Delinquency & Juvenile Justice Final

What term is used to describe the reduction in frequency of a youth's offending?

Aging-Out Process

The term _____________ is used to describe young people who are extremely vulnerable to the negative consequences of school failure, substance abuse, and early sexuality.

At-risk youth

What philosophical viewpoint encourages the state to take control of wayward children and provide care, custody, and treatment to remedy delinquent behavior?

Best interests of the child

A number of common dispositions for juveniles were indicated in the text. List and discuss five of the common juvenile dispositions you believe to be most effective. In addition, please provide a rationale for your answer selections.

Chapter 15 outlines the juvenile justice process and all of the different dispositions that are given to juveniles. Within this stage of the juvenile justice system, decisions on whether or not a juvenile should be detained or released (along with their specifications) have to made. Each of these decisions will have both long term and short term effects in their lives. Included within the text, five of the most common juvenile dispositions that I believe to be the most effective includes probation, community release, out-of-home placements (such as a foster home), institutionalization, and referral to a treatment program. Out of all of these options, I believe that each individual juvenile case should be unique to its sanction. I do not believe that there should be a "majority" disposition for juveniles, since every case consists of different circumstances and offenses. However, I believe probation to be the juvenile disposition that is the most effective. According to the text, probation is the most commonly used formal sentence for juvenile offenders, which does make sense. This is because probation consists of the child being placed under the supervision of a probation department/specific officer with the idea to provide community treatment. I believe that juveniles who are truly committed to bettering themselves and their situation, as well as genuinely apologetic about the crimes they have committed will truly benefit from probation. There is no need to place a child into confinement if a child is presented with a second opportunity to correct their behaviors and responds well. Along the same lines, I believe that the disposition of community release is the second most effective. Based on the fact that children do not rationally make decisions a lot of the time, reprimanding them and releasing unconditionally may have positive impacts on themselves as well as the community. This type of release is good for first-time offenders and will ultimately teach the child a lesson as to what could happen, since they experienced heavy unpleasantness through the process they endured. This should be applied in cases in which low-level crimes were committed and the nature of the offense is very minor. I strongly believe that this sanction gives the child another chance to succeed in life, as well as proves that it is not necessary to enforce the full rule of law in most cases because imposing drastic punishments inflicts no useful purpose. In addition, out-of-home placements would also be effective in helping kids who grew up in disorderly families. Placing them into foster homes may be the best solution for the child in order to reduce stress, anxiety, and difficulties associated with living in a disorderly environment. It would not only provide them with a new shot at succeeding in life, but with other individuals who will love, care, and support them through it all. Furthermore, referral to a treatment program is also included within this rationale because it provides the same benefits and effects. Vice versa, institutionalization would be a great benefit to society because it would confine the juveniles who committed major offenses and could possibly cause harm not only to themselves but their communities as well.

Nineteenth-century reformers who developed programs for troubled youth and influenced legislation creating the juvenile justice system in the United States were referred to as:

Child Savers

The idea that chronic offenders are likely to continue violating the law as adults is referred to as:

Continuity of Crime

______ is the research technique that employs graphic representations of crime data patterns.

Crime mapping

While investigating Part I crimes you find that a little over 20% of all reported Part I crimes are cleared by one of the following methods. What is that method?

Dropped Charges

Describe the history of juvenile institutions.

During the period between 1880 and 1920, known as the Progressive era, there were immense waves of immigration into the United States from other countries. This caused a dramatic increase in urbanization and played a huge role in the number of foreign children that were clustering the streets and getting involved in criminal activities. Children who were initially caught committing a crime and were to be punished were often put into jails or penitentiaries with adult criminals and several mentally ill people as well. They were in inappropriate and overcrowded places for their ages. However, social activists and lawmakers quickly came together to fight for the wrongful institutionalization of children with adults. Their ideology was that children who were institutionalized with adult offenders were learning quickly from their delinquent behavior and left these prisons more than ready to pursue a life of offending. Due to the realization of this negative influence over children, separate juvenile justice court systems came about, as well as the development of juvenile correction systems. However, cases in which adults who commit a very severe crime, such as murder, aree placed with adults can still occur. These juvenile justice institutions emerged due to the belief that criminality was a result of negative influences and social environments that could be detrimental to the lives of children. The idea was that teaching kids vital life skills would deter them from committing crimes because they would be able to rationally make the appropriate decisions. Therefore, during the Progressive Era, other types of juvenile institutions came about in the United States such as the House of Refuge, new reformatories, and even separate institutions for juvenile females in particular. While they all focused on different aspects, their overall goal was to find different ways to aid at-risk youth. The House of Refuge focused on reeducating the youth and aimed to instill order and discipline into them. Some of the new reformatories, in the late 1800's for example, included cottages and even foster homes in which the family structure was heavily emphasized.

The historical period that ushered in a new age for children and their families is referred to as:

Enlightenment

Crimes that have no purpose except to accomplish the behavior at hand, such as shooting someone, is known as a(n):

Expressive Crime

According to Freud, the superego is the unrestrained, primitive, pleasure-seeking component of the human personality with which each child is born.

False

According to deterrence theory, only the actual chance of punishment influences a youth's decision to engage in delinquency.

False

According to official statistics, minority youths are arrested for serious criminal behavior at a rate that is proportionate to their representation in the population.

False

Control theory centers on a view of society in which an elite class uses the law as a means of meeting threats to its status.

False

Development of culturally sensitive explanations of human behavior in the 1930s led to the nature theory of intelligence.

False

Differential association theory maintains that delinquency is motivated by political or legal processes.

False

Ego identity and role diffusion are used interchangeably to describe how juveniles tend to give in to peer pressure through their early teen years.

False

In reference to the UCR, when an arrested offender commits multiple crimes, each offense is always individually recorded and submitted to the FBI.

False

NCVS data indicates that the numb er of people whoo break the law is, indeed, greater than the number projected by official statistics.

False

Social disorganization theory links delinquency to middle-class standards of success (i.e., measuring rods).

False

Social process theory takes the view that where one lives is more important than how one lives.

False

Specific deterrence strategies may work better with adult miscreants than with young, inexperienced juvenile offenders.

False

Teenagers are less likely to become victims of crime than are people in other age groups.

False

The US is still one of the few democracies in the world that will put a juvenile offender to death for a capital punishment.

False

The concept of restorative justice has its roots in symbolic interactionism.

False

The courts have struck down most juvenile curfew laws as unconstitutional.

False

The study of juvenile delinquency involves a variety of social problems faced by youth; it does not extend to the analysis of the various components of the justice system such as law enforcement.

False

While males still commit more crimes than females, the arrest rate for both sexes has increased in the past decade.

False

Which federal agency is responsible for collecting the data for the UCR?

Federal Bureau of Investigation

Discuss the anomie/alienation view and the anthropological view of why youths join gangs. Do you agree or disagree with these theories? Explain your positions.

Firstly, the animoe/alienation view. This perspective of why youths join gangs believes that gangs are to be formed when people are suffering in some type of way. This occurs as a result of the cultural and social aspects of a person's life. It specifically believes that this is done in times of despair, when things aren't going too well in people's lives socially, economically, or in other personal reasons of great significance. It also deeply has to do with culture as it is seen as a path that makes sense for certain people. Youth who are marginalized from the center of society are captivated by this idea of joining a group, and those who have had a past with unlawful actions and illegal behavior are more prone to participating in gangs and their creation, leading to a cultural process of furthering developing their involvement in crime. Secondly, the anthropological view. This perspective, in contrast to the previous one, believes that youths join gangs as a result of the desire to be a part of a tribal process that previous ancestors have created and followed. The gang joining provides a similar idea that is linked to a tribal process, which is the start into being a part of this type of group. This process involves in one having to get past their childhood and make their way into adulthood, and in the tribes of human ancestors, youths transitioned into being men through the process of initiation. This viewpoint relates this tribal idea to the initiation that gangs hold when new members are joining, for they must complete certain tasks while also sustaining certain hazing in order to finalize the ceremony of joining the gang. My opinions towards both of these views vary a little. First off, I completely agree with the animoe/alienation perspective while I only agree with the anthropological one to a certain extent. In the animoe/alienation view, I completely agree with youths joining gangs because of a social and cultural issue. Problems with great significance in one's life, such as a tough upbringing, heavy economic situations, and other personal issues such as family and living environment tend to make people live out their lives in a certain way. People react differently at times, but I believe this is a common reason for youths deciding to take the path of participating in gang activity. There is a pressure, culturally and socially, that makes these youths who have the mentioned issues above think this way. Maybe if the economic problems are way too harsh, then a young person may think that the only way of escaping that reality is to participate in these groups and their illegal activities, for it will bring that person more money. Also, there can be a cultural and social expectation for that particular person of joining a gang. That person may think that it is right to attain the status provided by gangs because of where he or she comes from or even because of where and how he or she grew up. A lot of youths are raised in a helpful way that teaches them about how this side of life is wrong and will only bring even worse things to their lives. Now, to the anthropological perspective, I can say that I don't completely agree with it. My main reason for this is because I really believe that it is a social and cultural pressure above anything else. I don't think that youths want to necessarily live ancient traditions of tribes. Maybe, they can like the idea of going through an initiation process, but they can find that in many other types of organizations that don't come with the effects of a gang. Wanting to join these groups, for me, has to be a result from a harsh experience with life, or a cultural guidance issue that takes those youths into that path. My agreement is then on the animoe/alienation side.

Discuss the history of juvenile policing in the early American colonies through the 1930's.

In Chapter 14, the history of juvenile policing in the early American colonies is explained. During the time in which people simply policed themselves and their communities, there was no such thing as a specialized police force for juveniles. As stated in the text, the local sheriff is the one who became the most important police official at the time. These officers patrolled the streets by foot, and there were often disputes between the citizens and these officers who were highly untrained for their position. By the mid-1800's. Several local city police departments had emerged in cities such as Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. As previously stated, children who were caught committing crimes were often charged the same as adult offenders. However, following several child activists and reform groups, a belief that children should be treated differently than adults emerged. They were no longer forced to confinement with adult offenders, who often negatively influenced the children for life. In fact, some of these groups included the Wickersham Commission of 1931 and the International Association of Chiefs of Police, who became the main and leading voices for police reform that emerged. People such as August Vollmer, the most famous police reformer of the 1930's, had a true impact on police units and criminality within the public. As the police chief of Berkel, California, he instituted numerous reforms and programs that aimed for the development of juvenile criminality. Eventually, several organizations and associations began to notice the true growth in juvenile delinquency and therefore funded the development of juvenile justice related programs.

Crimes designed to improve the financial or social position of the offenders are referred to as:

Instrumental crimes

In colonial America, what law permitted a youth to be put to death if he or she could not be controlled by his or her parents?

Massachusetts Stubborn Child Law

Which of the following Supreme Court cases provided the possibility of parole for a youth under the age of 18?

Miller VS Alabama

The University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research annual survey of 2,500 high school seniors, which is considered to be the national standard to measure substance abuse trends among American teens, is known as the:

Monitoring the Future survey (MTF

Which program collects data on each reported crime incident and requires local police to provide at least a brief account of each incident and arrest.

NIBRS

______ is the federal program that collects data on each reported crime incident and requires local police to provide at least a brief account of each incident and arrest.

NIBRS

one of the criticisms of diversion programs is that juveniles who previously would have been released without official notice are now involved in the juvenile justice system. This is referred to as

Net Widening

The ___________________________ was a federal agency created to identify the needs of youths and fund policy initiatives in the juvenile justice system?

Office of Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP)

Under which doctrine are delinquent acts not considered criminal violations nor are delinquents considered criminals?

Parens patriae

The process by which juvenile offenders continue on with their delinquent careers rather than aging out of crime is referred to as:

Persistence

____________ refers to the process by which juvenile offenders continue in their delinquent careers rather than aging out of crime.

Persistence

English statutes that allowed the courts to appoint overseers over destitute and neglected children, allowing placement of these children as servants in the homes of the affluent were referred to as:

Poor laws

Which of the following refers to a theory that states as the size of the black population increases, the perceived threat to the white population increases, resulting in a greater amount of social control imposed against African Americans by police?

Racial Threat Theory

_____ refers to the police practice of routinely searching, questioning, and detaining African American males in an area, especially after a crime has been committed involving a black suspect.

Racial profiling theory

Which of the following refers to youths who are spread too thin, experience personal uncertainty, and place themselves at the mercy of people who promise to give them a sense of identity they cannot develop for themselves?

Role diffusion

In the Supreme Court case of ____________________, the court determined that a juvenile under the age of 18 who commits a capital crime cannot face the death penalty.

Ropper VS Simmons

The process by which people learn to adopt the behavior patterns of the community and develop the skills necessary to participate and function within their culture and environment is referred to as:

Socialization

List and explain the four elements of socialization that have been linked to delinquency. If you were asked to rank order the importance of the elements, how would this look? Provide a rationale for your view.

Socialization refers to the process in which human beings begin to adapt the behaviors and norms of the people they surround themselves with and their communities as a whole. In terms of delinquency, the four elements of socialization that have been linked to it includes family influences, school influences and effects, peer relations and influences, and the effects that a person's religion and beliefs have on them. Although all of these elements are crucial, if I were asked to rank them in order of importance, it would go as follows: family influences, the effects of religion and belief, peer relations and influences, and then school influences. Family influences would be of primary importance because I believe what a child is taught by their parents, siblings, etc., and the ways in which they are raised has the biggest say in their lives. Kids that are raised by parents who teach them good values and morals are more than likely to do better in life and make better decisions than kids who lack a guardian figure and someone to show them the way because they have someone who they know loves them and will always support them. In fact, kids who are born into a dysfunctional family are more likely to develop more emotional, social, and even mental problems. The effects of religion and beliefs is very closely related to family influences because these are developed in the household. This is where morality and discipline takes place and is built. If a child believes in something greater than him/herself and greater than us all, I strongly feel as if they will make better decisions and therefore attempt to deter themselves from any kind of delinquent behavior. Furthermore, peer relations and influences is ranked third because the people who you hang out with and associate yourself with not only represent s version of yourself to others, but also have a strong influence on you as well. For example, a child who surrounds themselves with peers who do not get into trouble are less likely to do so in comparison to a child who would get dragged into troubling situations. Lastly, school influences and affects kids in terms of the kind of education and support they receive from not only peers, but staff and teachers as well.

Identify and describe the three main variations of social structure theory. Explain which of the three variations you believe best explains the poverty-delinquency relationship.

The Social structure theory is a theory that explains crime in reference to the economic and social arrangements in society. The three main variations of the social structure theory include the social disorganization theory, the strain theory, and the culture conflict theory. The social disorganization theory views society as a kind of organism and views crime and deviance as a type of disease. This theory includes the notion of social pathology, which is a term used to describe social factors such as poverty, old age or crime. The strain theory addresses the fact that people strive to live the ideal American Dream, but get frustrated and feel lost when they realize that there are many limitations to that idea. It points to a lack of fit between social goals and the true availability of the resources in order to achieve them. Therefore, they turn to criminality. The culture conflict theory suggests that crime is caused due to the clash of values that arises when different social groups have different ideas of acceptable behavior. The one that best describes the poverty to delinquency relationship is the strain theory due to what causes people to commit crimes; a lack of resources and a feeling of hopelessness.

Identify and describe the delinquency control strategies based on rational choice; be sure to include applications and problems associated with prevention. Of these strategies, which one would you identify as producing the best outcomes for decreasing delinquency? Would you use the prevention as described or would you modify it in some manner? If so, how would you modify the strategy? If not, why not? Provide a rationale for your view.

The delinquency control strategies based on rational choice aim to focus on certain areas that need it by using several programs and groups. Some of these include recreation, education, involvement within the community, programs in which parents and children can improve on and build interaction, programs in order to prevent bullying, functional family therapy, etc. One of the biggest is prevention programs within the juvenile justice system. Of all these available programs, I believe that the ones that produce the best outcomes for decreasing delinquency are educational programs and programs that build interactions and relationships between children and parents from an early stage. I would use them as described and only enhance the emphasis on the connection and bond family members should have with one another. This would cause certain family members such as older siblings or parents to be more influential for children. Children will feel more motivated to do well not only to advance themselves, but for their loved ones as well. In fact, these programs should be funded more and spent more time on.

List and explain the four key elements (i.e., bonds) of Hirschi's classic social bond theory. What does Hirschi suggest about the interrelationship of the social bond elements? Explain why you agree or disagree with the premise of this interrelationship.

The four key elements of Hirschi's classic social bond theory are the following: attachment, commitment, involvement in conventional versus deviant or criminal activities, and the common value system within an individual's society or subgroup. Attachment mainly refers to one's parents, for it shows the different levels of principles and behavioral rules that a person has in society. Commitment has to do with how much a person goes as far as following the rules of society.

Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between the juvenile and adult systems.

The primary purposes of juvenile procedures are protection and treatment. However, for adults, the aim is just to punish the guilty. With juvenile court, age determines the jurisdiction, but with adult court, the nature of the offense determines the jurisdiction. Furthermore, juveniles CAN be ordered to the criminal court for trial as adults depending on their case. Juveniles can be charged for a crime that wouldn't be a criminal act for adults. This is a status offense. Juvenile proceedings are not considered criminal; adult proceedings are. Parents are highly involved in the juvenile process but not in the adult process.

Identify and define the two branches of individual-level theories of delinquency. It is said these two theories, while independent of each other, do share some common ground. What are these commonalities? It is reported that people must change as opposed to society changing. Do you agree with this pronouncement? Provide a rationale for your answer.

The two branches of individual-level theories of delinquency are the vulnerability model and the differential susceptibility model. The vulnerability model is basically the link between the traits that people who commit offenses have and the crimes which they are committing. This model brings to light the idea that some people are more vulnerable to crime from birth in comparison to others. On the other hand, the differential susceptibility model explains that people are predisposed to environmental influences. Therefore, it is said that these two theories, while independent of each other, do share some common ground. Both of these models have commonalities because they both involve the specific traits that people have as well the different environmental factors that contribute. In fact, there are several different individual factors such as biochemical factors, neurological dysfunction, and genetic influences that are also taken into account. The idea that people must change as opposed to society changing is not entirely true, in my opinion. I believe that both people themselves and society in general play large roles in criminality. It is difficult to change something as set as the structure of a society is, but I do believe there are aspects of it that negatively impact people's behavior. Some people feel as if they have to or need to commit crime for instrumental purposes, to advance in society, which seems to be failing them. However, I also believe that people must understand that they are in complete and absolute total control of their own actions. They must be rational and look to do more good than bad with their lives. Not to mention they are the only ones who can change their lives for the good, rather than fall into problematic situations.

Explain Thrasher's, Klein's, and Miller's definitions of gangs. Discuss their similarities or differences.

Thrasher defines gangs as groups that are interstitial and brought together through conflict while initially being spontaneously formed. To him, there is a sense of attachment and group awareness between these groups, and he furthers specifies the following traits: face to face meetings, conflict, and movement as a unit. Thrasher believes that all childhood playgroups can possibly turn into gangs in the future as a result of getting in contact with groups or individuals who exhibit disapproval and opposition towards them. Klein, on the other hand, defines gangs as any group of adolescents that is perceived in three ways. One, they are seen by others as aggressors, or aggressive. Two, they identify themselves as a united group, a unit. Three, they have negative views upon them from others in the community as a result of past wrongdoings or incidents. Klein sees gangs as groups of people who associate themselves to their own unit which contains mutual interests and goals. They also have designated leadership that guides the group into completing their tasks, which include controlling certain facilities and territories usually doing illegal things. At last, Miller defines gangs as groups of youths who are self-formed with similar interests. They have a leader and an organized chain of command that help set their plans which usually also involve illegal doings. The three definitions of gangs mentioned have similarities and differences as well. Unity and conflict is found in all definitions cited above. All three view gangs as formed groups that are related to conflict. Conflict is the main aspect of gangs that brings those individuals together for them to participate in their specific activities. Gangs are understood from the viewpoints of these three of having a certain ongoing trait of planning activities. Also, all three include the idea of young people being involved in this and how it is formed. Thrasher mentions gangs starting from childhood, Klein states that these are groups of adolescents, and Miller explains that gangs are formed by youths. Even with all of these similar characteristics, they also differ from each other in some ways. Klein and Miller both mention that there is a clear leadership structure who set the steps for the group's actions, and Thrasher's definition doesn't explicitly state this. Thrasher goes on to even say that gangs can be formed in the future from childhood playgroups, an idea not found in the other two definitions. Klein highlights these groups with having aggression as part of them as well as a sense of notoriety coming from the community as a result of their past doings. Finally, Miller brings out the idea of organization within gangs. All of the definitions discussed have similar ideas and their unique aspects that differentiate each one, but they are all connected and even add on to what the other ones are trying to explain

Discuss today's juvenile justice process, including a brief description of each step in the process.

Today's juvenile justice process is a long and strenuous process for a young delinquent. It consists of several steps including the investigation and charging, releasement or detainment, the different hearings, trial and sentencing, disposition, and appeal. The fact that a crime was committed by a juvenile does not change the way in which the crimes are dealt with. After the crime is reported, an intake officer decides whether or not sufficient proof that the individual committed the crime exists. From this point, the juvenile is either taken into custody or released. If there is not enough evidence to prove that the crime was committed or if the crime is not severe, the child may be turned into a parent or legal guardian. However, if enough evidence exists, the juvenile is taken to the juvenile detention centers. Within 24 to 72 hours of being held at the detention center, the detention hearings must begin. The judges in these hearings have three options; they can dismiss the case, have a formal hearing, or have an informal adjustment hearing. In the case of an arraignment hearing, or a formal hearing, the juvenile will be asked to "admit" or "deny" the charges of the offense(s). Juveniles are entitled to an attorney and if they deny their charges, a trail will take place. During the disposition hearing, the judge determines the ultimate punishment for the juvenile, which may include (but are not limited to) warnings, fines, community service, probation, detention, etc. In fact, the severity of the punishment(s) depend on several factors such as the offenses, the attitude of the juvenile and how he/she overall carried themselves throughout the process, or even the availability of appropriate services. In some cases, the juvenile may appeal the ruling if there is enough evidence to prove their innocence. This will head over the courts once again for possible revision.

According to social conflict theory, those who hold power in contemporary society set the rules, control the law, and decide who is deviant, delinquent, and/or criminal.

True

After adolescence, age is inversely related to criminality; as youthful offenders mature, their offending rates decline.

True

As soon as they were physically able to do so, children of peasants were expected to engage in adult roles.

True

Children who engage in disruptive behaviors when they are 5 or 6 years old are most likely to exhibit disruptive behaviors throughout adolescence.

True

Cognitive theory focuses on the way people perceive and mentally represent the world around them as well as how they solve problems.

True

Compatible information and data extracted and pooled together from a number of previous studies is referred to as data mining.

True

Delinquent behaviors tend to be sanctioned less heavily than adult criminality because the law considers juveniles as being less responsible for their behavior than adults.

True

During the Middle Ages, high infant mortality rates kept parents from emotionally bonding with their children.

True

In regard to the application of labeling theory, it appears that kids may enter the system as people in trouble with the law, but emerge as bearers of criminal histories, which are likely to reinvolve them in criminal activity.

True

Recent studies have indicated that as a result of deinstitutionalization, children who can no longer be detained are being relabeled as delinquent offenders in order to house the youth in secure facilities.

True

Research has found that crimes appear to be intergenerational, suggesting that parental deviance influences delinquent behavior.

True

The age at which youths begin their delinquent careers is called the age of onset.

True

The concept of the chronic offender is most closely associated with the research efforts of Marvin Wolfgang and associates.

True

To offset moral constraints, youth may develop a distinct set of rationalizations for engaging in delinquent acts.

True

Under parens patriae, delinquent acts are not considered criminal violations.

True

Voluntary apprentices were bound out by parents or guardians who wished to secure training for their children.

True

Collected by the FBI and reported quarterly and annually, the _____________ is considered to be the most widely used source of national crime and delinquency statistics in the United States.

Uniform Crime Report (UCR)

The most widely used source of national crime and delinquency statistics is the:

Uniform Crime Report (UCR)

Which of the following best describes the discovery of the phenomenon known as the chronic youthful offender?

a. A small number of youthful offenders commit a significant percentage of all serious crime

What is the process called when labels become the basis of personal identity; as the labels become more and more negatively enforced by feedback from significant persons in the youth's life and, the youth's identity transforms?

a. Dramatization of evil

Which theory views delinquency as the result of a youth's dysfunctional or destructive relationship with the critical elements of socialization in his or her life—family, peers, schools, community—where the dysfunctionality causes the youth to see delinquency as a feasible alternative?

a. Social process

What theory holds that the more severely youthful offenders are punished, the less likely they are to repeat their illegal acts?

a. Specific deterrence theory

According to Hirschi's social bond theory, lacking a particular bond may foreshadow a condition in which risk becomes a reasonable behavior alternative. A deficit in which of the following bonds may lead to risky behavior?

b. Commitment

The idea that delinquents manifest physical anomalies that make them biologically and physiologically similar to throwbacks of an earlier state in human evolution was formulated by Lombroso, and is commonly referred to as:

b. Criminal atavism

What theory holds that low intelligence is generally determined and inherited?

b. Nature

Which of the following theories links a youth's engagement in delinquent acts to the struggle of being locked out of the economic mainstream, thereby creating anger and frustration and ultimately leading to delinquency?

b. Strain

Cesare Beccaria's position that the only true way to deter a person from future criminal acts was to ensure that his/her's punishment was:

b. Sufficiently severe, certain, and swift

_________ are juvenile programs that combine get-tough elements from adult programs with education, substance abuse, and other programs.

boot camps

What is the peacemaking technique in which offenders, victims, and other community members are brought together in an effort to formulate a sanction that addresses the needs of all concerned parties?

c. Sentencing circles

Residents of a community become extremely suspicious of authority, and this suspicion develops into a view in which the outside world is the enemy out to destroy the neighborhood. What is this view called?

c. Siege mentality

Which theory links the onset of delinquency to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society?

c. Social bond

What theory centers upon the view that law and the justice system act primarily as vehicles for controlling the have-not members of society?

c. Social conflict

What crime prevention technique is employed to make the ability to carry out a crime more difficult for a would-be delinquent to carry out an illegal act (e.g., installing a security camera in a store)?

c. Target hardening

Conflict theorists view delinquency as a normal response to the conditions created by _________________.

capitalism

the decision by police not to arrest female suspects is called the

chivalry hypothesis

The _______________ school of criminology holds that the decisions to violate the law comes after one carefully weighs the potential benefits and costs of criminal behavior.

classical

______ treatment is based on the idea that the juvenile offender is not a threat to the neighborhood and has a better chance of being rehabilitated in their actual neighborhood setting.

community

_________________ theory focuses on how a unique lower class culture develops in disorganized neighborhoods whose set of values and beliefs puts residents in conflict with conventional social norms.

cultural deviance

____________________ is the view that lower-class individuals form a separate culture within their own values and norms and that these values and norms are at times in conflict with conventional society.

culture of poverty

Who is considered to be the founder of the classical school of criminology?

d. Cesare Beccaria

What theory explains the existence of aggression and violent behavior as positive adaptive behaviors in humans?

d. Evolutionary theory

What process is said to occur when the placing of formal labels alienates parents from their children, with negative labels reducing children's self-image and increasing delinquency?

d. Reflected appraisals

What philosophy of punishment centers on using humanistic, nonpunitive strategies to right wrongs and resurrect social harmony?

d. Restorative justice

Which theory maintains that all people have the potential to violate the law, as modern society presents many opportunities for illegal activities that promise immediate reward and gratification?

d. Social control

The process by which people learn to adopt the behavior patterns of the community and develop the skills necessary to participate and function within their culture and environment is referred to as:

d. Socialization

__________________ refers to the process by which an established culture teaches an individual its norms and values, thus enabling the individual to become an accepted member of society.

enculturated

Juveniles who are orphaned or whose parents cannot care for them and are therefore placed with families who provide them care are part of a ____ program.

foster care

The view of "______________" holds that youths are in charge of their own destinies and are able to make personal behavior choices unencumbered by environmental factors.

free will

The term __________ refers to the process of creating a worldwide economy through transnational markets and political and legal systems.

globalization

In regard to restorative justice, rather than a distributor of retribution and revenge, the justice system must become a _______________ process in order for restoration to take place.

healing

According to Freud's Psychodynamic Theory, the _________ develops through interactions with parents and other significant people and represents the development of the conscience and the moral rules shared by most adults.

human personality?

A(n) ___________ is a person who has access to criminal networks and shares information with authorities in exchange for money or special treatment under conditions of anonymity.

informants

A ________________ sentence is defined by a statutory requirement that states the penalty to be set for all cases of a specific offense.

mandatory

According to general strain theory (GST), child abuse and neglect, school failure, family and/or peer conflicts, racism, and discrimination are experiences associated with a category of strain referred to as the presence of _____________.

negative affective states?

_________________ labeling is extremely damaging because it may cause children to seek out deviant peers whose behavior amplifies the effect of the labeling.

parental

In regard to understanding the causes of antisocial behavior, theorists today focus their attention on two conditions: biological and _______________.

physiological

According to direct association, social forces play only a secondary role in the production of deviant behaviors; thus it is alleged that ____________ is the primary reason why one engages in delinquent acts.

primary deviance

The greater likelihood of African Americans being arrested for crimes as opposed to White suspects is an example of a(n) ______________ bias.

racial threat theory

The process and experience of returning to society upon release from a custodial facility post-adjudication is called _____.

re-entry

Males are significantly more delinquent than females with one exception, that exception being that girls are being more frequently arrested for ______________

runaways

_________________ deviance is said to occur when a deviant event comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents who apply a negative label.

secondary

______________ refers to the feeling we get when we do not meet the standards we have set for ourselves or that significant others have set for us.

shame

The terms ____________________ is used to describe how residents in certain distressed communities become so suspicious of authority that they consider the outside world to be the enemy that is out to destroy their neighborhood.

siege mentality

A child also becomes subject to state authority for committing ______________ offenses; actions that would not be considered illegal if perpetrated by an adult.

status

A ________________________ is a judicial order requesting that a person detaining another produce the body of the prisoner and give reasons for his or her capture and detention.

writ of habeas corpus