Dev Psych Final

Study of parents and children interacting at a science museum

(185 families and 298 interactions analyzed) Do parents explain to boys more than to girls while using interactive science exhibits (explaining casual relationships or using analogies)? Both fathers and mothers explained significantly more to boys than to girls across ages 1-8.

Background Television Studies

-3 year olds spend an average of about 5.5 hours in the presence of background tv. -Two experimental studies: solitary toy play- amount of time spent playing w toys was ½ as long when background TV was on than for kids w no background tv. -Parent-child interactions: parents less responsive to children's bids for attention, reduced language input and reduced richness of language and interaction -Longitudinal Studies: increased background tv at 6 mos predicated decreased cognitive and language development at 14 mo. Increased background tv at 1 yo negatively predicted executive function

The marshmallow task

-4 yr olds told they can eat one marshmallow now or wait 15 minutes and get two later. Between 3-5 ability to delay gratification increases. Ability to wait at age 4 predicted later educational attainment, behavior problems, drug addiction, obesity, and SAT scores; more important to academic success than IQ (Duckworth). -Importantly, ability to wait could be taught: offering children strategies increased their ability to delay gratification.

Friendship

-An intimate reciprocated positive relationship between two people. -Between very young kids? Yes. When preferred peer shows distress, toddlers more likely to respond by giving comfort to the preferred peer With friends: -Cooperation and shared pretend play increases -Conflict is also increased with friends -More likely to resolve conflicts and maintain positive feelings with friends -Change from early childhood: nature of interactions, level of intimacy

Effects of child care

-Attachment: overall no difference in secure attachments for kids in daycare. Differences only found when daycare has high staff turnover, high ratio of infants to caregiver, AND poor quality care at home Social behavior (self control, compliance) -More aggression w increased hours in child care for 2 year olds (17% compared to 6%) But overall, high quality day care can have positive effects.

Learning video clip from Toddlers

-Before age 3, kids are much worse at learning social behaviors. -Search task: 24 mo followed the instructions of person who addressed them directly, but were only ⅓ as likely to use same info as offered by the same person on video. -However, when the person on video interacted responsively with toddlers (through closed-circuit television) they were able to learn the info presented on video.

Martin and Clark Crying Babies Experiment Thing

-Do humans have an innate distress response? 40 newborn participants (M=18.3 hours old). Independent variable: participant infant state- calm vs crying. Cry stimulus- either their own cry or another's cry. 3 times as much vocalization when hearing the other infant's cry whether the baby was calm or already crying. They can also differentiate between cries. -Follow up with 5 month old infants and chimp cries. -Martin and Clark studies suggest innate distress response that may typically be limited to peers. Though this innate response appears to be "Built up" or expanded to include distress response to other-age people as seen in Yarrow and Colleague's work of 10 month olds and up. Clearly seen in adults response particularly to distressed children.

Harry Harlow Monkey Attachment Studies

-Experimental work with monkeys deprived of all early social interactions. Strongly supported the view that healthy social and emotional development is rooted in early social interactions with adults. -Baby monkeys will chose "cloth mother" over "wire mother" even though wire mother has food. -Monkeys raised in isolation literally turned their back on their own kids. Kind of messed up.

Why is the authoritative parenting style so effective?

-Fair and reasonable to child -More likely to comply and to internalize the rules -Disapproval is accepted best from warm and caring authority -Demands are appropriate and allow child to feel competent Fostering responsibility and autonomy: -Gradual lessening of direct control supports development -Middle childhood: reason, use humor, appeal to self-esteem and morality -"Co-Regulation": transitional supervision, parent gives general oversight, child makes moment to moment decisions -Adolescence: atmosphere of concern and fairness, rules flexible and open to discussion, child does not need as much support

Gender Concepts in Adolescence

-Gender role intensification -But also gender role flexibility -Girls still have more flexibility but not boys

Which social categories "matter" to children?

-Gender: yes. (68.75% of 3 yr olds chose object preferred by same gender) -Race: no (55% of 3 yr olds chose object preferred by same race) -Age: yes (63% of 3 yr olds chose object preferred by same age) -How do kids prioritize when categories conflict? Accent was more important than race. -Rejects idea that evolution "hard-wired" specific dimensions. Evolution lead to flexible cognitive system that contains influence from environmental input.

gendered differences cognitive abilities and academic achievement

-General Intelligence- no difference, verbal- small advantage for girls, spatial- advantage for boys (Mostly on mental rotation), math no difference. -Academic achievement: 57% of BS to women, 59% of Bio degrees to women but only 20% in physics.

Achievement Motivation and Children's Theory of Intelligence- Carol Dweck

-Helpless/fixed mindset: kids feel bad about themselves, blame themselves, and don't persist on tasks when they fail -Mastery oriented/growth mindset: kids don't feel bad, increase efforts to succeed on task Kids randomly assigned to either solve an impossible puzzle or a solvable one. Results: kids with fixed mindset who had been assigned to the impossible puzzle did the worst on the easy test questions given afterwards. But when in the control group, they performed the same as the mastery-oriented mindset kids.

Social Identity Theory

-In group/out group. Gender is an "in group." Apparent in kids' typical affiliation w own-gender peers -In group assimilation: kids are socialized to conform to the norms of the in group. -The more we hang w our group the more we maintain the expected roles and group boundaries. -Boys are more likely to enforce group boundaries and stereotypes than girls.

Bandura's Bobo Doll Results

-Kids who watched the aggressive behavior modeled more aggressive actions, but less aggressive when the woman in the video was punished for their actions. -Boys were more spontaneously aggressive. Girls had learned and could reproduce, but held back unless asked or rewarded. -Children in all conditions had learned the behavior (could imitate it, if rewarded) -Children could learn new behaviors simply by watching them on television or observing others. -Observing filmed aggression increased the children's attraction to other aggressive items, like a toy gun. -Learning can occur vicariously.

Self Regulation and the brain

-Limbic system= emotional center of brain ("me want it"), evolutionarily an earlier part of the brain -Prefrontal cortex= home of executive functioning ("but me wait"), one of last parts of brain to develop in healthy humans

Preschoolers and Television

-Lots of evidence that kids in 3-5 year age range learn from education TV, promoted school-readiness (esp for low income kids), increased vocabularies. -Amount of watching Sesame St watched as a preschooler relates to higher GPA and SAT scores in high school.

Lack of self-regulation is linked to:

-Low SES -Violence in community -Instability in the household (not always negative, like birth of sibling) -Neglect -When perceiving threat, brain is overwhelmed, affects limbic system -Neglect/deprivation attacks prefrontal cortex

What is an infant's first negative emotion?

Generalized distress

Socioeconomic Influences on Parenting

-Low SES parents more likely to use authoritarian and punitive style -High SES more likely to use authoritative (Better communication between high SES parents and kids overall) Economic stress can lead to increased marital conflict and parental depression: -In turn leads to less involved or more hostile parenting -For kids: living in poor neighborhood correlates with increased risk for depression, loneliness, unregulated behavior, delinquency and substance abuse -Moderated by: relationships with others (friends, relatives, neighbors, etc)

What happens when adults don't offer the social interaction kids are expecting?

-Neglect is the most prevalent form of child maltreatment. -Occasional Inattention- no harm in this and probably some benefit -Chronic Under-Stimulation- have less interaction w adults around them than is healthy, can show catch-up w/ rich educational or interactional opportunities -Severe Neglect- prolonged periods of inattention and lack of responsiveness, not being fed enough, not being bathed enough, not having basic needs met -Very Severe Neglect- found in orphanages or institutional care (foster care)

Bowlby's 4 phases of attachment

-Newborn: indiscriminate social responsiveness. Crying and later smiling to elicit adult attention, satisfied w whoever responds, social interactions during caregiving routines like feeding, diaper changes -2-7 months: discriminating sociaibility. Some people are able to soothe the baby more easily. Much more time spent in the alert state, can play face to face games. Upset if social interactions are "broken" by the adult. Develop reciprocity, effectance (elicit response) and trust -7 to 24 months: attachments forming. Increasingly likely to initiate social interactions (new freedoms to crawl, can sit on their own), stranger/separation anxiety begins. Late in the stage can tolerate distance from attachment figures and become more adept at interacting with peers -3 years and on: goal-corrected partnerships. Kids begin taking their parents needs into account (sometimes parents must prioritize other activities, people)

Social Categories and Selective Learning

-Novel objects and functions. 1 speaker uses object one way, speaker 2 uses object a different way. Which action will the child imitate, the speaker who speaks their native language or the speaker who doesn't? Even accents impact this. 4-5 yr olds learned from native speaker over foreign accented speaker -Role of experience: neighborhood linguistic diversity. In the home: english spoken exclusively. Varied: amount of non-english languages spoken in neighborhood households (census data). infants living in multilingual neighborhoods more likely to imitate spanish speaker.

NY Longitudinal Study on Temperament (Thomas and Chess, 1977)

-Observed 140 kids from birth to adolescence -Tried to define kids' predominant emotional characteristics -Three main types of infants classified -Easy (40%): positive mood, regular/rhythmic, adaptable, mild to moderate reactions to stimuli -Difficult (10%): negative mood, irregular/arrhythmic, unadaptable, high-intensity reactions (not always negative) -Slow to warm up/cautious (15%): tend to withdraw, slow to adapt, low to moderate reactions, low in activity

Effects of Maternal Employment

-Overall, no negative effects of having mom work outside the home -Costs and benefits: elementary age children of working moms were found to have higher math and reading scores than kids whose moms stayed at home -Girls of working moms= higher social adjustment and competence -Boys of working moms= more behavior problems

Sources of Attachment Quality

-Parent: quality of care, sensitivity to infant's needs and signals, consistently responsive caregiving -Child: Temperament, fearful infants exhibit greater distress at separation, less sociable infants may look insecurely attached even though they may not be, some babies are harder to be attached to because of their sucky traits (constantly crying, easily upset)

How to promote self-regulation in children:

-Praise and reward children when they regulate well -Teach children about emotions and strategies they can use to regulate -Make a plan with children, try the plan, reflect with them on what did and didn't work (especially with social and relationship problem solving) -Model positive self-regulation and conflict resolution -Play games in which children practice regulation (Red light, green light, freeze) -Structure kids environments so that they are predictable and low in stress -But allow children freedom to solve their own problems, be creative

Measurement of Emotions

-Primarily use facial expression measurement. Ekman's facial coding system adopted for infants: Baby FACS. Look at specific movements in the brow, eye/cheek and mouth regions of face. Code videos at very slow speeds to differentiate lots of subtle differences. Reliable measure. Do facial expressions reflect underlying emotions accurately? Not always, especially not with adults. -Vocal or behavioral/body movements measures. -Physiological components: decreased heart rate- sometimes said to indicate fear; others argue that it is a sign of interest -Neuropsychological: EEG, fMRI

4 Basic Attachment Types

-Securely attached (approc 62% of US middle class babies) when mom is present the babies explores, positive toward stranger, when mom leaves baby is upset stranger cant console them, when mom returns they go to her -Insecure/avoidant type (15% US babies) infant is indifferent to mom's presence, mom leaves, stranger can comfort them, mom returns and infant turns away from them -Insecure/Resistant: when mom is present infant clings to her and won't explore, when mom leaves they are inconsolable and cry intensely, when mom returns they seek -Disorganized/Disoriented: (15%, numbers significantly higher for abused infants or those from poverty) no consistent way of handling the stress, may exhibit fearful smiles, looking away while approaching mom, quiet and calm one moment and angry the next

Stereotype Threat Study

-Societal, school and parent expectations: boys will do better at math and science. -How does this manifest itself? Stereotype threat. Being at risk for confirming a negative stereotype can make you do worse. -Presence of males induces stereotype threat for females regarding math. -Study 1: Independent variable: 3 person groups of either 3 females of 1 female and 2 male confederates. Dependent variable: performance on math and verbal items from SAT. Accuracy on math problems decreased when females were in presence of 2 males. No difference on verbal. Study 2: does same thing happen for males? Didn't matter if males were in minority reversed group, their scores remained the same.

Kohlberg's Cognitive Development Theory

-Stage 1: Gender identity (30 months) kids can reliably identify their gender and that of other but may not understand permanence of gender. -Stage 2: Gender stability (around 3-4 years old) kids know their gender will not change. -Stage 3: Gender constancy (around 5-7 years)- kids know that something internal makes you a "boy or girl." (GENDER IS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT THIS IS NOT REAL)

Chicago Case Study

-Studied kids below poverty line. Matched chicago school readiness project data w/ CPD crime data. --Tested executive function and self regulation to test if intervention w/ preschool teachers worked. Homicides related to poverty-stricken areas -Children recently exposed to violence were significantly more impulsive than those who were not recently exposed

Do infants have a gender preference for face perception?

-Take male and female faces (equal in terms of attractiveness and happiness). Habituate 3 and 4 month olds to a set of 8 male faces or a set of 8 female faces. -Test: present a novel male face paired w novel female face -If we prefer female faces: will look longer at female face when familiarized w males, will look equally when familiarized w/ females -Results: infants preferred female faces -Another condition: just paired diff female and male faces across 6 trials -Averages looking time to male vs female faces across infants: spent 64% of time looking at the female. -Is it just hair? In one study, they removed hair from participants. Infants still preferred female faces 61% of the time. -Is this preference for female faces innate or based on experience? Who is their primary caregiver? -Tested 3-4 month olds who had male primary caregivers/ 58% looking to male faces, 42% looking at female faces- significantly different than previous studies

Social Cognitive Theory

-Tuition: direct teaching about gender roles, etc. -Enactive experience: taking in the responses of others to behaviors. -Modeling- watching behavior of parents, teachers, peers, people on tv. -Parent talk: gender-essentialist statements

Gender segregation in play

-Who do girls and boys play with? From 4.5 to 6.5 years kids much more likely to play with same sex, less with mixed groups or other sex. -Different styles of social interactions. Boys using more commands, threats, force. Girls: express agreement, polite requests, persuasion. Girl's methods don't work well on boys. Difference in activity level affects who plays with whom (more active girls may play more with boys).

Gender Concepts in Middle childhood

-have achieved gender constancy and are actually more flexible in stereotypes and attitudes (moms can play w/ baseballs, etc). -Can also recognize gender discrimination. Say that teacher either demonstrated gender fairness or had a bias. By age 8-10, if teacher has history of being unfair they say she was unfair, if she was fair they were likely to consider other factors at play. -Gender-typed behavior: more rigid among boys, more often see girls engaged in boy type activities than vice versa.

Authoritative Parenting

-make reasonable demands, set limits, express affection, listen to child's views -child outcome: linked to competence, self-confidence

Permissive Parenting

-nurturant and accepting, impose few demands, child makes decisions, often disorganized and ineffective, lack confidence as parents -Child outcome: impulsive, lack self control, low levels of achievement, adolescent drug use

The Other Race Effect

-participants were 192 caucasian infants (3 mos, 6 mos, 9 mos) -Can infants tell apart caucasian faces better than faces of other races? -Measured looking time (look longer at new stimuli) -If infants look longer at face on left they could tell it was a new person, they look at what is new to them. -If infants look back and forth equally between the two, they can't tell the difference. -Results: 3 months- could differentiate between faces of all races 6 months- only their own race and chinese faces 9 months- only their own race -Concept of perceptual narrowing (Like with language)

Rejecting-Neglecting Parenting

-set no limits, don't monitor child's behavior, focuses on own needs, unavailable to child, disorganized and ineffective -Child outcome: disturbed attachment, peer problems, many problems in adolescence

Authoritarian Parenting

-values conformity, rejects when child disobeys, little discussion, force and punishment, independence suppressed -Child outcome: anxious, dependent, hostile, linked to adolescent depression -Cultural differences in the effect of authoritarian parenting, connected with good outcomes for kids in some cases in following cultural groups: african american, asian american, pacific islander -Authoritarian parenting: parental control can be used as a protection, children recognize as an expression of love and caring, and therefore kids respond positively. For example, African American parents of all income levels report using control to protect children from danger of prejudice, bad social influences

Understanding other's emotions

10 month olds to 4 year olds become upset/distressed in the presence of others' distress. Evidence that newborns cried in response to tape-recorded cry of 5-day-old infant (from 1970's), but did not cry in response to: white noise, computer generated fake cry, or the crying of a 5.5 month old infant. Replicated in 1982 by Martin and Clark

Baillergeon showed that by ______ months, infants have a basic understanding of false beliefs.

15 months. This was tested using looking time (a test that infants can actually do.) that indicates that infants believe the experimenter will have a false belief (Will look in the wrong place when the object has been hidden again)

Embarrassment

15-24 months of age begin to show signs of embarrassment, cover up face with hands

By _______ months have expectation about gender associations for objects and behaviors

18-24 months

Development of self-conscious emotions occurs in the first ___ years of life.

2 years.

By ____ years of age, children can label themselves and others as boys and girls

2-3 years

By __ years old, children attribute certain toys and activities for boys and for girls

3 years old

Minimal Groups

3-5 year olds were randomly assigned to a blue or red team in their classroom. Experimental: teachers labeled and used groups in a functional way for 3 weeks Control: kids split into groups but teacher then ignored the groups otherwise Results: children in experimental group showed stronger in group bias than those in the control On peer preference task (rating photos of kids in class on how much they want to play with) On novel person preference tasks (blue or red shirt) NO difference in who kids actually played with on the playground

Friendship and Social Categories

3-5 yr old white kids asked who they prefer to play with: children of their own race or children of another race? 4 to 10 year olds liked kids of their own gender more than opposite gender kids Explicit measure: shown 2 photos side by side, asked to point to person they want to be friends with/play with/prefer. 6 year olds choose in group member over 80% of the time. 10 year olds about 70%. Adults are 50/50. Implicit association tests: "white" "black" "good" "bad". Do kids respond faster when "white+good" and "Black+bad" are paired? Yes. (white kids and adults tested)

When can infants can match their expressions to the emotional expressions of adults?

4-9 months

Study related to gender schema theory

5-6 year olds presented w 16 pictures, asked to identify age and gender of person in photo. 1 week later, there was a memory test. Asked "do you remember seeing a picture of someone doing an action in the picture?" asked this person's gender. Both boys and girls made sex reversals (in the stereotypic directions) more on gender inconsistent pictures than on gender consistent pictures. Changed sex inconsistent info to be sex consistent.

Infants' negative emotions differentiate into fear, anger, sadness, and disgust by ___ months

6 months

Smiling

6-10 weeks is first social smile (smile as response to someone in environment). Infants (typically developing) smile and vocalize more at people than at objects. Smiling as survival tool: elicits care-givers' interest and affection.

Social Categories and Interpreting ambiguous information

6-7 year olds. Is negative intent ascribed to this ambiguous action when the other person is from another rate? Young european american children ascribe negative intent to other race child 70% of the time. African-american children ascribed negative intent to white child only about 30% of the time. In high schools: white teens ascribe negative intent 59% of time. Black teens 54%, positive intent 42%.

By ______ months can tell difference between males and female faces

6-9 months. This is usually based on hairstyles.

When do infants show understanding that others' emotional responses pertain to specific objects of events?

8-9 months. Infants stop playing with toys if their mothers express disgust Infants use emotional info provided by a person on video to avoid certain toys Infants only seem to use the negative info, not positive info 14 month olds retained emotional information over a one hour delay By 24 months, use peers as a source of info. Those with siblings do this in more adult-like ways.

"The strange situation"

About 25 minute procedure, involving mildly stressful events that involve separation from caregivers. Observe what happened when caregivers left and when they come back ("Reunions"). Used to measure attachment.

View of Intelligence as Numerous Processes

Allows for more precise specification of the mechanisms involved in intelligent behavior than do approaches that view it as "a single trait" or "several abilities"

Self Regulation

An individual's ability to automatically or effortfully control, modulate, inhibit, initiate his or her thoughts, behaviors, or emotions with the purpose of achieving a particular goal

Visual Cliff Experiment/Development of fear

Babies will refuse to crawl to their mothers when they appear to be standing across from them on a "cliff." When age was held constant, amount of locomotor (crawling) experience predicted fear of crossing the visual cliff (fear of heights). When kids were given artificial locomotor experience (in a walker), earlier induced fear of heights in those kids. Tested a child who wasn't able to get motor experience due to leg braces, didn't develop fear of heights until he had sufficient experience. Suggested that fear of heights is not innate but learned.

Fear of Strangers

Before about 6-7 months, many infants can be comforted by a stranger. But fear of strangers develops around 6-7 months, but depends on infant's temperament. Stranger's actions matter a lot (does the stranger enter abruptly or quietly, are they acting friendly?). This fear has an adaptive value. Parent as a "secure base."

IQ scores of adoptive children and their _______________ parents become increasingly correlated as the children develop.

Biological parents. Some connections in prefrontal cortex develop later in adolescence and adulthood and the extent of such connections reflect genetic influences. With age, children have more freedom to choose environments compatible with their own genetically based preferences but necessarily with those of the parents who are raising them.

internal working model of attachment

Child's mental representation of relationships in general are a result of child's relationships w/ their caregivers. Infant's perception of their caretaker and their perceptual processes facilitate their interactions later in life.

Gender Schema Theory

Children construct mental representations of everything they know about gender Kids prefer, pay attention to and remember more about objects, behaviors, etc associated w their own gender Labels guide behavior. Labeling a gender neutral toy "for girls" leads girls to play with it longer and vice versa for boys. Kids later remembered more about toys that were "for" their gender. Gender schema filter: "is this info relevant for my gender?" Interest filter: "Is this info/activity interesting?" kid might use interest filter positively (I'm a girl and I like baseball, baseball is for girls)

Biological basis for temperament (Jerome Kagan)

Children seen repeatedly during early years: Had stable reactions (fearful or content) to new stimuli over time Claim: differences in arousal in the brain Physical differences in: Heart rate, stress hormones, amygdala reactivity, muscle tension Infants who were more quiet/less tense at 4 months were more likely to be outgoing one year olds (14 months) Highly reactive 4 month olds more likely to be shy at 14 months More jittery babies more likely to develop symptoms of anxiety Long term stability: Shy children didn't turn into outgoing ones, but most children became less extreme; biology is not destiny. Can teach more adaptive behaviors to child.

Preschool PATHS program

Cognitive Stage Theory (Piaget). Play as critical mechanism for supporting creativity and problem solving skills in early childhood.

G (General Intelligence)

Cognitive processes that influence the ability to think and learn on all intellectual tasks

Sigmund Freud

Conscious thoughts and behaviors are "tip of the iceburg", focused on unconscious drives and motivations, often derived from early childhood experiences. Studied hysteria, believed symptoms were psychogenic and a result of repressing painful memories. Tried hypnosis and to recover memories. Abandoned this and started getting patients to talk while awake using free association. Stages of psychosexual development. People could get stuck at one of the stages which could cause problems.

Separation Anxiety

Distress when a caregiver leaves. Cross-cultural onset and intensity varies. In the US, emerges around 8 months, peaks around 14 months and lasts until about age 2, but there are individual differences.

Pride

Emergence of pride seen in smile and looks to others after accomplishing a task (early toddlerhood) by age 3 clearly in place.

Factors that influence IQ test performance in childhood

Engagement, attention span, motivation, understanding of directions

Crystallized Intelligence

Factual knowledge about the world. Reflects long-term memory for prior experiences, is closely related to verbal ability.

Fixed vs. Growth Mindset

Fixed mindset kids think they failed on the puzzle because they don't have the ability and intelligence can't be changed. Growth mindset kids think they didn't try hard enough and attribute factors to lack of effort or preparation, things that can be changed. Adult feedback plays into the development of these mindsets. Children were more persistent and solved more puzzles when given strategy feedback rather than contingent feedback (which depends on the child's performance)

Structural Theories of Emotion

Focus on components of emotion: emotion elicitors (events that trigger biological changes, which are basis of emotions), emotion receptors (brain areas that respond to emotional events), emotion states, emotional expressions

Maccoby Paper

Focuses on gender schema idea and shaping from outside environment.

Kinzler Paper

Found that children preferred to be friends with people who spoke their same language and had their same accent.

When does self-regulation develop?

From age 8 on, self regulation is relatively stable, peaks subtly at 25 and drops off a bit after. From 3-5 is sensitive period for development of executive functioning and self-regulation.

What does G correlate with?

G correlates with school grades, achievement test performance, info-processing speed, speed of neural transmission, brain volume, and people's knowledge of subjects that are not taught in school.

Study about content of children's shows

Historical content analysis comparing popular children's television shows the previous decade and the current decade. Coded all prosocial, bullying, and neutral verbal speech. Prosocial content: comments demonstrating affirmation, support, and/or politeness. Older shows have significantly more prosocial content than the newer shows. Bullying Content: newer shows have significantly more bullying content than the older shows Normalizes the idea of kids being mean to their friends? Value Ratings: benevolence is significantly more important in older shows Values associated w/ bullying (power, popularity, conformity, image) are significantly more important in the newer shows

Flynn Effect

IQ scores are on the rise internationally. Theories: better nutrition, heredity/epigenetics, less bias in testing measures.

How does poverty negatively impact IQ?

Inadequate diet/parenting/schooling, insufficient intellectual stimulation, parental stress. High quality parenting can help overcome the effects of poverty.

Social Categories and Thinking About Other People

Inductive reasoning: given social category and personality trait, asked to see what game the hypothetical child will like to play (which influence matters more, social category or personality trait?). Adults reason with the personality trait.

"Still-Face" Experiments

Infants expect contingent interaction. When mother stops responding to baby for 2 minutes, baby reacts with negative emotions and distress.

Abecedarian Project

Intervention group: infants from low-income single mothers with low maternal IQ and education. were given access to high-quality daycare from infancy to age 5 with moms given parenting training, access to high-quality healthcare and nutritional supplements. Control group: didn't get daycare. Kids in intervention group: higher IQ scores at age 21, higher math and reading test scores, less likely to be held back or in special ed. Strongest effects in children whose moms had dropped out of high school. No/little effects on kids whose moms had graduated college.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

Introduced the concept of the primary caregiver as a secure base. Security needed for the child to then go out and explore their environment.

Three Stratum Theory Model of Intelligence

John B Carroll's model. Each stage influences those below it. 1. G at the top of the intelligence hierarchy 2. eight moderately general abilities in the middle (which include both crystallized and fluid and abilities similar to the "Primary skills") 3. many specific processes

Study about infant's gender expectations for objects and behaviors

Kids given model toy with stereotypic associations and given boy doll and girl doll (given gender neutral monkey first) and see which doll they grab to imitate the behavior. 24 month old girls: for gender neutral activities they grabbed both dolls equally, for "male" activities they grabbed male dolls more. This emerged in boys around 30 months.

Effects of friendships

Long-term benefits: -5th graders who had reciprocated best friendships reported being happier Age 23: reported higher levels of doing well in college, in the family and in their social life, self esteem, fewer problems with the law and psychopathology Possible costs: -Aggression breeds aggression/antisocial tendencies: moderately disruptive at 11 w/disruptive friends= more antisocial behavior at 13. moderately disruptive at 11 w/o disruptive friends= less antisocial behavior at 13. -Alcohol and substance abuse: adolescent's drinking and friends alcohol use mutually affect one another, drinking escalates in the group. Good parenting can impact/deescalate this as well.

Transgender Kids Research

Olsen 2015: 5-12 yr old prepubescent trans kids (N=32) Control 1: cisgender kids Control 2: cisgender siblings of trans kids Question: do trans kids show patterns of gender cognition associated with their assigned at birth gender or with actual gender? Implicit tasks: gender preference IAT: girls taking it will associate girls with good things more easily, same with boys. Positive scores: control cis kids faster to associate ones natal sex as good and the other as bad. Gender Identity IAT: male, female, me, not me Object preference Trans kids perform the same as their gender and opposite of their native sex, implicitly and explicitly acting as their chosen gender across all measures. Trans kids responses indistinguishable from control groups- trans kids not confused or faking.

Bandura's Bobo Doll (1961, 1965)

Preschoolers watched short film of an adult pummeling a bobo doll (punching bag). Different adults in films experienced different consequences for this aggressive behavior (reward, no consequences, punishment). Would kids be able to learn aggressive behavior just from watching this?

What is the specified brain region for thinking about other people's thoughts?

RTPJ. The specialization of the RTPJ continues until adulthood.

Primary mental abilities

Seven abilities proposed by Thurston as crucial to intelligence: word fluency, verbal meaning, reasoning, spatial visualization, numbering, rote memory, and perceptual speed.

Shame vs. Guilt

Shame: focus on the self Guilt: focus on others, regret for effect of one's behavior on others Children experience guilt instead of shame if parent's focus on effect of actions rather than on the child.

Tools of the mind program

Structured lessons about emotions and peer interactions, relates to Vygotsky and scaffolding.

Proof that emotions don't have to be directed at the infant for the infant to understand them or their relation to an object

Studied 150 infants (avg 15 months), randomly assigned to one of 5 groups: anger-attentive, anger-distracted. Infants waited longer to touch object than control group for anger-attentive and were less likely to play with object the way the experimenter did.

Tweens and Television

Studies show strong link bt viewing violence and aggression on tv and real life aggression Longitudinal studies show this effect persists even 15 years later.

Emotions

Subjective feelings accompanied by physical changes (Heart/breathing rates, hormone levels),changes in thoughts and cognitions, and desire to take action (approach, fight or flight). Emotions are motivational states.

Evidence that Peers can affect healthy development

Suomi and harlow: -Took 6 month old monkeys that were isolated from birth and placed them with peers 3 months younger -Those placed with peers: abnormal behaviors diminished and they engaged in healthy social interactions

Incredible years program

Teacher training program. Children then can learn through mimicking adult behavior. Reflects social learning theory.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems. Related to speed of info-processing, working memory, and the ability to control attention.

Long term effects of secure attachments

These children grow up to be more well adjusted, have more prosocial behaviors, have better peer relations and romantic relationships in adolescence. Secure Attachment tends to remain stable over time barring an extreme change in parenting situation.

Attachment

The close, enduring emotional bond between child and caregiver Adaptive: promotes proximity to caregiver, protects infant from dangerous situations, attachment to those who feed us and care for us.

At what age do measures of intelligence then generally become stable over long periods (But can still vary somewhat between testings)?

age 5-6

Theory of Mind

an organized body of knowledge of what causes human behavior. can also be self-reflective. includes different causes than the ones we typically use to explain the actions of inanimate objects

What happens when HOME scores change?

children's IQ scores tend to change in the same direction

___________________ intelligence increases steadily from early in life to old age, but __________ intelligence peaks around age 20 and slowly declines from there.

crystallized, fluid.

Laughter

early laughter starts with tactile stimulation (like tickling) but by 9 months can come from surprise or from something in the environment

Functionalist Theories of Emotion

emphasize the purpose and role of emotions in the ongoing transactions between individuals and their environments. Significant events: ones relevant to one's goals, events that are inherent elicitors of emotion, events that induce emotional arousal based on another's emotions (like crying when you see someone else cry) What are the adaptive functions of emotions?

New view on temperament

genetics plus rearing causes differences in temperament (can ramp up or tamp down dispositions)

Temperament

individual differences in quality and intensity of emotional reactions

Old view on temperament

parenting causes differences in temperament

Performance on intellectual tasks (IQ measures) is ________________ correlated

positively correlated. Tests of each type of intelligence correlate more highly with each other than they do with tests of any other type.

(Cognitive) Executive functions

working memory, set shifting (focusing attention), inhibitory control, sustained attention, effortful control