cultural anthropology test 3 study guide

marriage, part 3.

4. *marriage rules*: A. *Whom should one marry?*: 1. rules of exclusion: incest taboo (one of the most basic and universal rules of exclusion) 2. *preference rules*: A. *endogamy* - marriage within a particular category or group - may perform a number of functions: °can reduce contacts and interactions with those of different social rank °can symbolically reinforce the "special" nature (exclusiveness) of the group by protecting it from outside "contamination" Endogamy may reflect/be based on: ° location ° status: hypogyny: marrying "down"; isogamy: married between those of equal social status ° kinship: when kinship connections figure into endogamy, certain relatives are preferred as marriage partners - specifically, cousins: - *parallel*: children of siblings of the same sex - *cross*: children of siblings of the opposite sex B. *exogamy* - marriage outside a particular category or group - most common group is the family; may perform a number of functions: 1. extends territory 2. creates political alliances 3. stimulus to trade 4. reduces the potential for sexually based conflicts within families B. *How many should one marry?*: 1. *Monogamy* (serial monogamy) 2. *Polygamy* (refers to all forms of multiple spouse marriage): a. polygyny: multiple wives - may require mechanisms designed to reduce jealousies: ° co-wives have clearly defined rights as to most matters ° senior wives often have special privileges ° co-wives are sometimes sisters (sororal polygyny) ° co-wives may live in separate quarters b. *polyandry*: multiple husbands c. *group marriage*: a number of men and women in a marital relationship C. *Where does one live following marriage?* (post-marital residence patterns): 1. *neolocality* (relatively rare until recently - found in 5-7% of societies - most common among foraging, industrial, and postindustrial societies - related to high degree of mobility required in such societies and where romantic love, the emotional bond between husband and wife are valued along with privacy and personal independence) 2. *patrilocality/virilocality* (most common pattern, found in 58% of societies known to anthropologists - closely associated with patrilineal descent) 3. *matrilocality* (found in 15% of societies - closely associated with matrilineal descent) 4. bilocality/ambilocality (found in 7% of societies) 5. residential patterns and warfare: patrilocality common in societies which practice internal warfare (occurs within a society, involving people who speak the same language). matrilocality is common among those who practice external warfare (occurs between societies, involving groups that speak different languages). 6. residential patterns, food getting, and economics: patrilocality is functional in foraging and agricultural societies, where men need to work cooperatively. matrilocality is adaptive in horticultural societies, where women have an important role in the economy. D. *Importance of the intergroup ties created by intermarriage*: 1. levirate - if a woman's husband dies, she will be expected to marry one of her husband's close kinsmen (usually a brother - this process enhances the life of the woman). 2. sororate - if a wife dies, her family or kin group is obligated to replace her with another woman from the group (sometimes linked to marital exchange of bridewealth). E. *What economic considerations are associated with marriage?*: 1. *bridewealth* - transfer of wealth from groom's kin group to bride's kin group (bride is not purchased or made a slave) - the arrangement ensures her certain rights, compensates bride's family and kin group for loss of her economic potential and reproduction function, transfers children and rights over children to the groom's family and kin group, helps ensure good treatment of the bridge, legitimates the marital union much like a marriage license, and can stabilize a marriage by reducing the possibility of divorce. 2. *brideservice* - groom provides his labor to family of the bride for a period of time, prior to and/or after the wedding. 3. *dowry* - transfer of wealth from bride's family to the groom of the groom's family.

marriage, part 2.

1. *three major functions of marriage*: a. parenting responsibilities b. economic cooperation c. exchange of services between males and females 2. *a cross cultural perspective of marriage*: a. characteristically a relationship between or among groups (families and corporate kin groups) b. involves the transfer or flower or rights (work services, rights as to children, property rights, etc. - from wife's group to husband's and vice-versa) c. seldom primarily a sexual relationship d. rights transferred and relationships created do not end at death of one or all parties involved e. responsibilities of the "father" may vary from one society to another 3. *role of "romantic love" in marriage: the notion that marriage should be based foremost on "love" is fairly recent. arranged marriages are common, especially in societies with elaborate social hierarchies (ex: Hindus in India and in postindustrial Japan where 25 to 30% of all marriages are arranged - even in the USA, some art not opposed to seeking help in mate selection: note the proliferation of online match-making sites). in a recent ethnographic survey of 166 societies, researchers discovered that 89% exhibited evidence of romantic love. as a result, some have argued that romantic love may be a human universal but its exact function or purpose remains a matter of debate: an environmental psychology argument focuses on its possible adaptive function, uniting males and females in caring for children; a cultural perspective approach highlights its importance in culture where men contribute more to subsistence and women are more economically dependent on men - thus romantic love serves as a sort of lure to entice folk into long-term and involved relationships.

*Religion* (supplement #2)

1. Religion: generally defined as any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to the supernatural or the sacred. religions are comprised of nonscientific beliefs (they are not testable, and thus not disprovable) and practices. although based on belief and relates to the supernatural, religion doesn't employ special formulae or "spells" to coerce the sacred. rather, it works through activities which beseech/implore the supernatural (such as prayer). *in many cases, religion can't be viewed or defined as a separate element or component of culture, because the beliefs and practices are linked directly to all other parts of a culture. furthermore, religion is a human universal - all human societies have religious systems.* ° three areas in which the supernatural is believed to intervene: 1. can be responsible for the success/failure of many group activities 2. supernatural forces and/or beings may be asked to bring about some desired event 3. supernatural powers and/or beings are believed to interfere in the personal lives of individuals. ° all religions have five key characteristics (as with all patterns of culture, religion is subject to change): 1. sacred stories (usually in the form of myths) 2. symbols and symbolism a. material objects b. aspects of the physical environment c. via dance and music 3. existence of the supernatural/sacred (non-empirical) a. spirits (animism) b. beings (ghosts; gods; tricksters) c. powers (animatism) 4. rituals: passage; intensification; reversal 5. religious specialists: shaman; priests; witches; sorcerers ° *some key functions of religion*: 1. Provides meaning and order to the lives of people. A. can help explain and give meaning to the environment. B. provides a cosmology (doctrine/dogma; an important component of a culture's World View). 2. Reduces individual and social anxieties. A. can provide a means to "call upon help" in risky situations. B. can alter the emotional state of individuals. 3. May help give people a sense of some control as to their destinies. 4. Can reinforce or challenge the status quo. A. usually functions to preserve the existing social order. B. can work to change the social order: 1) provides an escape from a harsh reality 2) can serve as a catalyst/spark for rebellion and revolution - revitalization movements

*CULTURAL SURVIVAL, INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS, AND GLOBALIZATION* part 1:

1. The processes of globalization have impacted all societies resulting significant complications, problems, and adjustment responses. A. illustrates the changing nature of culture B. impact has varied somewhat depending on the socio-cultural and economic structures of a society 1. First World ("Developed States"): generally refers to wealthy, powerful states that are: relatively stable; dominate international, political, and economic activities; and often maintained colonies in the past. 2. Third World ("Underdeveloped States"): generally refers to states that are: economically poor; relatively unstable; weak both politically and militarily; dependent; and consist mostly of former colonies. almost all such states are located in the Southern Hemisphere. 3. Fourth World (Indigenous Minorities; "First Peoples"): consist primarily of "traditional," small scale, non or pre state societies, located within states. usually these peoples were original inhabitants of an area now part of a state, and often have no economic and/or political influence or power. As a result of colonialism, development, state creation, and globalization, these peoples have lost their lands and important symbolic aspects of their cultures (ex: language, artifacts, knowledge, traditional practices). (Eller) C. Eller notes that various cultural movements have developed "...intended to address some aspect of cultural frustration and dissatisfaction." He notes that such movements are a new type of culture, and not simply a continuation of the "traditional" culture or something which complete forsakes it - rather, the intent is to revitalize or repair a damaged culture/identity. 1. Syncretism: refers to a type of revitalization movement in which elements from two or more cultures are blended to create a cultural system, which is considered better or more satisfying. 2. Millenarianism: refers to a type of revitalization movement focused on preparing for and even bringing about the end of the resent era of the world (which is considered to be inferior, sinful, or bad) and replacing it with a superior existence. 3. Irredentism: refers to a revitalization movement designed or intended to reclaim and reoccupy a lost homeland. 4. Modernism: refers to a revitalization movement intended to imitate/adopt the characteristics of a foreign or "modern" society and abandoning some/all of the "traditional" culture in the process. 5. Nativism: refers to a revitalization movement focused on continuing, restoring, or reviving "traditional" cultural aspects/practices believed to be the very basis of a group's way of life and are thought to be lost, or under threat. 6. Fundamentalism: refers to a type of revitalization movement that is often (but not always) associated with religion and through which people try to address perceived disadvantages/social problems by returning to or restoring the "fundamentals," "genuine," or most important elements or culture (whatever they be or are perceived).

Ways to interact with the supernatural, and some adaptive functions of religion

10. *Some means by which to interact with the supernatural*: A. prayer B. imitation of things or simulation C. eating a sacred meal D. sacrifice E. altered state of consciousness (trance): 1. dance 2. prayer 3. pain 4. hallucinogenic drugs 11. *Some adaptive aspects or functions of religion*: A. Psychological and Intellectual: 1. searching for a sense of order and meaning 2. reducing anxiety and increasing a sense of control B. Social: 1. reinforcing or changing the social order or *revitalization movements*: a. religious inspired movements often designed to preserve or reinforce a culture that has become disorganized as a result of any of the following: ° rapid change often brought on by exposure to different peoples, practices, beliefs, values, technology, etc. ° foreign domination which produces a sense of cultural inferiority ° a perception of relative deprivation, the result of which a people come to believe they lack power, wealth, and esteem, relative to those who dominate them b. *types of revitalization movements identified by anthropologists*: 1. *Nativistic*: return to the "old" ways and expel all things foreign 2. *Cargo Cults*: adopt new cultural patterns by imitating some of the behaviors, habits, etc. of outsiders 3. *Millenarian or Revolutionary*: espouses a belief in the coming of a new world/order C. Ecological: 1. beliefs and ritual practices are sometimes related to the local ecology and resource management

Religion, Science, Magic, Ritual, etc.

2. *Science*: instrumental in nature (the practice of doing things), based upon a rational understanding of physical principles which operate independently of human will and supernaturalism (empirical, methodological, quantitative, replicable) 3. *Magic*: instrumental, invokes the supernatural through words and actions (time-tested formulae) thought to automatically manipulate/compel supernatural powers or forces. 4. *Religious systems are comprised of three key elements*: A. *Beliefs or belief systems related to the nature of the supernatural*: 1. Personified: acts or capabilities of supernatural beings with a quality of life. may be of human origin: ghosts; ancestral spirits; the soul. may be of non-human origin: God or Gods; Spirits; Demons; Tricksters. This interpretation is reflected in *animism*: a belief that invisible supernatural beings inhabit life forms and/or inanimate objects. 2. Impersonal: the supernatural is thought to be object-like or inanimate, that is, an impersonal force or power believed to exist throughout the universe or to adhere to certain objects, substances, natural phenomena, or people. a. *Mana*: the impersonal supernatural force or power. it is considered to be neutral and it can help to explain why some are different from others and why much of nature is unpredictable. b. *Animatism*: a belief in an impersonal supernatural power or force. B. *Myths*: narratives or stories about/related to the sacred or supernatural. They are artistic rather than scientific interpretations of reality, which help explain and validate. the most common forms of myths include: 1. origin myths 2. trickster myths C. Doctrine or Dogma (sometimes referred to as "theology" or "cosmology"): beliefs (usually written and formalized) and most often associated with Ecclesiastical Cults. 5. *Ritual*: patterned forms of behavior that are related to the sacred or supernatural. Rituals provide a course of action relating to the supernatural. In a way, they are the "how" by which religious concepts and ideas are put into practice - they are literally beliefs "in action". They can: reinforce a group; reinforce a sense of identification; help relieve stress or tensions, provide ways by which events are celebrated and crises made less disruptive and less difficult to bear; provide ways of dealing with the supernatural and protecting it from contamination by the ordinary or the secular; and due to its link to the supernatural it may come to be considered part of the supernatural. Rituals are often classified as to their purposes and when they occur (calendric or crisis): A. Rites of Passage B. Rites of Intensification C. Rites of Reversal

CULTURAL SURVIVAL, INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS, AND GLOBALIZATION part 2:

2. What are the rights of indigenous minorities? A. complications were created when the majority of national boundaries were determined by European colonial authorities who had no real knowledge of the local cultures and rarely, if ever, sought the consent of the indigenous peoples included within their colonies. When former colonies gained independence, the new governments maintained the same boundaries that European officials had created. These newly independent states were generally "run" by one of more of the larger resident ethnic groups. A colonial-like system of discrimination and exploitation continued for other politically powerless indigenous peoples. B. do indigenous peoples have the right to: control and own their lands, practice their own religion, live as they wish, speak their own language, and self-governance? C. the U.N. Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007) D. dangers posed by the destruction of indigenous cultures: 1. importance of cultural diversity 2. a cultural relativist perspective: indigenous peoples provide insights into the many ways of being human 3. local knowledge: that held by indigenous groups and almost exclusively passed on by word-of-mouth (orally) a. medical knowledge b. adaptive or survival wisdom c. alternative cultural models

Intermediaries and the Organization of the Believers

6. *Intermediaries and the Organization of the Believers:* Wallace's typology uses the term "cult" to designate different levels or types of religious organizations. He employs the term in a neutral fashion ("cult" is often used today to reference religious organizations that engage in questionable and exploitative activities, etc.). A. *Individualistic Cults*: has no religious specialistic - a person relies on him or her self to draw on the powers of the supernatural. it's kind of a "do it yourself" approach/religion as noted by Harris and Johnson, and is common among food foragers (ex: the Vision Quest). B. *Shamanistic Cults*: involves a shaman (a specialist associated with the supernatural) who has a direct relationship or personal experience with the supernatural (often through a special formula or formulae) which he/she uses to solve practical problems, such as infertility or illness. there are two forms of Shamanism: 1. hereditary: passed on through a parent 2. through some direct contact with the supernatural such as dreams, visions, or hallucinations ° Shamanism performs some key functions: 1. for the people, via the drama of the shaman's performance, they can experience a feeling of ecstasy and can release tensions 2. provides a sense of psychological assurance - especially significant in that a key reason shamanism performance is poor health ° Shamanistic "cures" are often effective (they "work"): 1. mathematical probability 2. knowledge of "folk" remedies and local fauna that can have medical applications 3. crafty as to cures attempted 4. a fair amount of illness is of hysterical sources ° Shamanism can put a practitioner in a precarious position, yet it can serve as a means of social control and help maintain social order through the ability of a shaman to detect and even punish evildoers. ° Some researchers use the term *"Cosmic Religion"* to apply to religious traditions marked by animism and shamanism - such arrangements include concepts, beliefs, and rituals that are all integrated with the natural environment, seasonal cycles, and living things. C. *Communal Cults*: all members of a group or community participates and is designed to help intercede with the sacred on behalf of that group or community (ex: Ancestral Cults, Totemic Cults). they are characterized by groups performing rituals for the community - generally includes ancestor-based rites and Totemism: elements of nature act as a sort of basis for a society by means of symbolic association - often involves a Totem being considered as sacred that is believed to occupy a sacred place in nature - social order is reinforced or supported by symbolic association and imitation of the Totem - common among horticulturalists and pastoralists. D. *Ecclesiastical Cults*: marked by presence of full time religious practitioners or PRIESTS in a hierarchal arrangement, who form the basis of a religious bureaucracy (formal and specialized officials perform key rituals - such arrangements or systems are state sponsored). These cults are associated with complex agricultural, industrial and postindustrial societies, but some apply the title only to the religious traditions associated with the earliest civilizations. *pilgrimage* - a journey undertaken for a religious motive. Although some pilgrims have wandered continuously with no fixed destination, pilgrims more commonly seek a specific place that has been sanctified by association with a divinity or other holy personage.

Magic (an anthropological perspective), Sorcery, and Witchcraft

7. *Magic (an anthropological perspective)*: one of a number of means of dealing with the sacred or supernatural. A. compared to religion, magic is distinguished by the following characteristics: 1. usually focuses on a belief in an inanimate power which can manipulated by those who understand it 2. magicians believe they can control the supernatural under certain conditions (have access to special formulae) 3. generally relates to the observable world and has a practical and fairly quick orientation 4. may be employed for beneficial or immoral/evil purposes B. anthropologists often classify magic in two ways: 1. *law of contagion/contagious* - things that had once been in physical contact with one another could have an effect even when they were no longer in contact. ex: hair, nail clippings, sweat, etc. 2. *law of similarity/imitative* - some point of similarity between an aspect of the magical rite and the desired goal. ex: a voodoo doll. 8. *Sorcery*: achieves evil or immoral purpose through the conscious and deliberate use of magic - a learned and intentional trait (often involves the use of materials, objects, and medicines to invoke the supernatural for evil intent). 9. *Witchcraft*: achieves evil by means of thought and emotion alone: a power inherent in one's personality or being and is carried out without the use of magic (cross culturally, witchcraft is considered bad or evil. although in a few cultures, there may be a belief that it can also be used to achieve good) A. Some key functions of witchcraft beliefs: 1. may help explain events that could not otherwise be explained to one's satisfaction 2. may help explain events which seem to be without any discoverable or obvious cause 3. can provide a convenient scapegoat 4. can provide an outlet of aggression, hostility, and frustrations 5. may serve as an effective social control mechanism 6. can reinforce key values and norms which, in turn, helps ensure social order

*MARRIAGE* part 1:

marriage and similar relationships (like long term cohabitation) comprise one of three major bases (along with sharing and kinship) for forming close interpersonal relationships. ° *Marriage (an anthropological perspective)*: a more or less stable union, usually between two people who are likely, but not necessarily, co-resident, sexually involved, and procreative with each other. (B. Miller) Customs, rules, and obligations that establish socially approved relationships between adults and children and between kin groups and married partners. (Nanda and Warms) Marriage is found in almost all societies. Some possible explanations include: - creates a gender division of labor - prolonged infant dependency - may reduce destructive sexual competition - postpartum requirements

kinship, part 2:

° In urbanized Western societies, other principles of social organization serve as a basis for group formation and as a framework within which individual rights and obligations are specified. This doesn't imply kinship is of limited or no significant in urban based and postindustrial societies. 3. *rules of descent*: A. *Unilineal/Unilateral*: descent group (definition on next flashcard) membership is based on links via either mother's side or father's side. ° *patrilineal*: (most common form - found in 40+% of societies) comprised of those who trace descent through males or the male side or from a common, known male ancestor. ° *matrilineal*: (found in 15-20% of societies) comprised of those who trace descent through a commonly known female ancestor. ° *double descent*: (rare - found in 5% or less of societies) one belongs both to the patrilineal group of the father and to the matrilineal group of the mother, but these descent groups operate in activities of daily life (descent is matrilineal for some purposes and patrilineal for others). 1. Unilineal descent systems have key advantages: a. provide a basis for creation of corporate kin groups b. provide unambiguous group membership (specific, defined boundaries) c. are self-perpetuating 2. Some key unilineal descent groupings: a. *lineage* - a group composed of relatives who are directly descended from known ancestors (longer definition below) b. *clan* - a group of relatives who claim to be descended from a single ancestor (longer definition below) 3. Some key functions of unilineal descent groups: a. marriage & regulation of valued resources b. economic c. political d. religious activities and obligations e. social control f. mutual aid and support ° Remember, kin groupings (especially lineages) have a *corporate nature* - they operate much like small corporations: a. shape one's identification in important ways b. regulates marriage c. regulate and distributes property d. dispenses justice and maintains social control B. Non-unilineal: one is affiliated or related to those on both the mother and father's side. 1. *Bilineal/Bilateral/Cognatic* (common in Western societies): refers to a system in which relatives are traced through or recognized on both maternal and paternal side of the family simultaneously. 2. *Ambilineal*: one has the option of joining either mother's or father's kin group (quite rare); a persons descent relationship is traced through either a male or female line (one affiliates with kin groups on the basis of ties traced through either the paternal line or the maternal line). such problems do not occur in a rare system known as double descent. 3. *Kindred*: a network (not really a group) of relatives from both mother's and father's side of the family that a person (what anthropologists call the ego) recognizes as important, close kin relations - characterized by: a. hazy, ill-defined boundaries b. ego centered c. not self-perpetuating

kinship, part 3:

° families, even extended families, can't meet or satisfy the complex needs of tribal, chiefdom, and even some of the agricultural and industrial societies. to meet such needs, tribal (including chiefdoms and to a somewhat lesser degree, agricultural states) developed even more of what Scupin refers to as "extended" types of social organization, based to a major degree on kinship and non-kinship principles. one such arrangement is the *descent group*: that identified by someone in order to trace actual or supposed (imagined) kinship relationships. one such group is labeled as: *Lineage*: a descent group comprised of relatives all of whose trace relationship via consanguine/blood or affine/marriage ties to a specific ancestor through known and traceable genealogical links (everyone in the lineage knows exactly how she/he is related to the ancestor). thus, lineages are generally only 4-6 generations deep (Haviland, Prins, and others). ° *Clan*: typically consists of several lineages and is an extended unilinear descent group whose members believe they are descended from a common ancestor (usually legendary or mythological) but can't trace the exact genealogical links back to that ancestor. Clans differ from lineages in that they are generationally deep (beyond six generations) and are spread out over a larger land area. Clans can be based on patrilineal or matrilineal links or may be ambilineal in nature. Since they lack the residential unity of lineages and the exact relationship to the founding ancestor is murky, clans often depend upon *Totems* (symbols) to provide members with sense of unity and identification. This may give rise to a more elaborate arrangement known as Totemism, which Radcliffe-Brown referred to as a set of beliefs and practices which create a special system of relations between the members of a society and important animals, plants, and other natural objects. ° *Lineages and clans often perform important corporate functions*: - lineages (as well as clans) often shape a person's identification in significant ways. - lineages, due to fact their membership is localized, often share manage the holding of tangible property (such as land and animals). - lineages often provide social control and operate as a criminal justice system. - clans frequently regulate marriages through exogamy. - due to their dispersed membership, clans give individuals the right of entry into associated local groups no matter where they are. - clan members are usually expected to provide protection and hospitality to other clan members.

*KINSHIP*

° refers to relationships or notions of "relatedness" via: A. blood: *Consanguine* kin - formed through blood or biological ties and consisting of related women, their brothers, and the women's children (fairly rare - ex: Nayar of India and Na of modern China). B. marriage: *Affinal* kin (*conjugal* family is the family you receive through being married; affinal is your partner) ° in traditional societies, kinship is one of the most important aspects of social organization. 1. *some key functions of kinship*: A. basis for group formation and social relationships (relationships are to a great extent governed by kinship norms) B. extending kinship ties is a primary way of allying groups and incorporating strangers into the group C. in most societies, kinship is basic in determining one's rights and responsibilities (kinship operated in such a way as to direct one's behavior) D. kinship systems function to provide security for the members: support in daily life tasks and during major life transitions, along with support associated with social control, conflict resolution, and political decision making 2. *adaptive nature of kinship*: A. sets limits on sexual activities and as to whom one can marry B. establishes arrangements for economic cooperation between and among people C. provides a basis for child care and rearing D. provides a mechanism for sharing property and goods E. extends one's relationships (in relation to the immediate family) to a wider range of people

Family

° two or more people related by blood (consanguine), marriage (affinal), or adoption (*conjugal* family is the family you receive through being married; affinal is your partner). families can take many different forms and the exact definition/composition can vary from one culture to another. family forms are usually impacted by a variety of social, historical, and ecological factors and influences. ° anthropologists consider *family* to be a social unit characterized by: a. economic cooperation b. the management of reproduction and child-rearing c. common residence ° *nuclear family*: made up of one or two parents and dependent children (including single parents with children and same sex couples with children) ° benefits/advantages: mobility; privacy; independence ° disadvantages/limitations: potential problems associated with illness, child care, and other time/energy demands focused on only a few adults; spouses are often "breadwinners" and parents on their own; smaller households could find it more difficult to compete with larger and therefore, politically stronger households ° *extended family*: comprised of two or more closely related nuclear families together in a large domestic grouping (common in more traditionally oriented horticultural, pastoralist, and intensive agricultural societies and usually include siblings, their spouses and children, and often their parents) ° benefits/advantages: sharing; security, companionship; flexibility ° disadvantages/limitations: friction or conflicts; domination by elders; lack of privacy