CYAF 471: EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE

• Cavernous bodies— two, top side of penis; engorge with blood during erection. • Spongy body—underside of penis; also side of penis; also engorges with blood during erection. • Penile urethra—hollow tube that conducts urine and semen outside of body.

Internal structures of the penis (cavernous bodies, spongy body, penile urethra)

Introduction and historical perspective

Introduction and historical perspective

Richard Von Krafft-Ebbing

Investigated deviant sexual behavior. - Anything other than perforated sex—which eliminates sex with a member of your own gender, masturbation, oral or anal sex.

Male Anatomy, Physiology, and Health

Male Anatomy, Physiology, and Health

Sexuality in Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther and Calvin saw marital sex as valuable also to *strengthen* marriages and manage *stress*

Vaginal photoplethysmograph

Measures arousal via changes in vaginal blood volume via reflected light.

Questionnaires

Can involve T/F, MC, or free-answer questions. · Advantages— - Generally cheaper/more practical than interviews. - Can get higher response rates due to less embarrassing format. - Less subject to researcher bias. · Disadvantages— - Also subject to self-report bias. - Subjects can skip uncomfortable questions.

Peer-reviewed source

articles written by experts and reviewed by other experts to ensure accuracy Standard is whether information comes from a peer-reviewed source—written and evaluated by experts in the field (e.g., research scientists).

Experimental designs

designs involving random assignment to groups and manipulation of the independent variable. - Involves manipulation of one or more variables to investigate causation.

Comstock laws

Named for Anthony Comstock, former postal inspector. · Passed in 1873 to prevent and prosecute distribution of material considered "obscene" through the mail, including medical texts and information on birth control and STIs.

Christianity and Sexuality - Approaches of Paul

emphasized rejection of "desires of the flesh" and taught chastity with marriage a way of avoiding for those who could not abstain

Christianity and Sexuality - Approaches of Martin Luther

saw marital sex as valuable also to *strengthen* marriages and manage *stress*

Sexuality in Post-Revolutionary America

secularization of society lead to a relaxation of sexual prohibitions.

Sexual Intelligence

self-understanding, interpersonal sexual skills, scientific knowledge, and consideration of the cultural context of sexuality.

Experimental groups and control groups

· Experimental group—subjects who receive the intervention. · Control group—subjects who do not receive the intervention; compared to the experimental group to see if the intervention produced a difference.

Gay Liberation Movement

· Gays/lesbians persecuted after WWII. · Stonewall riot—raid on gay bar in NYC resulted in clash with police, increased gay activism. By the mid 1970s, homosexuality was no longer classified as a mental illness and the federal Civil Service ended its ban on unemployment of homosexuals. (p. 639)

Approach to sexuality in ancient societies— Hebrews

- Belief in one God, set of laws - procreation only - women are mens property - marital sex considered

Loving Case

- Prosecuted for violating the VA law. - VA law overturned by the Supreme Court in 1967, rendering unconstitutional all remaining similar laws. - Anti-miscegenation law was eliminated nation-wide.

Seneca Falls Convention

(1848) the first national women's rights convention at which the Declaration of Sentiments was written

Retrospective self-report

(asking about past behavior) tends to be unreliable as memories degrade with time. --same thing as "eye-witness testimony" idea.

Seminal vesicles

- 2" long - Add secretions to sperm, making up 60-70% of volume of semen. Secretions... - Include fructose, energizing sperm (also giving the sperm something to live and move in). - Are alkaline, to counteract acidity of vagina. - Contain prostaglandins, causing contractions in female reproductive tract to help move sperm. Seminal vesicles merge with vas deferens to form ejaculatory ducts moving sperm into the prostate gland.

Random sample

- Group chosen in such a way that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. - Thus likely to be representative of the population, giving you confidence in your finding.

Stonewall Riot

- New York city @ a bar called Stonewall Inn - Triggered activist protests among gays and lesbians - police raided gay bar - people fought back - became symbol of oppression of gays, began the gay pride movement - raid on gay bar in NYC resulted in clash with police, increased gay activism.

Process of spermatogenesis

- Process by which sperm are formed. - Generally begins around age 10 (before puberty in boys, so he could potentially impregnate a girl). - takes 72 days total. - complete production at about 300 million mature per day (as opposed to girls, who only produce 1 a month) - Spermatogonium: immature sperm; develop in outer lining of seminiferous tubules, then move towards center. - Spermatozoa—mature sperm cells. Parts include: Head (contains chromosomes and enzymes to penetrate egg), Midpiece (generates energy), Flagellum (tail; provides propulsion). In the testes, sperm develop from spermatogonia Throughout childhood, these cells divide mitotically many times to produce additional spermatogonia., which contain a diploid number of chromosomes. Sperm is unlimited in males. Spermatogonium increases in size and becomes a primary spermatocyte, which undergoes the first meiotic division, forming two equal secondary spermatocytes. These cells the divide meiotically and form four equal spermatids, containing haploid number of chromosomes. Each one of these cells is a sperm.

Approach to sexuality in ancient societies— Greece

-*gods* engaged in the full range of sexual behavior -Males and females: assumed to be *bisexual* -Practiced *pederasty* -Women: *no legal rights* or *education*, and were *kept at home*

Roots of the sexual revolution

-Female employment increased during WWII but dropped after war. -Simone de Beauvoir and Betty Friedan encouraged questioning of traditional gender roles. -Development of penicillin enabled treatment of STIs. -The birth control pill —very effective, placing reproduction under individual woman's control. -Legalization of abortion (1973).

Approach to sexuality in ancient societies— Romans

-Had few restrictions on sexual behavior. -Same-sex behaviors and relationships tolerated. -Women more visible socially but still considered property.

Behaviors common in non-human animals

-Masturbation -sexual interactions with same gender -sexual signaling (flirting)

Effects of ACA (affordable care act)

-No cost for preventative services -Expands Medicare eligibility -Diminishes part D donut hole -Higher premiums for higher income beneficiaries -New boards for national quality and prevention strategies, coordination between institutions -Increases eligibility for Medicaid to include childless adults -Increases funding for Medicaid, CHIP -Subsidies to low income individuals who purchase insurance via Health Insurance Exchanges -More funding available for states to expand --Medicaid and CHIP programs

Sexuality in the Enlightenment

-Sex seen as a natural drive. -Interest in rights of woman increased. -Continued persecution of gays/lesbians.

Approach to sexuality in ancient societies—Egypt

-recognized and treated *STI's* -practiced circumcision, used -*sponges* for contraception -women allowed to *divorce*, *no abortion* -first culture to *eliminate prostitution* (sex as part of religious observation)

Lawrence vs. Texas

2003 Supreme Court decision ruled that state laws that banned sexual contact between two members of the same sex were unconstitutional

Social desirability (bias)

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself (that will reflect them well).

Normal penis size

3-4" flaccid; 5-6" errect. - Heterosexual porn - Condom manufacturers need to know the size of the penis. - Larger not associated with greater sexual satisfaction. - Size can be changed only by surgery, but results tend to be dissatisfactory (e.g., erections point down, lumps).

Self-selection bias

A bias that occurs because people who feel strongly about a subject are more likely to respond to survey questions than people who feel indifferent about it. - people who volunteer for sex research are more likely to be sexually experienced and sexually liberal than the general population.

Penile strain gauge

A device for measuring sexual arousal through changes in penile circumference. (Measures whether a man is attracted to something or not based on whether his penis becomes erect).

Prostate gland

A gland in males that contributes to the seminal fluid. Adds alkaline secretions as fluid passes through to the urethra.

Demographic bias

A kind of sampling bias in which certain segments of society (such as White, middle-class, white-collar workers) are disproportionately represented in a study population. - Much sex research is conducted in middle-class college communities.

National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior

A national survey of sexual behavior / experiences and condom-use in the United States, based at Indiana University and published in 2010.

Case study

A specific type of qualitative study; examines either a single participant or a small group of participants with rare conditions. A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Religious refusal/religious freedom restoration legislation

Aims to create exemptions from anti-discrimination laws based on religious grounds. - (States have passed laws trying to remove penalties from people who deny services to people based on their sexual or gender orientation).

Independent vs. dependent variables

An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment.

Biopsychosocial approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Inguinal canal

An opening that leads directly into the abdominal cavity.

Eugenics Movement

Argued population could be improved by sterilizing/forbidding marriages of people with undesired characteristics (e.g., mental illnesses, genetic disorders). - U.S. was the first country to take action—over 30 states passed laws restricting marriages and permitting sterilization, often forced. Nazi Germany— · 1933 law permitted forced sterilization for people with "genetic" illness (intellectual disability, various mental illnesses, hereditary blindness, or deafness). · Resisters sent to concentration camps. · 400,000 sterilized by the end of Nazi era. · Sterilization of mixed-race people illegal, but covertly pursued by government (found a way to do it anyway). · Could not be prosecuted as a crime against humanity due to eugenics laws in allied countries. The Jewish were the only one's allowed to have an abortion. o [BW1] ~2,000 women died from the sterilization operation. o Doctors were supposed to register anyone with a suspected mental illness.

Circumcision—pros and cons

Arguments for: - Custom. - Health benefits include cleanliness, reduced rates of gonorrhea, syphilis, UTIs, and STIs (mostly for heterosexuals) including HIV, urinary tract infections, and penile cancer for men who have sex with women. Arguments against— - Any surgery carries risk of infection/hemorrhage. - American Academy of Pediatrics and CDC now assert benefits outweigh risks.

Spermatic chord

Attaches to testes, which are suspended on it. - Parts include: Cremasteric muscle fibers (moves testes up or down as needed), and Vas deferens (Tubes that carry sperm from testes to seminal vesicles; about 18" long; when the sperm enters the Vas deferens, they don't have liquid to move in yet so they get moved by celia).

Yin and Yang energy

CHINA: Yin: feminine, passive Yang: masculine, assertive o We combine yin and yang energies through sex. o The more contact the yang had with the yin, the more energy you had. o "Having sex with the same gender was seen as a western import and was not allowed."

Kama Sutra

Detailed manual for sexual activity, also including information on improving relationships and family functioning. - Used in India sex culture A "love guide"

Approaches to Sexuality in Indian Societies

Hinduism - focuses on cycle of life and rebirth so sex is valued Kama Sutra - sexual activity manual

Prostaglandins (pg. 67)

Hormones that induce uterine contractions. A group of bioactive, hormone-like chemicals derived from fatty acids that have a wide variety of biological effects including roles in inflammation, platelet aggregation, vascular smooth muscle dilation and constriction, cell growth, protection of from acid in the stomach, and many more.

Slut shaming

Humiliating, intimidating, or degrading a person (typically a woman) because of their sexual behavior.

Challenges of sex research (refer to ppt)

Nature of the content: - Privacy of sexual behavior. - Links to emotional/moral issues. Discomfort with the topic of sexual behavior produces high nonresponse rates (Getting someone to agree to have sex in front of a researcher for $50 is highly unlikely.) - Random Sampling is low - Self-selection bias - Demographic bias. - Self-report bias - Retrospective self-report

Title IX

No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance

Direct observation

Observing behavior as it occurs. · Advantages—much more accurate/less subject to bias than self-report data. · Disadvantages— - Subject to reactivity (process by which behavior changes because it is being measured), and thus may not generalize to population. - Not practical to use random sampling. Can be very expensive.

Advantages/disadvantages of internet research

PAGE 38 - 39 in text book

Reactivity

Process by which behavior changes because it is being measured.

Penis (root, glans, foreskin)

Penis: A male sexual organ consisting of the internal root and the external shaft and glans. Root: Base of penis, attaching it to pelvic bones. Glans: The smooth, acorn-shaped head filled with nerve endings. Shaft: The length of the penis between the glans and the body. Foreskin: loose hood of skin over glans Urethral orifice: opening through which urine and semen are voided.

Process of penile erection

Process of erection (engorgement with blood, causing increase in size) -Arteries triggered to expand by autonomic (involuntary component of) nervous system, increasing blood flow in cavernous and spongy bodies. -Outflow is reduced, causing excess blood to be retained. -Ends when arteries constrict, causing excess blood to drain.

Surveys

Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions. Descriptive design that involves questioning a sample of people about behaviors or attitudes.

Research

Research

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Research study conducted by a branch of the U.S. government, lasting for roughly 50 years (ending in the 1970s), in which a sample of African American men diagnosed with syphilis were deliberately left untreated, without their knowledge, to learn about the lifetime course of the disease.

Magnus Hirschfeld

Sex researcher: founder of first sex research institute, first large-scale sex survey, 10,000 people, 130 questions, interested in homosexuality · Created first scientific journal focused on sexuality. · Developed clinic to treat STIs, infertility, and sexual problems.

Obergefell v. Hodges

States obligated to recognize same-sex marriage from other states.

Randomization of subjects

Subjects assigned in such a way that each has an equal chance of ending up in either the experimental or the control group. (You can't randomly assign someone their sexual orientation).

Approach to sexuality in ancient societies— China

Taoism values heterosexual sex as a means of combining yin (feminine, passive) and yang (masculine, assertive). Because success in sexual activity achieved harmony, manuals existed to increase proficiency. Yin valued but seen as inferior to yang.

National Health and Social Life Survey (pg. 31-32)

The 1994 study that revealed that Americans are usually exclusive with partner (median six total for men and two for women), have sex about once a week, that 75% of men and 85% of women report remaining faithful to their spouses, most have traditional sexual behaviors, are rarely homosexual, that men have orgasms much more frequently than women (except married women), 22% of women and 3% of men report being forced to have sex, and 3% of people report never having had sex. First large-scale population-based survey on sexual attitudes/practices conducted in the U.S. Representative sample, unlike Kinsey Report. Conducted in 1992 with approx. 3,500 respondents.

Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization

a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in which the court held that the Constitution of the United States does not confer a right to abortion.

Me Too movement

a movement against sexual harassment and sexual assault

Pederasty

a same-sex sexual behavior between adult men and boys

Attitudes toward sexuality during the victorian era

adherence to strict codes of behavior was a status symbol, abstinence other than occasional procreative acts encouraged as birth control/sign of self-control

Christianity and Sexuality - Approaches of Augustine

associated sexual desire with the sin of Adam and Eve, only for procreation, female submission sexual position

Interviews

can be structured or unstructured. · Advantages— - Allows for more flexibility than questionnaires. (Open ended questions. You can ask follow-up questions). - With good rapport[BW1] , can get better information. · Disadvantages— - Subject to self-report bias and interviewer biases. - Interpersonal format may be too uncomfortable for respondents. Tend to be costly/time-consuming.

Epididymis

comma-shaped structures lying over testes; stores sperm and screens out wacky sperm. - It's a good thing to do testicular self-exams; look for lumps.

cryptorchidism

condition in which testes fail to descend

antimiscegenation laws

laws prohibiting interracial sexual relations and marriage

Conscience clause

legislation or regulation stating that hospitals and healthcare professionals are not required to assist with such procedures as abortion and sterilization.

Testes

male gonad; produce sperm and hormones. Process of descent: - Occurs during fetal development; move through inguinal canal from back of abdominal wall to scrotum. - Cryptorchidism: condition in which testes fail to descend. (If they do not descend, this can be a sign/risk of testicular cancer.) - 2" wide, 1" long; egg shaped. - Parts include: Seminiferous tubules (coils responsible for sperm production), Interstitial (Leydig's) cells (produce testosterone; between seminiferous tubules), and Epididymis (comma-shaped structures lying over testes; store sperm).

Approaches to Sexuality in Islamic Societies

males/females seen as spiritually *equal* Prophet Muhammad *supported* women's rights Muhammad's son-in-law saw women as *more sexual than men* sex and love *celebrated in the arts* -celibacy *not encouraged*

Randomized controlled trials

o Involves randomly assigning subjects to receive one of a number of possible interventions. o State of the art for clinical research. o What you REALLY want is one treatment, compared to another treatment, compared to no treatment. (As opposed to just one treatment compared to no treatment, bc this gives you a better clue as to whether it's just the intervention or whether it's the specific intervention).

Masters and Johnson

psychologists; studied human sexual behavior, described four stages of sexual response. motivation; human sexual response—studied how both men and women respond to and in relation to sexual behavior · Used direct observation to study physiological arousal during sexual activity. · Produced major discoveries in the mechanisms of sexual response (e.g., possibility of multiple orgasms for women; effects of performance anxiety).

Representative sample

randomly selected sample of subjects (from a larger population of subjects) that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Alfred Kinsey

regarded by some as the father of the scientific study of human sexuality. Published a series of reports which described common sexual behaviors in the US. · Conducted first large-scale surveys of sexual behavior. · Many sexual behaviors thought to be deviant (e.g., masturbation, sex with same gender) actually revealed to be common.

Christianity and Sexuality - Approaches of Thomas Aquinas

restrictions on sexual behavior, writings became the basis for persecution of same-gender sexual behavior and suspected witches

Correlational designs

studies that measure two or more variables and their relationship to one another; not designed to show causation Measuring two (or more) variables to determine whether they are statistically related (vary together). Variables can be positively correlated (one increases, the other increases) or negatively correlated (one increases, the other decreases). · Advantages—enables you to determine if there is a relationship between variables. (As one variable moves in one direction, the other variable moves in the same or opposite direction.) · Disadvantages— - Does not explain the nature of the relationship between variables, and thus may be misleading. - Does not prove causation.

Scrotum

the pouch of skin that contains the testes. - Lies outside of body because sperm production requires temperatures lower than inside body cavity. - May hang loosely from body or move closer depending on temperature and sexual stimulation. - Tunica dartos: inner layer of scrotum which, along with muscles of spermatic chord, moves scrotum up and down.

Sexology

the scientific study of sexuality

Ethical principles in research

the set of values, standards, and principles used to determine appropriate and acceptable conduct at all stages of the research process. - DO NO HARM. (e.g., Stanford prison experiment, Milgram Shocking) - Informed consent—research subjects must be aware of... o What will take place during the study. o Any risks involved. o Freedom to withdraw at any time. · Tuskegee syphilis study (1929-1972)— o Focused on low-income African-American men who were told they had syphilis and were repeatedly prevented from receiving treatment. o To this day, has created mistrust of public health interventions.

vas deferens

tube that carries sperm from the testes to seminal vesicles, about 18'' long

Cult of True Womanhood

woman's only place is in the home

Bostock v. Clayton County

workplace discrimination was illegal throughout the nation under Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

Evelyn Hooker

· Conducted first research determining having a non-heterosexual orientation is not inherently pathological. o She got a group of men who were gay and a group of men who were not gay, but were similar in age, social economic status, and education level. Had them take many psychological tests, then she gave to profiles to some mental health professionals and asked them which were gay and which were not gay (and they couldn't figure it out). · 1973—APA (American Psychiatric Association) drops homosexuality from list of mental illnesses.

Clelia Duel Mosher

· Conducted first survey of sexual behavior. · Focused on female sexual issues. · Wanted to improve the sexual satisfaction of married women · She found in her study that women did enjoy sex, commonly have orgasms, did not see sex as only for perforation (although they still felt guilty about it), and noticed that many of the menstrual cramps they were having was probably due to the corset.

Descriptive designs

· Examination of a phenomenon or group of phenomena; NO MANIPULATION of variables.

Sigmund Freud

· Saw adult personality as determined by individual's success/lack thereof in negotiating stages of sexual development in childhood. · Described sex drive as normal; argued repression of sex lead to psychopathology. - He did not see one being attracted to the same gender as being normal sexuality, stunted form of sexuality—believe sexual orientation could not be changed.

Birth control movement/Margaret Sanger

· Spoke out against the Comstock Laws, arguing contraception improved quality of life, reduced poverty, and prevented abortions. · By the early 20th century, 74% of the population reported using some type of contraception (e.g., withdrawal, dushing, rubber condoms, etc.). · During the Great Depression, acceptance of birth control increased.

Henry Havelock Ellis

· Suggested both genders could enjoy Sex. · Saw sexual orientation as innate (something you're born with). · First used term "erogenous zones." · Saw masturbation as a relaxation technique.

Graham and Kellogg

· encouraged consumption of bland food to reduce masturbation (which he believed could cause blindness). · Same-gender sexual behavior criminalized. · Prostitution spiked. · Arguably, elements remain—e.g., women should not be interested in sex

Self-report bias

· often influenced by tendencies towards social desirability (need to respond in socially appropriate ways).