Criminological Theories

Evaluation of social ecology/social disorganization theory

1. How do we know that area differences in delinquency rates results from the aggregated characteristics of communities rather than the characteristics of individuals selectively aggregated into communities. In other words do neighborhoods make people or do people make the neighborhoods? 2. Ecological fallacy- The process of making inferences about individuals and groups on the basis of information derived from a larger population of which they are apart. 3. High rates of female headed households as the most important factor in explaining crime rates. Higher rates of offenses in female headed households.

The Anomie/Strain theory breakdown

1. Middle class success goals shared by all members of society. The American dream is to get rich. 2. Limited access to legitimate means of getting the goal. 3. Disjunction between the goal and the means (ideal vs. reality) 4. Anomie

Structural Theories follow one of two general models of society-

1. The consensus perspective- come to consensus that everyone will follow the laws, a view of society as a system of mutually sustaining parts and characterized by broad normative consensus. ex. Specialized parts in the body (heart, lungs, brain) are part of the larger body. A change in one part may negatively affect the entire system. 2. The conflict perspective- unequal distribution between wealth and power. People that do not have wealth and power are more likely to commit crimes.

Social disorganization impacts crime and delinquency in two ways-

1. The lack of informal social controls within neighborhoods facilitates crime by failing to inhibit it. 2. In the absence of prosocial values, a set of values supporting antisocial behavior is likely to develop to fill the vacuum. Shay and McKay worked under the assumption that effective neighborhoods were characterized by warm emotional bonds based on ethnicity and values and that social control was born from this shared intimacy. Robert Sampson updated this notion of neighborhood control of crime without reference to the narrow focus of traditional ethnicity based emotional ties with the concept of collective efficacy.

Robert Agnews General or "super traits" theory

A developmental theory asserting that five life domains interact over the life course once individuals are set on a particular developmental trajectory by their degree of low self control and irritability. Personality (low self control and irritability) caused by.... - Family- Poor parenting, child doesn't learn self control or curb irritability, poor marriage - School- Negaitive school experiences, low education level - Peers- Associated with delinquent peers -Work- underemployment, poor paying work All these lead to delinquency and crime. Personality and life domains loop back on one another in an evocation gene environment correlation fashion. This negatively affects both the relationships the person has and his or her personality, thus further impacting criminal propensity.

Structured action theory

A feminist theory formulated by James Messerschimit that focuses on how individuals "do gender." Hegemonic masculinity- Concept in this theory positing the cultural ideal of masculinity men are expected to live up to: example men work in the paid labor market.

Feminist Hagans Power Control theory

A feminist theory that views gender differences in criminal and delinquent behavior to be the function of power differential roles in the family. For example- the dad in the family has the biggest job and the mom is a stay at home mom.

What is cognitive dissonance?

A form of psychological discomfort resulting from a contradiction between a persons attitudes and their behavior. If we engage in behavior we consider morally wrong but find the behavior rewarding, we develop this. Psychologists tell us that it is a lot easier to make our attitudes consistent with our behavior than change of behavior to make it consistent with our attitudes.

Feminist Theories and Public Policy

- Reducing patriarchy will reduce crime (patriarchies are competitive, aggressive, autonomy, individualism vs. connection, cooperation, and nurturance) - Empathy as a force pushing violence downward. More empathy can be seen when we push women's voices up more. - Feminization of society pushes violence downward (if men and women are equal, it pushes violence and crime downwards).

Anomie/strain theories faults

- Scrutiny during the late 60's and 70's - Many studies failed to support the theory - What about middle class delinquency or white collar crime? - Relative deprivation- How much money has relative to those in ones reference group? How much money you have compared to your reference group. - Doesnt consider non-monetary goals (ex. popularity with peers, positive relations with parent s)

Developmental Theory Policy and prevention

- Strong support for developmental theories - Used to prevent criminal careers - Policies programs focused on risk and protective factors (nurse-family partnership, the Jeremiah program, school based programs such as DARE)

Developmental Theories

- The study of development - The identification of explanatory or causal factors that predate or co-occur with the behavioral development and have an impact in its course (risk factors) - Age crime curve is very important in developmental theories - Examines changing behavioral patterns and cognitive shifts as people grow up - Categorizes people into categories

Research Evidence for Self-Control Theory

- There is mixed evidence for the self-control theory. - Low self-control has been linked to violent offending - Effect of parenting practices on self-control are not clear -Research shows meditation instead of detention in schools can be beneficial.

Agnews General Strain Theory- Strains most likely lead to crime when-

- They are intense, frequent, recent, long-lasting - Perceived as unjust - Lack of coping resources (Nobody to talk to, no way to manage stress) - Low self-control - Pressure or incentive for criminal coping (pressure into doing drugs to deal with the stress)

Conflict Theory: Max Weber and Power and Conflict

- Weber viewed the various class divisions in society as normal, inevitable, and acceptable. Weber focused on three types of social groups that form and dissolve as their interests change- class (shares only economic interests), party (political groups), and status (groups that hold common values, live same lifestyles and more). - The law is a resource by which the powerful are able to impose their will on others by criminalizing acts contrary to their class interests.

Institutional Anomic Theory- The American Dreams 4 Value commitments-

1. Achievement orientation 2. Individualism 3. Universalism 4. Monetary Rewards There is a cultural emphasis on money which affects on institutional balance of power- 1. Economy- dominates 2. Political 3. Family 4. Educational System When the other institutions are under emphasized, anomie happens

Secondary Deviance occurs due to the following factors-

1. Degree to which the label is public. If a lot of people view you as something a criminal, you are more likely to be affected by it. 2. Degree to which others react negatively/exclusionary to it. If people react terribly to what you did and start to exclude you, you might have no other choice but to continue. 3. Transformation in personal identity 4. Support of others who are delinquents.

Sykes and Matzas five techniques of neutralization

1. Denial of responsibility- I personally am not responsible. 2. Denial of Injury- What I did wasn't too bad because nobody got hurt. 3. Denial of victim- What I did was okay because the victim had it coming. 4. Condemnation of condemners- The people who are telling me that what I did was wrong are not so great either. They are hypocrites. 5. Appeal to a higher authority- There is something bigger than the law that makes the illegal action acceptable (ex. gangs). These help to maintain the image you want to have after committing a crime. They protect you from being labeled a criminal.

DURKHEIM VS. MERTON ON ANOMIE

Durkheim had a constrained view and believed society was the good guy preventing greedy impulses while merton had a unconstrained view and believed society was the negative force that motivates crime.

Robert Mertons Extension of Anomie Theory

Expanded anomie theory, the inability to attain resources legitimately generates unhappiness (strain) and sometimes leads to efforts to obtain them illegitimately, known as strain theory. Believed that it was the acceptance of middle class values that generate criminal behavior by placing too much emphasis on financial success (opposite of social disorganization that rejects the middle class value). American culture defines monetary success as the main goal of life but social structure restricts access to legitimate means of attaining this goal. This disjunction between goals and structural impediments leads to crime being bread.

Becker's Labeling Theory

Howard Beckers and developed by Lemert's theory. Crime has no independent reality. Original primary deviance is unimportant; what is important is the labeling process, which leads to secondary (continuing) deviance. Labeling people as criminal leads them to organize their self-concepts around that label. The labeling theory asks why some behaviors are labeled criminal and not others and thus shifts the focus from the criminal to the criminal justice system. Labeling theorists believe no act is by its nature criminal because acts don't have a nature until they are judged good or bad. It ignores mala in se crimes.

Evolutionary Psychology Theory

Human behavior is rooted in evolutionary history. Natural selection has favored victimizing tendencies in humans, especially males. These tendencies arose to facilitate mating efforts but are useful in pursuing criminal behavior as well. Criminals emphasize mating efforts over parenting efforts more so than do males in general.

What are the four principles social learning theory focuses on?

Law violation is likely to happen when these occur- 1. Differential Association- A person differentially associates with others who commit, model, and support violations of social and legal norms. People learn crime from friends and family. When people hang out with people who do crimes. 2. Differential Reinforcement- The violative behavior is differentially reinforced over behavior in conformity to the norm. Bad behavior is reinforced more than good behavior (THIS IS THE MOST IMPORTANT). 3. Imitation- We copy our parents or friends. Imitation is an important part of learning. 4. Excess of definitions- A persons own learned definitions are favorable toward committing crimes. Lacks definitions in support of the law.

Social learning theories vs social control theories

Learning theories assume that criminal behavior requires some learned motivation for it to emerge whereas control theories assume that criminal behavior requires no such special motivation rather such behaviors arise from natural motivations that we must learn to curb.

Anomie Theory (Durkheim)

Rapid social change leads to social deregulation and the weakening of restraining social norms. This unleashes "insatiable appetites" which some seek to satisfy through criminal activity.

Hirschi and Gottfredson's Self-Control Theory

Travis Hirschi and Gottfredsons theory. It is a social process theory. Low self-control explains all crime and analogous acts. Low self-control occurs in the absence of proper parenting. Exposure to criminal opportunities explains differences in criminal behavior among low self-control individuals. People who have low self-control are usually risk takers, present oriented, lack patience, persistence, and diligence, and are very self centered and insensitive. Poor parenting is the key here. By 7 years old, you are believed to already have your self-control figured out. It accepts the classical idea that crimes are the result of unrestrained natural human impulses to enhance pleasure and avoid pain. Low self control is the outcome of poor parenting and the absence of adequate socialization.

The Chicago School

Social ecology approach to the study of crime. University of Chicago sociology in the 1920's. Park and Burgess- Growth of a city and natural ecological competition. Invasion, competition, succession of natural areas, concentric zone controls- Zone 1- Central business zone- nobody lives there Zone 2- Zone of transition (near factories), poor immigrants and new comers come in and out of this zone, making it full of crime Zone 3- Working class zone (less temporary) Zone 4- Residential zone Zone 5- Commuter zone Groups who moved to outer zones experienced low delinquency

Hirschi's Social Bonding Theory

Travis Hirschi's theory from 1969. It is a social process theory. Bonds to social institutions prevent crime, which otherwise occurs naturally. The bonds are attachment, commitment, involvement, and beliefs. The more one is bonded to social conformity, the less likely they are to commit crimes. Notion that aggressive behavior is unlearned. Its innate. With proper socialization and social bonds, we curb our natural aggressive behaviors. Its in the constrained vision camp. Crime happens naturally no matter what, we are inherently evil. Also apart of the classical school. We seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Farrington's Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential Theory

Two important concepts- -Antisocial (long or short term) - Cognitive (Turns the antisocial potential into action, makes it a reality) States that people have varying levels of antisocial propensity due to a variety of environmental and biological factors. Everyone has antisocial potential. Criminals tend to have long term while everyone else has short term antisocial potential. Antisocial behavior is ordered on a continuum with relatively few people with high levels, but levels vary over time and across life events and peak during adolescence. Short term antisocial behavior may turn into long term antisocial behavior over time.

What happens when people resist these labels?

Urban youth in areas of high police activity did not accept delinquent labels- - Arrest was part of daily life - Often result of unjust targeting (label was not changed) -Result of being shut out of positive opportunities

Gender Ratio Problem

What explains the fact the women are much less likely to engage in crime than men?

Neuroscience Theory

Whatever its origin, all stimuli are channeled through the brain before given expression in behavior. The development of the brain is strongly influenced by early environmental experiences, especially those involving nurturance and attachment.

What is social exclusion?

When you are cut off from positive pathways. This may happen during stigmatization.

Human Ecology

describes the interrelations of human beings and the environments in which they live and views the city as a kind of superorganism with areas differentially adaptive for different ethnic groups.

What is symbolic interactionism?

the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols. A perspective that focuses on how people interpret and define their social reality and the meanings they attach to it in the process of interacting with one another via language.

Developmental Trajectory

Activation- The rise of crime on the age crime curve. - Acceleration- There is a quick increase in criminal activity as you get closer to 18 years old. - Stabilization- People continue to commit crimes at a stable pace. They may continue to commit a lot of crimes for a while. - Diversification- They will commit multiple types of crime including using drugs, stealing, vandalism Aggravation- The top of the age crime curve - Escalate or increase in seriousness overtime. Its the peak. - Cognitive shift when something bad happens Desistance- The end of the age crime curve. Process is slow, occurs until desistance happens. - Deceleration- Crime slows down - Specialization- Only commit one type of crime - De-escalation- Crime goes down

Anomie/strain tradition (Merton)

All members of American society are socialized to desire monetary success, but some are denied access to legitimate ways of attaining it. These people may resort to crime to achieve what they have been taught to want. Under normal conditions, people are naturally inclined to abide by social norms and rules. Merton was an immigrant and lived in the slums. His background shaped this theory. In our culture, goals for everyone to follow are put in place but the means to reaching this goal is not evenly distributed. People may feel pressure to move up the ladder and do as well as their own parents, but its hard for individuals to move up on the ladder. Its a high expectation.

Rational Choice Theory

All people, including criminals, are self interested persons seeking to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Before engaging in any behavior, people weigh the costs and benefits. Because criminals have agency, they are responsible for their behaviors and should be punished accordingly.

Transition Zone

An area or neighborhood in the process of being "invaded" by members of "alien" racial or ethnic groups bringing with them values and practices that conflict with those established by the "natural" inhabitants of the area. This leads to a ripple affect moving from one zone to a better zone to escape the alien groups.

Remember the early 20th century- Ernest Hooton

Believed we should just wipe out all the criminals and then all of our problems would be fixed.

What is Stigmatization/ dramatization of evil?

Changing yourself to meet the label, labeling someone in a way that is limiting to them.

The code of the street

- "Code of the Street" book by Elijah Anderson - Respect is everything... high maintenance - Respond to disrespect with violence - Cannot count of the police - Resident exposed to two conflicting orientations: street values and decent values (still strive for mainstream values, hard-working) - Both of the above have to know the code to negotiate in the environment

Modern Marxist Ideas and Prison

- Angela Davis- "Prisons do not disappear social problems, they disappear human beings" -David Gordon- What prison does to people or how it functions- silences voices of prisoners/leaders of the revolution, increases delinquency, and reduces power of people who are marginalized Contrary to Marx, modern marxist criminologists tend to excuse criminals. Someone stated criminal behavior to be "no more than the "rightful" behavior of persons exploited by the extant economic relationship." Viewed criminals as the revolution to change.

What are the three gang types that develop from the frustration in low income cultures in cloward and Ohlins Opportunity Structure theory?

- Conflict gangs- commit senseless acts of violence and vandalism, generalized in slum areas -retreatist gangs- more "escapist" in their attitudes often abusing drugs. - Criminal gangs- organized more serious crime

What did Durkheim believe (anomie theory)?

- Crime is normal and inevitable and can even be socially useful. It serves to identify the limits of acceptable behavior. -Humans set their goals so high so when they don't get what they expect, they are ripe for criminal behavior.

Karl Marx and Critical Theory

- Criminals are "the dangerous class, the social scum, that rotting mass thrown off by the lowest layer of society" - Class struggle- All history is a history os class struggle, capitalism is leading to crime, communism is the only way crime will go down because of equal chances economically - proletariat vs lumpenproletariat (criminals) vs bourgeoisie - Crime is a product of unjust and alienating social conditions

Goals of Feminist Theory

- Develop theories about women - Develop theories about victimization (particularly sexual assault of women, domestic abuse) - How crimes and laws are gendered - Gender justice and the language of law and policy

Criticisms of the Differential Association Theory

- Do people really have to be taught how to steal or fight? Maybe through associations individuals only learn to get better at these things - Delinquent behavior comes before gang membership and that association with other delinquents simply speeds up and enhances delinquency among the predisposed rather than acting as a stimulator of uncharacteristic behavior among the innocent. - It has a singular vision of peer influence.

Shaw and McKay vs. Merton

- Farm boys vs. grew up in city slum - Social disorganization vs. universal American dream

Feminist Principles

- Gender is not biological (is is different from sex) - Gender relations order social institutions (ex. most CEO's are men) - Gender relations are based on male superiority and dominance - Knowledge reflects male worldview (most criminological theorists are men) - Women should be at the center of intellectual inquiry, not just men.

Marxist Criminology

- Includes Willem Bonger who is the first Marxist criminologist - Capitalism breeds egoism and selfishness - Poverty causes broken homes, poor supervision of kids, and moral defects - For Bonger, the roots of crime lay in the exploitive and alienating conditions of capitalism, although some individuals are at greater risk for crime than others because people vary in their "Innate social sentiments." This means individuals vary in their risk for crime because they vary in the innate social sentiments of altruism (an active concern for the well being of others) and in the opposite egoism (a concern for ones own self interests). View the class structure as the only source of all crime. -Puts crime on the economic institution, blames capitalism for crime.

Zone of transition characteristics

- Poverty - Population Heterogeneity (lots of cultural groups) - Residential Turnover (people are always coming and going. They keep moving in and out) All of this leads to social disorganization which then can lead to crime! Cultural transmission of values- - Lack of preparation and opportunities for mainstream economy - Delinquency accepted and criminal opportunities - "Play ground" to street gangs - Delinquent transitions from older to younger delinquent boys

Criticisms to the social control and self-control theories

-person could be emotionally attached to someone who is deviant (parents) -It is a general theory meant to explain all crimes. It is too simplistic to claim that crime can be explained by the single tendency of low-self control. Self-control cant be explained thought out crimes like terrorism because it is well though out and not in the present.

Mertons Five modes of adaptation people adopt in response to the social strains

1. Conformity- Accept the goals of society as well as the means of getting their. 2. Ritualism- Rejects the goals but accepts the means to get there. ex. middle manager, doesn't care about the job but still has a full time job which is a means to getting rich. 3. Innovation- Accepting the goals of society but rejected the means to get there. ex. become a drug dealer to get rich. (MOST CRIME IS SEEN HERE) 4. Retreatism- Rejects the goals of society and rejects the means to get there. ex. have drug issues to cope, don'd care what they are suppose to be doing. 5. Rebellion- Rejects the American goal and makes new goals and new means to get there. ex. forming a cult.

Differential Association theories nine propositions

1. Criminal behavior is learned 2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons during a process of communication. 3. The principle part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups (family, friends, loved ones) 4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated and sometimes very simple, and the specific directions of motives, drives, rationalization, and attitudes. 5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable. 6. A person becomes a delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law (THIS IS THE MOST IMPORTANT). 7. Differential Associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 8. The process of learning criminal behavior by associations with criminal and noncriminal patterns involves all the mechanism in any other learning. 9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values since noncriminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.

Discrimination (Operant Conditioning)

A term applied to a stimuli that provides clues signaling whether a particular behavior is likely to be followed by reward or not. It is present before the behavior occurs.

What does anomie mean?

A term meaning "lacking in rules" or "normlessness" used by Emile Durkhelm to describe a condition of normative deregulation in society. Its the breakdown or weakening of existing norms. This happens when people are put under stressors. Norms are broken down and not normal. Anomie can be temporary or long-term.

What is Wilson and Kellings broken windows policing?

An idea created by James Wilson and George Kelling. Disorder, fear, and crime have a cyclical relationship. Social (not knowing neighbors) and physical disorder (graffiti, broken windows) generate fear of crime. This fear reduces informal social control, making areas vulnerable for criminal invasion. Crime is part of a slippery slope of an area into decay. Seeing broken windows, that broken window must be fixed fast because if not, it shows that people don't care, making crime more likely. That broken window shows that chances of actually getting caught are low. example- Zimbardo Experiment (1969)- Broken window experiment. Once one headlight is smashed, it shows informal control was low, making more crime happen. Lack of informal social control makes more crime happen.

Generalizability Problem

An issue in feminist criminology asking if traditional theories based on male offender samples apply to women offenders. Concludes that male centered theories have limited applicability to females because they focus on male frustration in their efforts to obtain success goals and ignore female relationship goals.

Critical Criminology (big bracket)

An umbrella term for a variety of theories united only by the assumption that conflict and power relations between various classes of people best characterize the nature of society. Karl Marx is the father of critical criminology. Divided between Karl Marx (Marxisism) and conflict theory.

What are the four social bonds mentioned in Hirschi's theory of social bonds?

Attachment- We care about what other people think of us. We form attachments with friends and family and don't want them to end, leading us to do the right thing. Attachment makes us feel valued, respected, and admired. Lack of attachment to parents and lack of respect for them spills into lack of attachment for other social groups. Attachment is the essential foundation for everything else. Commitment- We have much to lose. We have invested a lot of time into our lives (our careers, education, and families) and we don't want to lose all of this. Other examples include an athletic team commitment. Ex. school drop outs are more likely to commit crimes. Involvement- We have no time to be a delinquent. We are too busy doing more important things. Involvement is a direct consequence of commitment. Belief- We care about the rules, we internalize the moral beliefs of our society.

Anna Campbells Staying Alive Hypothesis

Attempts to explain the gender ratio problem in terms of differential evolutionary selection pressures between the sexes. Female survival was more crucial to their reproductive success than male survival was to their reproductive success. Natural selection exerted pressure for females to be more fearful of dangerous situations, whereas for males the seeking of dominance and status, which aided their reproductive success, often placed them in such situations.

Arousal Theory

Because of differing ANS and RAS physiology, people differ in the arousal levels they consider optimal. Under arousal under normal conditions poses an elevated risk of criminal behavior because it signals fearlessness, boredom, and poor prospects of socialization.

Albert Cohens Subcultural Theory

Combines both Mertons and Sutherlands theory maintaining that most criminal behavior in low income neighborhoods is not a rational method of acquiring financial assets, as Merton claimed, but rather an expression of short run hedonism. Short run hedonism- Means the actor is seeking immediate gratification of his/her desires without regard for any long term consequences. Much delinquent behavior is nonutilitarian, malicious, and negative and turns middle class norms of behavior upside down. Because low income boys cannot adjust to what Cohen calls middle class measuring rods, they experience a status frustration and spawn on oppositional culture with behavioral norms consciously contrary to those of the middle class. Cohen saw criminal subcultures as a kind of mass reaction formation to the problem of blocked opportunities, although he saw status frustration, not blocked opportunities, as the real problem. To gain status and respect, members of criminal subcultures establish "new norms, new criteria of status which define as meritorious the characteristics they do possess. Explains non-utilitarian delinquency- -Not necessarily economically motivated - Lower-class youths fail to adjust to "middle class measuring rods" (values- education, job etc.) Cohens Typology- - College boys- Continue to strive for mainstream success. - Corner boys- Lower expectations and engage in marginal deviance (to cope: drugs) - Delinquent boys- Redefine success to solve "status frustration," delinquent subculture in opposition to middle class standards, "Rebellion"

Critical criminology- green criminology

Concerns itself with the study of and crimes and other harms against the environment such as global warming, pollution, and deforestation and against nonhuman animals such as cruelty and destruction of natural habitats.

What is ecological fallacy?

Concluding something about individuals based on the analysis of their larger group. This can be a consequence of social disorganization. We cannot use group data (or neighborhood data) to make assumptions about individuals.

Conflict Criminology and the status quo

Conflict Criminology- Puts aside economics and capitalism, everything is about maintaining power and keeping the status quo, power differentials never seem to go away. Richard Quinney (1970s)- Crime control checks threats to status quo- - Excessive surveillance - Police brutality - Violation of civil liberty Conflict theorists share some sentiments with Marxist but view conflict in pluralistic terms and as intrinsic to society, not something that can be eliminated. Crime is the result of the ability of powerful interest groups to criminalize the behavior of others less powerful interest groups when that behavior is contrary to their interest. Their research tends to focus on the differential treatment by the criminal justice system of individuals who are members of less powerful groups such as minorities, women, and working class whites.

The two views for the development of laws-

Consensus Theorists and Conflict Theorists

Lifestyle Theory

Crime is a patterned way of life (a lifestyle) rather than simply a behavior. Crime is caused by errors in thinking that results from choices previously made, themselves the result of early negative biological and environmental conditions.

Conflict Theorists

Crimes are actions that threaten those in power, the ruling class defined laws in order to protect their power and control those without power, laws reflect the values of ruling class in society

Consensus Theorists

Crimes are defined as actions that threaten societies survival, everyone generally agrees that certain things should be crimes (treason, homicide, theft), laws reflect the values of everyone in the society.

Criticisms to the Social Learning Theory

Criticisms- - We all learn differently - It ignores biological, and neuropsychological factors.

What are definitions?

Definitions refer to the meaning our experiences have for us and how we see things- our attitudes, values, and habitual ways or viewing the world. Definitions become favorable to law violation according to the frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of exposure to them.

Sutherlands Differential Association Theory

Edwin Sutherlands theory made in 1939. Its the earliest social learning theory. It is in the unconstrained group because crime is learned, not a natural process. Crime is learned in association with peers holding definitions favorable to law violation. It is most likely to occur in differentially organized (lower income) neighborhoods. Sutherland wanted to get rid of the idea of social class contributing to crime. Differential association biological reasons and psychological

Labeling theory and Howard Beckers outsider

Falsely accused- A person who acts obediently and is falsely perceived as deviant. This leads them to start committing crimes to meet their expected label (MOST IMPORTANT). Conformist- A person who acts obediently and and is perceived as an angel. Pure deviant- A person who breaks the rules and is perceived as deviant. Secret deviant- A person who breaks the rules but is perceived an angel. People do not think they are deviant. This is problematic because the criminal gets away with his actions, making him more likely to continue (MOST IMPORTANT). Main takeaway- Deviance comes from the mismatch of labels.

Females experience much more strain but commit far less crimes. Why?

Females have more strains relating to relationships which normally do not lead to crime. Males have more strains relating to material success which can likely lead to property crime.

Feminist Criminology

Fits firmly in the critical/conflict camp of criminology. They see women as oppressed both by gender inequality and by class inequality.

What are the two types of social control?

Formal Social Control- Controls represented by the legal system, laws, law enforcement, police officers, the whole criminal justice system. Also powerful groups in our society. Informal Social Control- Controls represented by informal systems. These include families, friends, neighborhoods.

feminist hypothesis for gender ration problem- Masculinization hypothesis

Freda Adlers hypothesis saying that as females increasingly adopt male roles they will increasingly masculine their attitudes and behavior and become as crime-prone as men.

Prefrontal Dysfunction Theory

Frontal lobes control long-term planning and temper emotions and their expressions. Criminals have frontal lobes that fail to function as they do in most people, especially in terms of inhibiting actions that harm others.

Behavior and Molecular Genetics Theory

Genes affect behavior in interaction with environmental influences. Heritability estimates the relative contribution of genetic and environmental factor traits affecting criminality. All individual traits are at least modestly influenced by genes. Molecular genetics identifies genes underlying those traits.

Left Realists

Group of marxist criminologists who want to work within the system to make things better for the working class.

Routine Activities Theory

Ignores criminality and concentrates on crime as an event. Crime occurs in the context of everyday routine activities in some geographic area. Crime is an event at the confluence of a motivated offender and a suitable target that lacks a capable guardian.

The Role of Opportunity in the self control theory

In self-control theory, opportunity is a situation that presents itself to those with low self control by which they can immediately satisfy their needs with minimal effort.

Developmental Theories (Big bracket)

Includes General or "super traits" theory, Farringtons Intergrated Congnitive Antisocial Potential Theory, Moffitts Dual pathway development theory, and sampson and Laubs Age graded theory

Psychosocial Theories (Big bracket)

Includes arousal theory, lifestyle theory, and anti-personality theory.

Biosocial Theories (Big bracket)

Includes behavior and molecular genetics, evolutionary psychology, neuroscience, reinforcement sensitivity theory, and prefrontal dysfunction theory.

What are protective factors in developmental theories?

Individual or social characteristics which, when present, signal a reduced likelihood of a disorder. They are thought to mediate or mitigate the negative effects of risk factors (ex. strong, close family). Protective factors may- - Directly reduce a dysfunction (ex. low self control) - Reduce the effect of the risk factor - Disrupt the meditational chain through which the risk factor operates to cause a dsyfunction - Prevent the initial occurrence of risk factor (ex. don't smoke during pregnancy and keep stress levels down so the baby will be okay)

Cloward and Ohlins Opportunity Structure Theory

Influential extension of the strain theory by Cloward and Ohlin. It claims that low income youth join gangs as a path to monetary successes. Delinquents want middle class financial success but have little interest in its usual indicators, preferring big cars, flashy clothes, and swell dames. Three Types of Gangs- - criminal (organized crime) - conflict (violence and vandalism) - Retreatist (double failures, drugs and alcohol)

What is self concept?

It is what you think of yourself and what other think of you. Its your internalization. You may start to change your self concept to match your label.

Marxist vs Conflict theory

Marxist- The dehumanizing conditions of capitalism cause crime. Capitalism generates egoism and alienates people from themselves and from others. With the overthrow of capitalist mode, the natural goodness of humanity with emerge and there will be no more criminal behavior. Conflict Theory- The distribution of political power leads to some interest groups being able to criminalize that acts of other interest groups. As long as people have different interests, ad as long as some groups have more power than others, crime will exist. Since interest and power differentials are part of the human condition, crime will always be with us.

Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity

Mechanical Solidarity- Exists in small prestate societies where individuals share common experiences and circumstances and thus have common values and strong emotional ties to the collectivity. Strong emotional ties, informal social controls are strong and antisocial behavior is minimal. Organic Solidarity- Characteristic of modern societies with a high degree of occupational specialization and diversity of experiences and circumstances. This diversity weakens common values and social bonds, and antisocial behavior grows.

Two Levels of Mertons Anomic/strain-

Merton presents both a micro-strain theory and a macro-strain theory- 1. society=macro, more anomic, society as a whole 2. individual=micro, more personal strains in our daily lives

Messner and Rosenfields Institutional Anomie Theory

Messner and Rosenfields extension of the anomie theory. America is literally organized for crime due to its overweening emphasis on the economy and material success. All other institutions are devalued and must accommodate themselves to the requirement of the economy. American culture devalues the noneconomic function and roles of other social institutions. There is an over emphasis on money. Religion, family, and other institutions are just as important. This overemphasis results in crime. Decommodification- The process of freeing social relationships from economic considerations. Ex. go to college for the love of learning, not to get a job down the road to earn money.

What is Walter Millers Focal Concerns?

Miller took issue with the idea that gangs are formed as a reaction to status deprivation. Criminals may resent the middle class, but it is not a matter of "if you can join them, you can lick them," He identified six interrelated focal concerns to explain gang delinquency- 1. Trouble- Trouble is something to stay out of most of the time, but life is trouble and trouble is something that confers status if its the right mind. 2. Toughness- Is very important to the status of low income males. Being strong, brave, sexually aggressive. 3. Smartness- Refers to street smart. That is the ability to survive on the streets using ones wit. 4. Excitement- is the search for fun, often defined in terms of fighting, sexual, gambling, and getting drunk or high. 5. Fate- is a belief that the locus of control is external to oneself, blames outside sources for everything. Its not my fault! 6. Autonomy- Means personal freedom, being outside the control of authority figures such as teachers, employees, and the police. Im able to do my own thing.

What is the concentric zone controls?

Modeled by Burgess and Parks. Zone 1- Central business zone- nobody lives there Zone 2- Zone of transition (near factories), poor immigrants and new comers come in and out of this zone, making it full of crime Zone 3- Working class zone (less temporary) Zone 4- Residential zone Zone 5- Commuter zone Zone of transition is where the most crime can be seen.

What are moral entrepreneurs and moral panics?

Moral panics are when society gets overly excited or scared about something, when something is blown out of proportions. ex. superpredators- moralless young juvenile criminals. They labeled young black men as criminal which increased tougher punishment on juveniles. Moral entrepreneurs people who lead moral panics.

Agnew's General Strain Theory- Sources of strain

Negative relationships with others - Achievement of positively valued goals prevented (want to go to college but cant afford it) - Positively valued stimuli removed (A friend or parent that helps you greatly has just died) - Negatively valued stimuli presented (A mean step parent has entered the family)

Social Ecology/ Social Disorganization theory

Poverty concentrates people of different cultural backgrounds and generates cultural conflicts. The breakdown of informal social controls leads to disorganization, and peer group gangs replace social institutions as socializers. Social disorganization- ABOUT PLACES, NOT PEOPLE. The breakdown of the power of informal community norms regulating conduct. Its created by the continuous redistribution of neighborhood populations, bringing with them a wide variety of cultural traditions sometimes at odds with traditional American middle class norms of behavior.

Primary vs. secondary deviance (Lemert)

Primary deviance- In the labeling theory, the primary deviance is the initial nonconforming act that comes to the attention of the authorizes resulting in the application of a criminal label. Its your first delinquent action. ex. How poor or underprivileged you are, your sex. No specific group is more likely to commit crimes thus reflecting a police bias. Secondary Deviance- Deviance that results from societies reaction to the offenders primary deviance. The stigma of a criminal label may result in people becoming more criminal than they would have been had they not gotten caught. We care more about this deviance.

Social Bond theory pros and cons

Pros- It is very easy to research and is good at describing groups and gangs. Cons- What about adult crime? What if we are attached to people who commit crimes?

What are risk factors in developmental theories?

Risk factors are variables associated with a high probability of onset, greater severity, and longer duration of problem behavior. Conclusion about risk factors- - Violent and serious delinquency in late adolescence and early adulthood is predictable - The strongest predictors are factors that are changeable (ex. family dynamics, neighborhoods, school, not gender or race!) - The relative importance of some factors changes from childhood to adolescence (ex. a kid that does drugs at 7 years old is a bigger risk factor than a 18 year old who starts doing drugs) - cumulative- you can have multiple risk factors

feminist hypothesis for gender ratio problem- Emancipation hypothesis

Rita Simons view that increased participation in the workplace affords women greater opportunities to commit job related crimes without undergoing mascalization. ex. they will have a bigger opportunity to commit fraud in their job.

Robert Agnews General Strain Theory

Robert Agnews extension to the anomie theory. There are multiple sources of strain, and strain differs along numerous dimensions. Strain is the result of negative emotions that arise from negative relationships with others and social-cultural forces. Individual characteristics help us cope either poorly or well with strain. Its not about strain but how to cope with it. Stresses multiple sources of strain and how people cope with it. We all experience strains but they differ according to its magnitude, recency, duration, and clustering. There are multiple strains. Which strains are more likely to lead to crime? Crime is a corrective action to cope with, reduce, and escape their strains and negative emotions. Strain can lead to negative attitudes which can lead to aggressive manner/crime. There are multiple sources of strain. People are pressured into crime as a result of strains and stressors (lead to negative emotions, anger, frustration). Crime is a corrective action to cope with, reduce, and escape their strains and negative emotions.

Akers Social Learning Theory

Ronald Akers theory. Definitions favorable to law violation depend on the history of reinforcement and punishment. Excessive rewards for criminal behavior perpetrate it. People learn criminal behavior using through the psychological principles of operant conditioning. Social learning theory focuses on four principles- 1. differential associations 2. Deferential reinforcements 3. Imitation 4. Definitions

The marshmallow Test

Shows the self-control theory. Can kids exercise self control at an early age? When put in a room for five minutes with a marshmallow in it, will they eat the marshmallow even if told not to? Kids who waited longer to eat the marshmallow had better life outcomes- -They had higher SAT scores -They obtained a higher education -They used less drugs New evidence- Rich kids are better at the marshmallow test than poor kids. Socio-economic status of family correlates with self-control. This could be because poor kids where taught to go after every opportunity put in there way as there could never be that opportunity again.

Integrating social control and self-control theories

Social control and self-control are basically the same thing. They are interrelated. All agree that the family is central to the development of mechanisms that affect criminal behavior!!

The social process tradition

Social process criminologists operate from a sociological perspective known as symbolic interactionism. Symbolic interactionism is a perspective that focuses on how people interpret and define their social reality and the meanings they attach to it in the process of interacting with one another via language (symbols).

Social Structure Thoeries

Social structure- How society is organized by social institutions- the family and educational, religious, economic, and political institutions- and stratified on the basis of various roles and statuses. They are interested in seeking the social structural causes of crime rather than why particular individuals commit crimes. Structural criminologists tend to assume that human nature is socially constructed, an unconstrained vision position that avers that all human traits and characteristics are specific to local cultures. The presence of criminals reflects defective social practices such as poverty, competitiveness, inequality rather than defective human materials such as impulsiveness and lacking empathy.

What are subcultures?

Subcultures emerge when a significant number of people feel alienated or are segregated from the larger culture and forge a lifestyle different from the mainstream culture and often at odd with it.

Sykes and Matzas's Neutralization Theory

Sykes and Matzas theory. Delinquents and criminals learn to neutralize moral constraints and thus their guilt for committing crimes. They drift in and out of crime. Neutralization theory suggests that delinquents and criminals know their behavior is wrong, but they justify it on a number of grounds. They neutralize any sense of shame or guilt for having committed some wrongful act, which means that they are at least minimally attached to conventional norms. Runs counter to the labeling theory because it shows how delinquents resist labeling rather than accept it. There are five techniques of neutralization according to Sykes and Matzas- 1. Denial of responsibilty 2. Denial of injury 3. Denial of victim 4. Condemnation of condemners 5. Appeal to a higher authority

Social Ecology

Term used by the Chicago school to describe the interrelations of human beings and the communities in which they live.

What is your master status?

The primary social identity people label/see you as (mom, student, sister). It may or may not match their primary deviance identity.

What is collective efficacy?

The shared power of a group of connected and engaged individuals to influence an outcome the collective deems desirable. Connection and engagement influences the maintenance of social order.

What is social capital?

The store of positive relationships in social networks built on norms of reciprocity and trust developed over time upon which the individual can draw for support. Racial and ethnic diversity can have a devastating effect on communities by reducing social capital. The greater the diversity, the more distrust that can be seen.

Terrie Moffitts Dual Pathway Developmental Theory

Theory based on the notion of two main pathways to offending: adolescent limited offending and life course persistent offending. Adolescent Limited Offenders- The vast majority of youth who offend during adolescence and desist. Life Course Persistent Offenders- Individuals who begin offending prior to puberty and continue well into adulthood and who are saddled with neuropsychological and temperamental deficits manifested in low IQ, hyperactivity, inattentiveness, negative emotionality, and low impulse control. Makes up 7% of the population.

Critical criminology- peacemaking criminology

Theory based on the postmodernist tradition that rejects the notion that the scientific view is better than any other view and believes that any method of understanding can be objective. A position that holds all points of view, including those of criminals, as relative and worthy of appreciation. They advocate restorative justice. More religious, lets hear what the criminals have to say because they are people too.

Antisocial Personality Theory

There is a small, stable group of individuals who may be be biologically obligated to behave antisocially (psychopaths), plus a larger group that behaves similarly but whose numbers grow or subside with changing environmental conditions (sociopaths).

Social Structure Theories (Big bracket)

These include Social Ecology/social disorganization theory, Anomie theory (Durkheim), Anomie theory/ strain tradition (Merton), Institutional Anomie theory, General Strain theory, and subcultural theories.

Social Process Theories (Big bracket)

These include differential association theory, social learning theory, social bonding theory, self-control theory, labeling theory, and neutralization theory.

Choice Theories (Big bracket)

These include the rational choice theory, routine choice theory, and cultural/anarchic criminology.

What are social control theories?

These theories ask a different question "Why don't most people commit crimes?" There are two kinds of social controls- formal and informal social control.

Critical criminology- convict criminology

They decry americans mass incarceration and agitate from improved prison conditions. Their claim to uniqueness is that having served time in prision gives them a better perspective on crime, prisons, and prison conditions than criminologists who study those things from their offices

What did Shaw and McKay do?

Worked for the Illinois institute for juvenile research. They mapped the addresses of delinquents between the 1920s-1950s. They found that the zone that had the highest rates of delinquency was the zone of transition (#2). The groups who moved to outer zones experienced low delinquency. They believed the cause of crime had to do with the neighborhood, not the people living in the neighborhood. Had to do with the social disorganization.

Willem Bonger: The First Marxist Criminologist

Wrote the first work devoted to a Marxist analysis of crime. For Bonger, the roots of the crime lay in the exploitive and alienating conditions of capitalism, although some individuals are at greater risk for crime than others because people vary in their "innate social sentiments" of altruism (concern for others well being) and egoism. He believed that capitalism generates egoism and blunts altruism because it pins a person against person for economic necessity. Poverty was a major reason for crime for Bonger, particularly on its effects on family structure (broken homes) and poor parental supervision of children. He saw moral deficits of the poor.

Hirsheis's Typical Criminal

Young male who grew up in a fatherless home in an urban slum, is unemployed and has a history of difficulty in school.