and adjusted or changed. The solution resides with the police. Environmental Cause(s): To the extent that the cause(s) is environmental (from the society), the Police must seek ways of guarding against these pressures, ways of preventing the adverse results if possible. The solution resides with the Police.

Implementation Issues with Problem-Oriented Policing

•A fully problem-oriented police agency will be marked by at least seven characteristics (Eck and Spelman, 1987): •Problem solving will be the standard method of policing, not just an occasionally useful tactic. •Problem-solving efforts will focus on problems of the public, not police administration. •When problems are taken on, police will establish precise, measurable objectives. •Police managers will constantly look for ways to get all members of the department involved in solving problems. •Officers should consistently undertake thorough analysis using data from many sources, both internal and external to the police agency. •Officers will engage in an uninhibited search for solutions to all problems they take on. •All members of the department will be involved in problem solving.

Police Strategy

•A strategy is a broad set of ideas and a detailed set of plans for achieving a specific goal over time. • •Police strategies relate to achieving the primary goals of police •Not equal in importance •Not the same every community •Many strategies in use in a community W. Oliver

The Impact of Deinstitutionalization

•According to Lamb and Bachrach (2001, p. 1039), deinstitutionalization comprised three procedural processes: •(1) the release of mentally ill individuals from psychiatric hospitals to alternative placement in the community •(2) the diversion of new psychiatric hospital admissions to alternative facilities •(3) the development of special services for the noninstitutionalized mentally ill. There was little controversy regarding the "success" of the first two processes

Officer's Role as a "Gatekeeper"

•According to Lamb, Weinberger, and DeCuir (2002, p. 1266), there are two common-law doctrines that emphasize law enforcement's role in taking the responsibility for persons with mental illness: •their power and authority to protect the safety and welfare of the community •their parens patriae obligations to protect individuals with disabilities •In addition, society's negative attitudes, misperceptions, and general apprehension toward the mentally ill further increase the obligation of police officers to either recognize the individual's need for treatment and connect him or her with the proper mental health service provider (Husted, Charter, & Perrou, 1995) or determine that the individual's illegal activity warrants an arrest (Arboleda-Florez & Holley, 1988).

What Do We Know? Continued.

•Calls for Service - Community policing might reduce calls for service in several ways. Several studies have found positive effects, but several others have not. •Community Relations - Clearly, citizens generally appreciate mini-stations in their neighborhoods, foot patrols, problem-solving efforts, and other forms of com- munity policing. •Police Officer Attitudes - A clear majority of the studies that have investigated the effects of community policing on officers' job satisfaction, perceptions of the community, and other related attitudes have discovered beneficial effects •Police Officer Behavior - Significant anecdotal evidence suggests that foot patrol, problem solving, permanent assignment, mini-stations, and other features of community policing lead to changes in some police officers' behavior. Evidence also suggests that many officers resist changing their behavior.

What Is Community Policing? The Philosophical Dimension

•Citizen Input - Police departments should seek and carefully consider citizen input when making policies and decisions that affect the community. •Broad Police Function- This broader view of the police function recognizes the kinds of non- enforcement tasks that police already perform and seeks to give them greater status and legitimacy •Personal Service - Under community policing, officers are asked to consider the "will of the community" when deciding which laws to enforce under what circumstances, and police executives are asked to tolerate and even encourage such differential and personalized policing.

Community/Citizen Participation

•Citizens must become Educated so the police must act to provide information. •Citizens must assist the police at least to report crime. •Police-Citizen Co-production of safety is desired -This can be found in Crime prevention activities •The police must represent the interests and will of the Community within the bounds of the law. This can be done by the use of -Citizen Advisory boards -Citizen participation on Decision-making committees -Citizen review boards

What Do We Know?

•Crime - Overall, a slight majority of the studies have detected crime decreases, giving reason for optimism, but evaluation design limitations pre- vent us from drawing any authoritative conclusions. •Fear of Crime - The now widely accepted view that community policing helps reduce levels of fear of crime and increases perceptions of safety seems reasonably well-founded, although some efforts have failed to accomplish fear reductions. •Disorder - The available evidence suggests, though, that com- munity policing, and especially foot patrol and problem solving, helps reduce levels of disorder, lending partial support to the "broken windows" thesis.

Analysis Step

•Disaggregate statistics -Use by local areas, single crime types, method of operation and other breakdowns •Multiple information sources -Use hospital, insurance, social welfare, employment, poverty and other data -Use Neighbors on Watch information •Analysis from start using critical thinking •Assessment—evaluation at end of specific time periods or close of a program •Crime generators -Place where victims and offenders are both frequently •Crime attractors -Place where opportunity is offered and so criminals go •Repeat victimization -Some people or places are victimized more than one time. One needs to find out why.

Strategic Dimension

•Geographical Permanence to keep police officers in the same district for long periods of time so they become -Familiar with the neighborhood -Identify with the people •Prevention Focus -Police task is to find problems and conditions leading to crime. -Police engage in a broad range of activities to reduce the conditions that cause crime.

The Tactical Dimension

•Positive Interaction - Community policing recognizes this fact and recommends that officers offset it as much as they can by engaging in positive interactions whenever possible. • •Partnerships - Under community policing, police agencies are expected not only to cooperate with citizens and communities but to actively solicit input and participation. It is important to recognize that this inherent feature of pluralistic com- munities does not arise because of community policing. • •Problem Solving - Supporters of community policing is convinced that the very nature of police work must be altered from its present incident-by-incident, case-by-case orientation to one that is more problem-oriented.

Problem Oriented Policing

•Prevent crime and improve neighborhoods by focusing on specific problems •Many conditions contribute to crime and disorder. Analyze and develop Specific Responses •Societal problems may be outside of control of police so must engage and cooperate with other social agencies

Alternatives to the Standard Model

•Problem-oriented policing (POP), first articulated by Goldstein. •The POP model questions the focus on responding to individual calls for service, arguing that individual calls in combination signal broader underlying problems. •A more recent alternative to the standard model is intelligence-led policing. •Ratcliffe (2008) defines intelligence-led policing as efforts that focus on targeting serious offenders, triaging crime problems, making greater use of surveillance and informants and, most importantly, making intelligence central to decision making.

The Strategic Dimension

•Re-oriented Operations- Community policing recommends less reliance on the patrol car and more emphasis on face-to-face interactions. •Geographic Focus- Community policing recommends that patrol officers be assigned to the same areas for extended periods of time, to increase their familiarity with the community and the community's familiarity with them •Prevention Emphasis - The substantial resource of free patrol time is devoted to directed enforcement activities, specific crime prevention efforts, problem solving, community engagement, citizen interaction, or similar kinds of activities. Community policing seeks to elevate before-the-fact prevention and problem-solving to comparable status.

Distributive Justice

•Render unto each that which is their due -What do citizens of a society deserve? •right treatment by government •Health care, housing, food, jobs, education, participation, and ?? -Equal & fair opportunity for these

Programmatic Dimension

•Reoriented Police Operations -Must be based on crime and service analysis -Variety in types of patrol should be used -Focus on minor offenses to prevent major ones •Problem Solving and Situational Crime Prevention -Specifically identify problems -Careful analysis of causes -Identify solutions that will work Implement a Solution and Evaluate •Addressing Problems occurs at three levels. •Problem Solving -One person, block, neighborhood -Unique problem •Problem Oriented Policing -Mid-level effort -Focus is on a problem as it varies in a neighborhood •Community Oriented Policing -Large scale -All crimes in Housing area or across the city.

SARA

•Scanning, the officer scans the area and identifies a problem. •Analysis, the officer collects information from various sources in the community as well as from his/her own department and other law enforcement agencies. •Response, the information obtained in the second stage is used to develop and implement potential solutions to the identified problem(s) •Assessment, the officer evaluates the effectiveness of the response. Depending on the outcome of the Assessment stage, the officer may return to an earlier stage

Innovation as a Key to Success

•Since 1993, the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) has given individual officers and/or entire police departments the Herbert Gold- stein Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing. •Rojek (2003) conducted a study of the 53 Goldstein honored proposals awarded. His study reveals the winners share two primary characteristics •most innovative in addressing persistent problems •the most success in "reducing crime, disorder, and public-safety problems.

Environmental Criminology andOpportunity Theory are used:

•Situational factors are vital •Opportunity, place, time, and occurrence all need to be examined. •The more Opportunity at a time or place the more crime there is. •Crime involves Choice Making so how to affect choices is important. •One must consider motives and motivation •One needs to study targets and guardians. •If one can reduce opportunity, then one will reduce crime.

The Organizational Dimension

•Structure - Advocates of community policing often looks at various ways of restructuring police agencies in order to facilitate and support implementation of the philosophical, strategic, and tactical elements described above. The types of restructuring often associated with community policing include: •Decentralization, Flattening, De-specialization, Teams and Civilianization. •Management - Community policing is often associated with styles of leadership, management, and supervision that give more emphasis to organizational culture and values and less emphasis to written rules and formal discipline. Management practices consistent with this emphasis on organizational culture and values include: •Mission, Strategic Planning, Coaching. Mentoring, Empowerment, Selective Discipline. •Information - Doing community policing and managing it effectively require certain types of information that have not traditionally been available in all police departments. Several aspects of police administration under community policing that have implications for information are: •Performance Appraisal, Program Evaluation, Departmental Assessment, Information Systems, Crime Analysis

Police changes

•Tactical units—Militarization? -Will this trend continue or will police pull back from the acquisition and use of military equipment and tactics? •Police Use of technology will expand. •New communications and computer capabilities will occur. •Camera surveillance of public areas in cities will expand. •Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles will expand.

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

•Teamwork, The Police and Public Actively Working Together on Mutually Established Goals and programs. •This can be committees, councils, advisory groups, civilian review, and other methods. •It is the two way flow of information that is necessary for community relations to work.

Future Issues

•Technological advances will occur - Police will find Uses and Misuse will be a problem of enforcement and investigation. -All inventions regardless of their use can be used for crime, in crime, as target of crime. -New tech causes a learning curve for Police and requires costs for equipment and time for training -Improvements in Surveillance and Suspect Control will occur that raise privacy issues. -Less than lethal weapons may be developed, but the fear is that this will lead to More use of force.

Future Issues

•The American society faces a serious problem with the combination of greater numbers of people in Poverty while at the same time more Wealth has accumulated with the richest Americans. -This may be causing a Bifurcated Society with a loss of the middle class. Only the poor and the rich will be significant parts of the population. •The population may become Polarized which is likely to cause conflict.

Future Issues With Us Now

•The COVID-19 pandemic and its dramatic effect on society in all of its aspects. •The potential for a pandemic has always been one of the future issues in this presentation. It has happened. • •It is likely to happen again with a different disease. Many viruses and bacteria exist that can cause epidemics and pandemics. One will occasionally enter the human population.

Future Issues With Us Now

•The Immigration control debate. It is related to both resistance to and support of diversity in American Society. •Genetic manipulation of humans that is scientifically possible now. -For medical purposes to cure or prevent disease. -For selection of specific characteristics for children. -To create specialists such as athletes or soldiers. -Applications will be found for crime.

Future Issues With Us Now

•The Politics of gender identity, sexual orientation, and LGBTQ rights • The Me Too Movement push for equal rights for women and attention to sexual harassment and sexual assault. •The Black Lives Matter movement and broader push to improve police behavior. •Firearm crimes and increased pressure for gun control. A majority of the population supports additional gun control measures.

POSITIVE RESULTS OF OPEN SELECTIVE ENFORCEMENT

•The Research and analysis leads to Improvement in Police Performance Quality •Creation of the Should •Both officers and the public need to know the reasons behind Policy, Actions. Why should the policy exist. •It supports Openness of government. •It provides for Public Participation in a Democracy. •The resulting policies are more More Fair. •Public Education about enforcement policy and law is provided. •As police find the best policy they can advise legislators and cause Better Legislation. •Good policy prevents legal errors and so takes the Place of the Exclusionary Rule. •Good policy reduces law suits and so takes the Place of Judicial Review. •Quality policy provides Equal Justice and Reduces Injustice.

Future Issues

•The basic number of the Homeless will increase as population rises. The immediate future may see a significant increase if the economic conditions remain poor and evictions begin for renters that cannot pay their rent. •The number of Mentally Ill will increase as population increases. This will be compounded by the density issue. Many will be among the homeless. •The number of Unemployed stressed will increase as population increases even if economic conditions change. Employment may not be able to keep up with the expanding population. •All of these are issues that the police deal with now and will be come more significant parts of their work.

Mental Illness Policy Implications

•The fact that the mentally ill are being criminalized is a dual indictment of the failure of the mental health system and the criminal justice system, neither of which is effectively and appropriately dealing with persons with mental illnesses (Teplin, 2000). •The Council on State Governments (2019) advised that data provides leaders with the ability to assess the impact of police-mental health care collaborations (PMHCs) and to measure its success against important out- comes. The four key outcomes to measure were: •increased connections to resources; •reduced repeat encounters; •minimized arrests; and •reduced use of force.

The Question of Legitimacy

•The most important long-term development in American policing, according to Wilson, Kelling and Moore, has been the loss of political legitimacy. •The interpretation of police history offered by Wilson, Kelling, and Moore, which purports to explain how that legitimacy was lost, is seriously flawed. •Wilbur Miller explores the question of legitimacy from an entirely different angle. •The difference between the London and New York City police was precisely the extent to which officers in New York were denied the grant of legitimacy enjoyed by their counterparts in London.

Police Discretion with the Mentally Ill

•The officer's first response option is to transport the person to a hospital. •The officer's second alternative is to make an arrest. •The officer's third alternative, which is generally the least invasive and most preferred option, is to informally resolve the problem. •Bittner's seminal study on police discretion (1967) found that in encounters with the mentally ill, officers were reluctant to make psychiatric referrals unless an individual was perceived to be violent or a potential harm to him- or herself or someone else.

COP—POP and Democracy

•The origins and reproduction of some problems can best be understood in relation to local community dynamics •Members of community have an immediate grasp of nature and source of their problems that police lack •Some problems may be most realistically addressed through actions with or by neighborhood residents •Not restricted to interest in crime so non-crime issues fit •POP adds purpose and direction to community policing •Many problems manifest themselves in neighborhoods

A Starting Point: The Standard Model of Policing

•The standard model can best be seen and described by examining the daily activities of patrol officers. •In the standard model of policing, officers' behavior during non-committed time is marked by two characteristics: high levels of discretion and low levels of supervision. •Overall, the goals of both patrol and investigations under this model are to detect crime and disorder, bring offenders to justice, and settle other problems, disputes, and issues that might arise from individual calls for service.

ADMINISTRATIVE RULE MAKING PROCEDURE

•This is a process similar to a planning process. It is of 8 steps. •Notice, the public and the members of the department are told that a policy on a particular issue is to be made. •Research is conducted by the professionals in the department. •A proposed policy is provided for review. •Public hearings and internal debate occurs over the proposal •Revisions are made •The Policy is implemented •The success of the policy is evaluated •Within a specified time period or when law changes, the policy is reviewed by starting over again with Notice.

What Is Problem-Oriented Policing?

•Unlike the reactivity that is the hallmark of traditional law enforcement, the problem-oriented policing philosophy contends that reacting to calls for service is only the first step in police work. •Herman Goldstein (1979), a pioneer in the problem-oriented policing movement, argued that police should go further and attempt to find a permanent resolution to the problem that was responsible for the initial call. •The problem-solving process follows a four-step procedure, referred to as SARA

Police Interactions with Citizens and the Mentally Ill

•Wilson (1968) developed a typology that placed the calls for police intervention into four distinct categories •police-invoked law enforcement •police-invoked order maintenance •citizen-invoked law enforcement •citizen-invoked order maintenance •Encounters between law enforcement and the mentally ill follow patterns relatively similar to all police calls for service. •The majority of the encounters occur during the evening shift followed by the day shift, with the fewest incidents happening during the night shift. •The majority of police contact with the mentally ill occurs either at or near the individual's place of residence. •

The Challenges of Evidence-Based Policing

•ease of access may not be enough to prompt the use of that research •difficult for any reform to change the status quo and the standard approach to policing •institutionalized barriers •over-valuation of experience •false expectations and beliefs about the role of researchers and research in policing, some of which has been propagated by academics themselves •Researchers in the evidence-based policing

The Benefits of Evidence-Based Policing

•the chances that they will achieve goals is higher than if they employ strategies not shown to yield such outputs. •Basing decisions on scientific knowledge might even increase satisfaction in police work •More broadly, evidence-based policing could also increase job satisfaction