Developmental Psych Exam 3

Emotion-Centered Coping

Internal, private, aimed at controlling distress when you can't change situation

Realistic Period

Late teens and early 20s; economic and practical realities of adulthood; narrow options; further exploration first - possibilities plus characteristics; then crystallization and focus on general category and experiment before settling on a single occupation

Jeffrey Arnet

Leader of movement that regards emerging adulthood as a distinct period of life; less certain about identity and qualities of romantic partner; explore alternatives in education, work, personal values Routes to adulthood are diverse in order and timing 1/3 enter graduate school Exposure to multiple viewpoints = more complex self-concept; contributes to advances in identity Cycle between in breadth and in depth; move toward in depth is better - commitment leads to self-esteem, well-being, and adjustment

Androgyny

Leads to cognitive flexibility, creativity, advanced moral reasoning, psychosocial maturity; psychologically healthier; results from social roles and life conditions

Siblings in Midlife

Less contact and support in midlife; rebounds after 70 years of age Feel closer despite reduced contact Grow older = better relationships; but poor relationships get worse; sister-sister closer; warmer ties Relationships are voluntary in industrialized nations; positive ties in childhood vital for warm sibling bonds in later years

Cohabitation

Lifestyle of unmarried couples who have a sexually intimate relationship and who share a residence Rise among well-educated, economically advantaged young people 60% of couples choose this to enter into a committed intimate partnership; higher among adults with failed marriages; 1/3 households include children Preparation or alternative to marriage; possibility of easy departure; Americans have less positive feelings towards this In Netherlands/Norway/Sweden 70-90% do this with first intimate partnership; nearly as committed as married; 50% Americans breakup w/in 2 years; 6-16% in Western Europe Less conventional values, more sexual partners, less religious, larger number of parents who divorced, more liberal if cohabit before engagement Poorer-quality relationships Fights over money, property, rental contracts, responsibility for children

K. Warner Schaie

Longitudinal research design + cross-sectional approach; Seattle Longitudinal STudy Cross-sectional drop after mid-30s Longitudinal trends revealed modest gains in midlife, sustained into 50s/early 60s, then decreased gradually Cohort effects changed cross-section: each new generation experienced better health and education

Vaillant

Longitudinal research; "keepers of meaning" and best-adjusted entered a calmer, quieter time of life; "passing the torch" - concern that the positive aspects of their culture survive - became a major preoccupation Focus on long-term, less-personal goals

Marriage

Age has risen; 26.5 for women and 29 for men 20% ages 18-29 are married 51% live together as married couples Changing gender roles and living farther from family = work harder to define relationships 15% mixed marriages; highly educated are more likely Many live together beforehand; marry young is more likely for divorce b/c haven't developed secure identity or sufficient independence to form a mature marital bond yet

Social Clock

Age-graded expectations for major life events (first job, marriage, home, retirement) More departure nowadays; less conformity; intergenerational tensions, distress, inadequately grounded feelings as a result Positive = more freedom and flexibility Crafting one's own life is more prone to breakdown

Tentative Period

Ages 11-16; think about careers in more complex ways (terms of interests and then in terms of abilities/values); more aware of personal and educational requirements

Identity Development

Central focus from late teens into mid-twenties; seek affectionate ties; fear losing freedom though; identity, love, and work are intertwined

3 Stages of Adolescence

Early adolescence (11/12-14) = period of rapid pubertal change Middle adolescence (14-16) = pubertal changes are now nearly complete Late adolescence (16-18) = the young person achieves full adult appearance and anticipates assumption of adult roles

Fantasy Period

Early/middle childhood, insight into career options; guided by familiarity, glamour, excitement, bear little relation to decisions they will eventually make; fantasize about options

Gisella Labouvie-Vief

Echoes Perry; adolescents operate in a world of possibility Adulthood involves movement from a hypothetical to pragmatic thought - a structural advance in which logic becomes a tool for solving real-world problems In course of balancing various roles, accept contradictions as part of existence; ways of thinking based on imperfection and compromise

Illness

Economic disadvantage is a strong indicator Deaths r/t falls resulting in bone fracture double Due to cancer multiplies tenfold; 1/3 of all midlife deaths Lung cancer; increase; most common cause; 50% fewer smoke today than in 1950s Oncogenes (cancer genes undergo abnormal duplication); tumor suppressor genes (fail); stability genes (disrupted; normally keep alterations to a minimum) Germline (inherited) or somatic (single cell multiples) 60% are cured for 5 years or longer Leading cancers: 1) breast and prostate 2) lung 3) colon and rectal Stigmas associated with it 25% Americans die of cardiovascular disease; high bp, high cholesterol, atherosclerosis = silent killers - MI, angina, arrhythmia - 50% die before reach hospital, 15% die during treatment, 15% over next few years Risks = heredity, advanced age, being male

Brain Development

Emotional/social network develops ahead of the prefrontal cortex (cognitive-control network); hard to manage feelings which become more sensitive and intense Impulsivity and sensation-seeking; delinquent activity r/t drive for novel experiences

Satisfaction

Marry later, postpone children, sense of togetherness, affection and shared values and background, good conflict-resolution skills, conversation Men slightly happier Mental health similar for both genders Equal power strengthens marital harmony Holding overly positive biases about other's attributes (positive illusions) enhances self-esteem and psychological well-being; influence behavior to live up to that Both play roles in violence and opposition; better mate selection, communication skills, counseling, conflict-resolution strategies can all help

Transition

Not stagelike; events are not age-graded like in the past Continuity and change

Consequences of Divorce

Positive and negative change Disrupted social networks, anxiety, depression, impulsivity Fathers w/o custody disoriented and rootless Nonworking women have a very hard time Women bounce back fatter; career advancement and social support help well-being Remarry w/in 4 years, men faster; vulnerable; more likely to view divorce as acceptable solution More stress from stepfamily situations Blended take 3-5 years to develop connectedness and comfort

Exploring in Depth

Evaluating existing commitments

George Vaillant

Followed development of men and women; filled gaps between stages 20s = intimacy concerns 30s = career consolidation 40s = generative; extends in 50s and 60s; "keepers of meaning" and preserve cultural traditions; teach others 70s = more spiritual and reflective on meaning of life Women had similar series of changes

College

Formative - more influential than any other period of adulthood Developmental testing ground > 70% enroll lin college Culture shock Better at reasoning; strength and weaknesses on complex issues; increased interest in "core" courses; concern w/ individual rights; political activism Greater self-undertanding, self-esteem, firmer sense of identity Growth seems to be similar at 2 year community colleges Impact is influenced by involvement and richness of campus environment; interacting with racially and ethically mixed peers --> gains in civic engagement Connecting community service with experience in classroom shows large cognitive gains

Peer Interaction

Fosters type of individual reflection: arguing with oneself over competing ideas and strategies and coordinating opposing perspectives into a new, more effective structure

Possible Selves

Future-oriented representations of what one hopes to become and what one is afraid of becoming; temporal dimension of self-concept; what individual is striving for and attempting to avoid Early 20s = lofty and idealistic; many With age; become fewer in number and more modest/concrete No long limitless opportunities Defined and redefined; key to continued well-being

Mathematical Abilities

Girls tend to be better at counting, arithmetic computation, and mastery of basic concepts When math becomes abstract and spacial, boys outperform girls; geometry and complex reasoning; better at science too; more rapid numerical memory (spend more time on complex mental operations) and superior spacial reasoning enhancing problem solving

Attention

Harder to engage in multiple activities at once When mind inspects stimuli slowly, more likely to remain disconnected Inhibition is harder Continuous performance tasks (press spacebar only after a certain sequence occurs) declines streaky from 30s to old age

Hormone Therapy

Reduces physical discomfort; low daily doses of estrogen; along it's called ERT (estrogen replacement); with progesterone it's HRT --> less risk of cancer Helps with hot flashes and vaginal dryness; protection against bone deterioration; but increases heart attack, stroke, blood clots, breast cancer, gallbladder disease, deaths from lung cancer; Alzheimer's and other dementias in 65 and older Gabapentin = safe migraine-headache med that reduces hot flashes; nearly as effective

Moral Identity

The degree to which morality is central to self-concept; affects moral behavior Parenting practices and clearly conveyed moral expectations influence this; just educational environments (democratic decision-making and rule-setting)

Components of Love

Triangular theory = intimacy, passion, and commitment involved in romantic relationships Intimacy = warm, tender communication, concern, acceptance, respect Passion = desire for sexualy activity an roamnce; graduallly declines in favor of intimacy and commitment; passion predicts whether partners will keep dating Commitment = cognitive component; decide they are in love and want to maintain that love; determines whether relationship survives; communicating commitment in ways that strengthen intimacy - caring/acceptance/respect - predicts relationship maintenance and satisfaction; higher quality and longer lasting if this aspect is present Important feature of communication is constructive conflict resolution - express wishes and listen and compromise; accept responsibility, forgive, avoid criticism/contempt/defensiveness/stonewalling Deficits in intimacy foreshadow poor conflict-resolution skills and weakening of marital tie

Career Development Midlife

Training is less available to older workers Given more routine tasks Men more often at the top Glass ceiling = invisible barrier to advancement up the corporate ladder; need role models and mentor and teaching to advance; women and minorities less often given opportunity Women go around it; entrepreneurs Career change sometimes; seldom radical; extreme shift = personal crisis Less voluntary/freely chosen in blue-collar jobs

Emerging Adulthood

Transition to adult roles has become so delayed and prolonged that it has spawned a new transitional period form late teens to mid-to-late 20s Aspects of life course are no longer structured NOT universal Can be risky; remain uncommitted for too long; delayed leap can cause anxiety and frustration

Feminization of Poverty

Trend in which women who support themselves or their families have become the majority of the adult population living in poverty, regardless of age and ethnic group Marital breakup reduces standard or living Women are more tolerant, comfortable, independent, self-reliant Trauma and time of growth = divorce

Work Environment

Varies in cognitively stimulating and promoting autonomy Given less challenging work Complex work augments later cognitive flexibility Leads to abstract thinking Need novel stimulation; plasticity; challenges foster high cognitive functioning Returning to school; changes in job market, family move, children entering college, widowhood, divorce, serving as role model, enriching ethnic community 60% adult learners are women Anxiety form not practicing school for awhile Ethnic stereotypes are factors Conflicting directions with multiple roles Role overload for women Social supports can prevent dropout

Exploring in Breadth

Weighing multiple possibilities

Metacognitive Knowledge

When trouble recalling, draw on decades of this; how to maximize memory = reviewing major points before presentation, organizing, parking in same area each day Practical intelligence = intelligent people adapt their information-processing skills to fit with their personal desires and the demands of their environments

Sex Differences

Women are better at verbal tasks and perceptual speed Men are better at spatial skills Overall, changes are similar; defying stereotype that women are less competent People score increasingly higher than others born decades earlier; differences are largest for fluid-ability tasks

Career Development

Women have discontinuous paths r/t childhood and other family needs Over 1/2 enter chosen field; experiences can be discouraging r/t high expectations not matching reality; 5-6 changes not uncommon; pyramid structure Progress depends on mentor; best are those young adults just a bit above them; professional and personal benefits of mentoring induce employees to provide it to others and to seek it again for themselves Women and ethnic minorities have little opportunity for advancement and less earnings; 80% as much; 10 rye after graduation 69% as much; 90% accounts for gender disparities, 10% discrimination Increasing numbers leaving jobs to devote themselves full-time to child rearing; almost always agonizing decision; high-pressured, inflexible work environment leads to this choice Sexist work climate creates less satisfaction Gender-stereotyped images augment slow advancement; men must be willing to mentor women; bias in career opportunities remains strong despite laws guaranteeing equality

Combining Work & Family

Women with children in workforce have moderate to high levels of stress

Motor Performance

Many athletic skills peak between 20 and 35, then gradually decline; ages of best performance remain constant Speed of runners drops slightly from mid-30s to 60s, then falls off at accelerating pace Long-distance swimming performance doesn't drop off until 70s Sustained training leads to adaptations in body structures that minimize motor declines; slows muscle loss; increases speed and force; support endurance skills

Decision-Making

1) identifying the pros and cons 2) assessing the likelihood of outcomes 3) evaluating choice in terms of whether or not goals were met, if not 4) learning form the mistake and making a better future decision Teens are more influenced by the possibility of immediate reward; less likely to evaluate alternatives, and fall back on well-learned intuitive judgements Need supervision and protection from high-risk experiences until decision making improves

STDs

1/4 will get one at some point in their life Higher among women; more easily infected; 1/4 of cases AIDS 6th leading cause of death; higher in US Common in heterosexual contact in poverty-stricken minority groups; less protection r/t overwhelmed by problems (inadequate education, life stress, hopelessness, poor health)

Hypertension

12% more often in US black population; 30% higher rate of death Heart disease is leading cause of death throughout adulthood

Internet

Friendships over Internet is on the rise; feels less threatening; explore adolescent issues like sexuality and identity; social support and sense of group belonging; racial/ethnic slurs; unsatisfying face-to-face experiences, boredom, unhappiness, addiction to Internet

Secular Trend

Generational trend in pubertal timing; added upport to the role of physical well-being in pubertal development

Biological Aging (Senescence)

Genetically influenced aging; declines in the functioning of organs and systems that are universal in all members of our species; varies widely across parts of the body and individual differences are great Improved nutrition, medical treatment, sanitation, and safety add 25-30 to average life expectancy 2 explanations: programmed effects of specific genes and cumulative effects of random events; longevity is a family trait; people inherit risk and protective factors During 20s and 30s not very noticeable; accelerates later on

Verbal Abilities

Girls are better in reading and verbal ability and writing - Earlier development of left hemisphere; language is localized there; concentrate language activity in specific areas Boys display widespread activation regarding language especially in auditory and visual areas; boys rely heavily on sensory brain regions - Receive less verbal stimulation form preschool through adolescent years - Active and higher energy level; spending time at desks and being taught in a regimented way is at odds with this

Telomeres

Located at the ends of chromosomes, serving as "cap" to protect the ends from destruction --> shorten; these are a special type of DNA; eventually so little remains that the cells no longer duplicate at all; these act as a brake against somatic mutations like those involved in cancer Increase in short telomeres (exposes DNA to damage and cell dies) contributes to age-related disease, loss of function, and earlier mortality; health behaviors and psychology states accelerate shortening - Chronic illnesses - Cigarette smoking - Inactivity and overeating --> obesity and diabetes - Poor nutrition during pregnancy - Persistant psychological stress

Homosexual

Majority Americans support ciivl liberties and equal employment; more accepting; 1/2 say not or only sometimes wrong and support marriage, 3/4 favor same-sex civil unions Exposure reduces negative attitudes; men more likely to judge Nations w/ greatest acceptance have higher educated, economically well-off citizens who are low in religiosity Women more likely to report bisexual orientation Little evidence about sex lives; assumed to be similar Live in or near large cities Greater social and sexual liberalism & well-educated --> greater willingness to disclose sexuality

Preconventional Level

Morality is externally controlled; children accept rules of authority figures; judge actions by consequences (punishment is bad and reward is good) Stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation (difficult to consider 2 points of view; focus on fear of authority and avoidance of punishment) Stage 2: instrumental purpose orientation (aware of different perspectives, but at first understanding is concrete; right action flows from self-interest; reciprocity is an equal exchange of favors)

Postconventional/Principled Level

Move beyond unquestioning support for society's rules and laws; morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations/societies Stage 5: social contract orientation (laws and rules are flexible; imagine alternatives to own social order; interpret and change the law; follows laws when consistent with individual rights and interests of majority; social contract orientation = free and willing participation in the system because it brings about more good for people than if it did not exist) Stage 6: universal ethical principle orientation (right action is self-chosen ethical principles of conscience valid for all people, regardless of law and social agreement; respect for the worth and dignity of each person)

Cognitive Development

Myelination; pruning of synapses Fine-tuning pre-frontal cognitive-control network Planning/reasoning/decision-making improve Experience-dependent brain growth with chosen field of endeavor; reorganization; more tissue devoted to task Adoelscents preker idealist, internally consistnet perspective

Free Radicals

Naturally occurring, highly reactive chemicals that form in the presence of oxygen; caused by radiation and pollutants and drugs; strips away electron when oxygen molecule breaks down in cell --> leads to this; destroys nearby cellular material - DNA/proteins/fats Thought to be involved in > 60 disorders of aging Perhaps low saturated fat foods and rich vitamins can forestall damage from these

Daniel Levinson

"Seasons"; stages separated by transitions; life structure = design of person's life made of relationships w/ others; individual differences exist Dream = guides decision making; transition to early adulthood; mentor helps realize dream - Men oriented towards careers in 20s - Women extend this into middle age Age 30: career to finding life partner - Women develop more individualized goals; expect spoons to accommodate their career interests and aspirations - Men settled down w/ relationships; niche in society - Women remained unsettled - Work vs family - Women reach career maturity in middle age and take on authority in community

Caregiving

1/4 working women are caregivers; women = 10-20 hr/week Men = 7.5 hrs/week Care is divided along gender-role lines; early to latter middle age, sex difference in parental caregiving declines; men's greater openness to feminine side Highly stressful 23% of ill parents live in household; most stress Conflicts over routines and lifestyles Leads to role overload, high job absenteeism, exhaustion, can't concentrate, hostility, anxiety, depression; women more affected When multiple members help out, cope more effectively Gain in self-understanding, problem-solving, competence

Family Life Cycle

A series of phases characterizing the development of most families around the world Stress is greatest during transitions between phases; children leaving home, growing hold, etc.

Presbycusis

14% between 45 and 64 years old; most are age-related conditions; inner structures deteriorate through natural death or reduced blood supply r/t atherosclerosis 50 = decline in sensitivity to high-frequency sounds

Progress in Identity Development

2 key criteria from Erikson: exploration and commitment 4 identity statuses

Childlessness

20% today (9% in 1975) Involuntary = didn't find partner, fertility treatments failed Voluntary = enjoy lifestyle they are accustomed too; some change minds; enjoy career; want to maintain economic security Negative stereotypes have weakened Content with lives Adjustment and satisfaction undermined only when beyond a person's control

Memory

20s-60s = amount of info people retain in working memory diminishes Verbal memory suffers less than spatial Affected by a decline in use of strategies r/t no schooling anymore; less application of new with stored info; harder to retrieve Irrelevant stimuli take up space Slow pace at which info is presented or cue link between new and old info to help them General factorial knowledge (historical events), procedural knowledge (drive a care, solve a math problem), knowledge related to one's occupation either remain unchanged or increase into midlife

Dropping Out

41% graduate High poverty rate, poor quality elementary and secondary schools, high rate of high school dropout Most occur 6 weeks - 1 year Ethnic minority from low SES are increased risk of dropping out Find transition difficult (emotional dependence on family, lack of motivation, poor study habits, financial pressures) Prediction for enrollment: GPA, self-concept and persistence, SES and value of parents on education, plan to attend Student searches, academic support, counseling, meaningful extracurricular roles - increase retention Social and religious organizations helpful in strengthening sense of belonging

Exercise Midlife

70% are sedentary; 1/2 who begin exercise program discontinue it w/in first 6 months Self-efficacy = belief in one'a ability to succeed; vital in adopting, maintaing, and exerting oneself in an exercise regimen - Just as important as in career progress Harder for low SES r/t inconvenient facilities, expense, unsafe area, unclean streets

Reduced Bone Density

8-12% men 20-30% women Slow bone loss via weight-bearing exercise, calcium/vitamin D, and avoidance of smoking/heavy alcohol consumption When very great --> osteoporosis; 2-5x greater loss in women (50% bone loss) 1 year mortality rate of hip fricative is 2x as great for men; 10-20% patients die w/in a year

Men Participation

85% as much time with children Women 2x as much time on housework Women's housework hrs decline with employment hrs increased; men fail to compensate Women's paid work is viewed as secondary Usually achieve form in between the above two

Puberty

A flood of biological events leading to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity

Menopause for Men

After 40, quality and quantity and motility of sperm decreases; reduced blood flow and changes in connective tissue in the penis --> more stimulation needed and harder to maintain; 34% men affected by age 60 Viagra = temporary relief from erectile dysfunction Vision loss, risk of constricting blood vessels of eye with atherosclerosis and high blood pressure --> meds can cause this

Unemployment

Affects older people more often; disrupt tasks of midlife, generatively, reappraisal of life goals and accomplishments; age discrimination; depressing and weakening physical health

Expertise

Acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field or endeavor; supported by specialization that begins with selection a major/occupation Takes years to master domain; profound impact on information processing Deeper and more abstract knowledge; approach problems with underlying principles in mind; arrive at many solutions automatically; plan head - analyze and categorize elements and then select the best Necessary for creativity and problem-solving Directed at a social or aesthetic need Formulate new, culturally meaningful problems and ask significant questions

Basal Metabolic Rate

Amount of energy the body uses at complete rest; gradually declines as number of active muscle cells goes down; leads to weight gain btw 25 and 50 yrs

Problem-Centered Coping

Appraise situation as changeable, identify difficulty, decide what to do about it

Presbyopia

Around age 60, the lens loses its capacity to adjust to objects at varying distances entirely Lens enlarges; eye becomes farsighted between 40 and 60 Half rods are lost; loss of cones follows; less color discrimination

Neural Network View

As neurons in the brain die, breaks in neural networks occur; brain adapts by forming bypasses - new synaptic connections that go around the breaks but are less efficient; withering of myelin coating on fibers (cerebral cortex, frontal lobes, corpus callosum

Internal Working Model

Attitudes toward intimate relationships

Leaving Home

Average age of leaving has risen since 1960s Financially dependent; departures for education tend to occur earlier; full-time work and marriage later; over half return home for brief periods; role transitions bring people back Early 30s, 90% live on their own; parental home is a safety net If feel securely attached and well-prepared for independence, more satisfying interaction

Cognitive-Affective Complexity

Awareness of conflicting positive and negative feelings and coordination of them into a complex, organized structure that recognizes the uniqueness of individual experiences Altered dynamics of emotional lives Greater awareness of one's own and others' perspectives and motivations (vital aspect of emotional intelligence) More open-minded; helps regulate intense emotion; think rationally about real-world problems

Healthy Personality Development

Balance between 1) gratifying relationships with others and 2) contentment within ourselves

Fluid Intelligence

Basic information-processing skills; ability to detect relationships among visual stimuli, speed of analyzing information, capacity of working memory Often combines with crystallized to support effective reasoning and problem solving Less influenced by culture than by conditions in the brain and by learning unique to the individual Spatial visualization, digit span, letter-number sequencing, symbol search

Theater

Beats = small, goal-directed chunks of dialogue; represent role as sequence of goals; visualize image related to material; relate to one's own life; make memorizing easier Greater gains on tests of working-memory capacity, word recall, problem-solving --> improvements still evident 4 months after intervention ended - Research indicates that deeply processing verbal meanings strongly activates certain areas in frontal lobes, restoring them to patterns close to that of young adults

Traditional Marriages

Clear division of roles; husband is breadwinner and head of household; wife is caregiver and homemaker; still exists in Western nations

Self-Evaluation (Self-Esteem)

Close friendship, romantic appeal, job competence Typically rises; more attractive, mature, and capable

Identity Foreclosure

Commitment in the absence of exploration

Siblings as Friends

Commitment is defining characteristic of family ties; siblings become better companions and friend/sibling roles merge; contact, social support, enjoy being together Rivalry during childhood can disrupt bonds; relationships are important sources of psychological well-being; similar values/perspectives/mutual understanding Close sibling bonds may replace friendships

Romantic Love

Complex process, unfolds over time, affected by many events Meet in similar places and have similar values Some complementary traits yet usually more satisfaction and stability with same traits; OPPOSITES DO NOT ATTRACT Women = want intelligence, financial stability, morality; same age or older partner Men = want physical attractiveness and domestic skills; younger partner Evolutionarily: want man to ensure child's survival and well-being; want woman who can give birth and care for offspring Gender roles: men learn to be assertive and independent; women acquire nurturant behaviors; learn to appreciate this in the opposite sex BOTH place higher values on factors that relate to relationship satisfaction: attract, caring, dependability, maturity, pleasing disposition Gender differences and similarity is similar in gay men and lesbians Affected by memories of early parent-child bond as well as timing

Burnout

Condition in which long-term job stress leads to mental exhaustion, sense of loss of personal control, feelings of reduced accomplishment; more often in helping professions

Role Overload

Conflict between demands of work and family responsibilities Increased psychological stress, physical health problems, poorer marital relations, less effective parents, child behavior problems, poorer job performance Magnified for women in low-status work roles with rigid schedules and little autonomy Overall couples place work over family life Workplace supports needed; time-flexible policies; will lead to less stress and better/harder workers

Religion

Constructing a worldview or set of beliefs/values to live by, is essential for attaining adult status 1/4 unaffiliated with particular faith 50% remain stable in (non)religious commitment Women are more religious; same w/ immigrants and ethnic minorities Young people construct own views from variety of sources; discuss beliefs and experiences more often Sexual minority --> religiosity does not protect against drug taking

Practical Problem Solving

Continued growth in this; requires people to size up real-world situations and analyze how best to achieve goals that have a high degree of uncertainty; gains in expertise - an extensive, highly organized, and integrated knowledge base - help us understand why it takes this leap forward Rapid, implicit application of knowledge; years of learning, experience, effortful practice Interpret different perspectives, logical analysis, understand it better or attempt to; more rational decision makers

Glaucoma

Disease in which poor fluid drainage leads to buildup of pressure within the eye, damaging the optic nerve Affects more women than men; leading cause of blindness

Risks with Early Adulthood

Disappointments in love and work = adjust and radically change life path Feelings of loneliness at their peak Job, education, relationship, volunteering = successful passage through these years; promote development of resilience --> moral character, confidence, self-esteem, good school performance, mature epistemic cognition, connection w/ others and social institutions, financial assistance Parents who encourage personally valued choices; make child feel connected, secure, understood and loved Excessive parental control leads to low self-esteem and more anxiety, depression, and alcohol use Helicopter parenting leads to less school engagement and interferes with skills needed for independence

Globalization

Exchange of ideas, info, trade, and immigration among nations; some predict as this accelerates, emerging adulthood will become increasingly common Yet social conditions enabling this have recently contracted Various arguments as to whether emerging adulthood will expand; 70% youth still follow traditional route to adulthood

Identity Moratorium

Exploration without having reached commitment

Type A

Extreme competitiveness, ambition, impatience, hostility, angry outbursts, sense of time pressure More than 2x as likely to get heart disease Only 1-2 behavior are toxic; hostility included; angry outbursts; disagreeable behavior Expressed hostility = critical, condescending, rude, contempt, disgust Socially dominant = rapid, loud, insistent speech; cut off and talk over others Suppressing overt anger or ruminating is associated with high blood pressure and heart disease

Factors/Results of Generativity

Factors = parenting/having children; authoritative; midlife; successful marriages and close friends; religious community; extended family Low in anxiety/depression, autonomy, self-acceptance, satisfaction, leadership, openness, involve in political activities

Vocation

Good judgement, responsibility, dedication, cooperation are needed; gradual process beginning before adolescence Dynamic interaction between person and environment Factors influencing: personality, family, teachers, gender Personality: want job to complement this; investigative, social, realistic, artistic, conventional, enterprise to name a few Family: aspirations correlate with parents' jobs; high SES = white collar job (engineer, lawyer, doctor, scientist); low SES = blue collar job (plumber, construction worker, food service employee, office worker) School: # years completed predicts outcome of status; high SES have more connections and important info Parenting: high SES is about curiosity and self-direction (needed for high status careers); guidance, encouragement --> predict confidence in choice and attainment Teachers: caring and accessible, interested, work hard, feel more confident; college bound have closer relationships; teachers as role models and source of resilience Gender: women want more occupations largely held by men; dramatic rise in numbers of employed mom; progress has been slow; less well-paid, traditionally feminine professions (writing, social work, education, nursing); less confident and more likely to underestimate achievement; question ability to succeed; worry about demanding career + family responsibilities Professors: view female as less competent, less deserving, meriting a lower salary Aspirations rise in response to career counseling Mentoring can help see how their altruistic values can be fulfilled via STEM occupations 30% unemployed recent high school grads who do not continue education; few alternatives for jobs; "floundering period" National apprenticeship program could improve transition from high school to work for US young people; yet reluctance from employers, tough cooperation btw schools and businesses, prevent low SES from getting into lowest-skilled apprenticeship Build bridges between learning and working More men moving into women roles; support from women; stigmatized by men; need more support groups; less bias from faculty; less gender-typed; want to work with people

Grandparenthood

Highly important; significant milestone Valued elder Immortality through descendants Reinvolvement with personal past Indulgence Tell history and stories; teach children; role models; convey social/vocational/religious values Maternal grandmother visits most often; closest with grandchildren Increasingly becoming primary caregivers; serious family problems; emotional and financial strain; more assistance needed --> skipped-generation families 10 to now 50% middle aged living with parents; 2/3 older adults live close to at least one of their children; reassess relationships; positive changes Daughters taking care of parents still; sense of altruism and family duty Resource expansion = multiple roles are manageable and experiences w/in each are high in quality; intergeneration assistance r/t increased needs; self-esteem, mastery, sense of meaning and purpose

Parental Imperative Theory

Identification with traditional gender roles in maintained during the active parenting years to help ensure the survival of children; men = goal-oriented and women = nurturance; after kids, free to express "other-gender" side of personalities

Hardiness

Includes 3 personal qualities: control, commitment, challenge Likely to cope with stress Regard experiences as controllable Display a committed, involved approach to daily activities View change as a challenge - normal, welcome, even exciting part of life Influences situations; see stressful ones as manageable, interesting, enjoyable; seek social support; fewer physical/emotional symptoms Use active problem-centered oping General zest for life and optimistic outlook

Commitment Within Relativistic Thinking

Instead of choosing between opposing views, they try to formulate a more personally satisfying perspective that synthesizes contradictions Generates rational criteria against which options can be evaluated; willingly revise internal belief system when presented with relevant evidence; moves beyond stance that everything is a matter of opinion Seek different perspectives to deepen knowledge and understanding and clarify basis for their own perspective

Parenthood

Matter of individual choice; 70%; tend to be older Family size has declined Affected by money, personal and religious values, health conditions High status women choose this less because it slows work and career progress; no impact on men $280,000 to raise one child from birth-age 18 Greater freedom makes planning more challenging Slight decrease in relationship satisfaction after birth; also happens to non-parents If mom anticipates lack of support, usually becomes a reality Larger the difference in responsibility, greater the decline in satisfaction; exception = low SES Postpone it = more enthusiastic men and more involvement from them; second birth helps with this too Couples' groups help with transition; paid employment leave; financial pressures mean far less likely to take leave Lack of support w/in culture; struggle to find good childcare Co-parenting alliance w/in first few months is more likely to persist Navigate challenges of adolescent worse than children; seek family therapy during this period more than any other time Past = learned through experience and modeling Today = learn from social media, books, mothers (fathers turn to them), education courses exist and also provide social support

Sandwich Generation

Middle-aded care for multiple generations above and below them; obligation; personally rewarding

Climacteric

Midlife transition in which fertility declines Menopause concludes this for women = end of menstruation; average = early 50s; starting 30s-late 40s they become irregular; then stop altogether

Cultural Change

More education Delayed financial independence and career commitment Financially able and resources = extended exploration Non-western countries do not have emerging adulthood; nor do low SES US young people

Development Today

More variable Doubt stages can be made today Dynamic system of interacting forces Studies of new generations needed

Kinkeeper

Mothers; take on the role of gathering family for celebrations and making sure everyone stays in touch

Patricia Arlin

Movement from problem solving to problem finding is a core feature of post formal thought evident in highly accomplished artists and scientists 10 yr rule in development of master-level creativity Creative productivity rises in early adulthood, peaks in late 30s-40s and gradually declines Function of "career age" not chronological age; start later = peak later

Siblings

Much conflict/jealousy resolves; unique relationship with parents; differences now lead to warmth; less time and energy spend together; less intense and positive/negative feelings; culture influences quality of relationships

Relationships

Need for intimacy can be satisfied via friends, siblings, co-workers Find a partner and build emotional bond

5 Personality Traits

Neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness Agree and Conscien increase from teenage to middle age Neurot declines Extrov and Open do not change or decrease slightly (settling down; maturity) Overall highly stable

Sex

No sex partners increase slightly for men: 8-12% For women: 9-40% Male mortality rate and value women place on it are factors

Singlehood

Not living with an intimate partners; increased in recent years; 75% of those in their 20s; 30-34 yrs leads to 32%; slightly more than 1/2 with all ages considered Women more likely to remain single for many years; men can choose partners from a large pool of younger unmarried women; women have pickier characteristics and w/ age fewer men are available Percentage of never-married AA is 2x as great; high unemployment among black men interferes w/ marriage Freedom and mobility but loneliness, limited sexual/social life and reduced sense of security, feelings of exclusion from married couples Women receive more support from same-sex friendships Stressful period when friends marry; late 20s or early 30s; biological deadline; aware of pressures, shrinking pool of eligible partners, risks of childbearing, being different Increasing number are adopting

Friends

Number declines; social networking allows better communication - past decade the number rose; yet less willing to invest in non family ties unless very rewarding; selectivity of friendship increases; great value to relationship and extra steps taken to protect it; friendships = sources of pleasure and satisfaction

Information-Loss View

Older adults experience greater loss of information as it moves through the cognitive system; whole system must slow down to inspect and interpret information; the older, the more exaggerated the effect Score lower on memory, reasoning, problem-solving r/t slower reaction time Knowledge and experience can compensate Disagreement as to whether age-related changes have one common cause (processing speed) or multiple causes

Egalitarian Marriages

Partners relate as equals, sharing power and authority; try to balance time and energy they devote to occupations, children, and relationship; most well-educated career-oriented women expect this form of marriage

Culture & Love

Passion and intimacy form basis for romantic love Western: mature love is based on autonomy, appreciating, and intense emotion; consider love to be more important, especially passion Eastern: lifelong dependency, define self through role relationships, affected across broad social network leads to less intensity of relationship; greater weight on companionship and practical matters; less passion but equally strong intimacy and commitment Young people everywhere typically consider love a prerequisite to marriage Arranged marriage partners often consult one another before moving forward; parents usually support this

Creativity in Midlife

Peak in late 30s/early 40s, then decline; variation Quality may change with advancing age in 3 ways: - Deliberately thoughtful rather than spontaneous and intensely emotional - Unusual products to combining knowledge and experience into unique ways of thinking; integrate ideas - Largely egocentric concern to more altruistic goals

Childhood Attachment

Pg. 474; how parents bonded with you influences your internal working model of relationships later on

Retirement

Plannign is stressful; must be done early; 60-63 now; some work a few years longer to be financially ready Income drops 50% More time to spend doing anything; guided by interests; have a plan --> happier Less well-educated with lower life-time earning less likely to plan early --> they need to the most Think about finances, fitness, role adjustment, where to live, leisure and volunteer activities, health insurance, legal affairs (will; estate planning)

3 Qualities Increase

R/t increased social roles; opportunities for leadership and other complex responsibilities Self-Acceptance = good and bad qualities; feel positive Autonomy = less concerned about others' expectations/evaluations/ follow self Environmental Mastery = capable of managing a complex array of tasks "Prime of life" because comfort w/ self, independence, committed to personal values, assertive, satisfied with life

Adulthood

Reached in late twenties and early thirties

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Reaching out to others in ways that give to and guide the next generation; focus on extending commitments beyond oneself; combines need for self-expression w/ the need for communion "Belief in the species" = conviction that life is good and worthwhile; optimistic worldview that allow people to have hope; if no hope --> no improving humanity Stagnation = self-absorption; lack of interest in young, focus on what they can get from others, little interest in being productive or bettering the world

Creativity

Requires innovative thinking style; "outside the box"; tolerant of ambiguity; demands time and energy; persistence and drive to succeed

Midlife

Rise in crystallized abilities; adding to knowledge base; skills practiced daily 5 factors gained = verbal ability, inductive reasoning, verbal memory, spatial orientation, and numerical ability --> include both crystallized and fluid skills Perceptual speed decreases as cognitive processing slows; 20s - late 80s Accommodate by shifting to activities that depend less on cognitive efficiency and more on accumulated knowledge

Vocational Life

Salient aspect of identity and self-esteem Productivity equals or exceeds that of younger workers Hindered by negative stereotypes; gender/racial discrimination Job satisfaction increases; less for women and blue-collar Job involvement - importance of one's work to self-esteem - increases

Levinson

Seasons of life; reassess and rebuild life structure; 4 development tasks - reconcile opposing tendencies to attain internal harmony Young-Old = finding positive meaning in being old; giving up certain youthful qualities and transforming others Destruction-Creation = past hurtful acts are made up for by participating in activities that advance human welfare and leave a legacy for future generations Masculinity-Femininity = balance between the two trains; women become more assertive and autonomous; men become more nurturing and caring; androgyny is associated with favorable personality traits and adjustment Engagement-Separatness = reduce ambition and achievement and attend more fully to oneself; child-rearing moms move in opposite direction Flexibly modify identities; requires supportive social contexts; opportunities for advancement ease transition

Midlife Crisis

Self-doubt and stress especially during 40s, which prompt major restructuring of the personality Rather slow and streaky change usually Individual differences "Turning points" = most concern work; early adulthood for women w/ marriage and children and adjusting work lives to accommodate that; men in midlife r/t increased responsibility and advancement Fulfilling dream, learning something about oneself, even bad points led to personal growth 1/4 say they've had a midlife crisis; not r/t age but rather challenging glide events Making changes r/t life regret leads to better well-being Acknowledge loss/disappointment, become stronger, come to terms with them Few mid lifers who are in crisis typically have had early adulthoods in which gender roles, family pressures, or low income/poverty severely limited their ability to fulfill personal needs/goals at home or in the wider world

Personal Agency

Self-efficacy, purpose, determination, and responsibilities for outcomes; individualize identities; positively related to an information-gathering cognitive style and identity exploration followed by commitment

Friendships

Similar in age/sex/SES in adulthood too Affirmation, acceptance, autonomy, support in times of stress Trust, intimacy, loyalty = important Values, interests and enjoyment of company too 3/4 w/ Internet use social networking sites; little is known about the role of these online ties in adults' lives More intimate same-sex friendships for women than men Men have problems with intimacy and sharing weaknesses; women have higher expectations The more intimate the more satisfying and longer-lasting (social support, disclosure, warmth) Gay and lesbian develop out of friendships Romantic ties lead more disclosures to partners but best friendship can augment well-being when a marriage is not fully satisfying Career and work lead to other-sex friendships; decline for men after marriage but rise for women; learn about styles of intimacy; men confide more easily; men offer objective points of view; try to keep platonic; if develops into a romance, more stable and enduring; after breakup may even stay friends

Crystallized Intelligence

Skills that depend on accumulated knowledge and experience, good judgment, nasty of social conventions Abilities acquired because they are valued by the individual's culture Include vocabulary, general information, verbal comprehension, logical reasoning

Divorce and Remarriage

Stabilized since 1980s; rising age of marriage; 45% dissolve and many involve young children; transition to midlife w/ adolescent children leads to reduced satisfaction 2/3 remarry; failure is greater Ineffective problem-solving, weak attachments, demand-withdraw pattern, increasingly separate lives, few shared interests, inability to sense wife's distress Strongest predictors of divorce = infidelity, spending $ foolishly, drinking or using drugs, expressing jealousy, engaging in irritating habits, moodiness Background factors = young, non-religious, parental divorce Women are 2x as likely to initiate divorce

Styles of Parenthood

Stepparents enter as outsiders, and usually move into role too quickly; ineffective discipline; more tension and disagreement with remarried parents; child-rearing issues Stepmothers idealized image is shattered when ties do not develop instantly Biological moms feel jealous/uncooperative/possessive Stepfathers establish positive bonds relatively quickly; less pressure; w/o biological children can have unrealistic expectations; frequently withdraw from parenting Cooperation and supportive members affect ties; bonds are hard to establish 40% births are to single mothers; unwed parenthood has risen; more single women > 30 have kids; 64% birth to blacks in 20s w/o partner; tap extended family for help; 1/3 marriage occurs w/in 9 years after birth of first child (not necessarily with biological father) 1/2 low SES live in poverty if never-married; 50-60% have second child while unmarried (blacks) Child support enforcement reduces financial stress and increases father involvement Children achieve less well and more antisocial; more difficult for mothers 20-35% lesbians and 5-15% gay couples are parents, most through previous heterosexual marriage, some from adoption, and growing number through technology; some states still ban them from adopting; just as committed and effective parenting Children do not differ in mental health, peer relations, gender-role behavior; large majority heterosexual; experiment for a time with partners of both sexes; more tolerant communities and families Build "families of choice" through friends who become relatives; over time families become more positive and supportive of homosexual parents Concern is children will be stigmatized, most studies indicate this is rare r/t info withheld to others

Estrogens

Testes secrete these too; estrogens increase GH secretion, add to growth spurt in both sexes; stimulate gains in bone density

Identity

The major personality achievement of adolescence and a crucial step toward becoming a productive, content adult; involves defining who you are, what you value, and the directions you choose to pursue in life

Adolescence

The transition between childhood and adulthood

Millennial Generation

Thought to be more narcissistic and materialism Research claims changes are too small to be meaningful Average self-esteem today is no higher Committed to improving communities still; 30% = good chance volunteer in college; 41% some chance; 6% no chance Volunteers have stronger pluralistic orientation; respect for others; willingness to negotiate and discuss controversial issues 2012 elections; made up more of electorate than senior citizens; not "apathetic no shows" when it comes to voting

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Thoughts and feelings about making a permanent commitment to an intimate partner Close relationship is challenging; must balance self-determinate with intimacy Commitment to personally meaningful values and goals prepares for interpersonal commitment; identity + intimacy is more complex for women Intimacy leads to cooperation/acceptance/tolerance of various values and backgrounds Prepares for Generativity - childbearing and contributing to society --> emerges 20s and 30s All three are concurs for early adulthood and shift in emphasis; individualized

Loneliness

Unhappiness resulting from a gap between the social relationships we currently have and those we desire At risk when no intimate partner or lack of gratifying friendships Peaks in late teens and early 20s; declines steadily into the 70s Develop new relationships With age better at accepting it and using it positively; personal reflection Intense after loss of an intimate tie; immigrants tom collective cultures report high levels that those born in US/Canada Socially anxious or insecure working models of attachment to parents are more often intensely lonely; self-defeating attitudes/behaviors; unresponsive/insensitive/hostile to others --> leads to further isolation Can motivate one to reach out; find ways to be comfortable alone

Identity Achievement

Commitment to values, beliefs, and goals; following a period of exploration

Coruminate

Focusing on deeper thoughts and feelings; mulling over problems and negative emotions repeatedly; can trigger anxiety and depression while leading to high friendship quality; conflict between intimate friends leads to risk for relational aggression

Delinquncy

12-17 yr olds account for 14% of arrests Almost all have committed a minor crime like petty stealing or disorderly conduct Rises over early/middle adolescence and then declines Antisocial behavior and reward seeking increases among teens; desire for peer approval Over time peers become less influential Repeated arrests are a concern Teens cause 15% of violent offenses Childhood-onset conduct problems are more likely to persist than those that first appear in adolescence Factors: low-SES are punished more; difficult temperament; peer rejection; poor school grades; low intelligence; association w/ antisocial peers; families low in warmth and high in conflict; disrupted parenting r/t separation or divorce; unsupervised kids; poverty-stricken neighborhoods w/ limited extracurricular and employment opportunity and rigid class rules w/ weak instruction and large classes Intervention/prevention must start early and take place at multiple levels Zero tolerance policies can make things worse; low-SES 2-3x as likely to be punished, especially of minor misbehaviors --> heightens dropout and antisocial behavior when excludes students from school Train parents in communication, monitoring, and discipline Improve youth social skills, moral reasoning, anger management, self-regulation (emotional) skills BEST: multi systemic therapy; family intervention w/ integrating violent youths into positive school/work/leisure activities; disengage from deviant peers --> nonaggressive environments; improve parent-child relationship and school performance; limit family instability

Sexual Coercion

18% women have experienced rape 45% have experienced other forms of sexual aggression; 8/10 are under 30; abusers are men they know (manipulative, lack empathy/remorse, pursue casual sexual relationships, approve of violence against women, accept rape myths Interpret women's behaviors inaccurately 1/2 take place during intoxication Culture forces and gender roles play a part; societal acceptance elf violence; exposure through media dulls sensitivity 7% men are victims; authorities rarely recognize female-imitated forced sex as illegal and few men report cases Consequences: shock, confusion, withdrawal, numbing, fatigue, tension, disturbed sleep, depression, substance abuse, social anxiety, suicidal thoughts - like reaction to extreme trauma survivors (victims of ongoing behavior fall into pattern of passivity and fear of taking any action can result) More illness across body systems, more likely to engage in negative health behaviors like smoking and alcohol Have community services, therapy (individual and group sessions), routine screening, validation of experience, safety planning

Pregnancy

20% of sexually active teens in the US are at risk for unintended pregnancy because they do not use contraception consistently 727,000 became pregnant last year (12,000 under 15 yrs old) 3 Factors: - Effective sex education reaches too few teens - Convenient, low-cost contraceptives are scarce - Many families live in poetry, which encourages risk-taking w/o considering the future implications of their behavior 1/4 end in abortion Lives worsen after baby is born: - Educational attainment: before age 18 reduces likelihood of completing high school; 70% graduate - Marital patterns: reduces change of marriage; increases likelihood of divorce; spend more time as single parents; 35% become pregnant again w/in 2 years; 1/2 go on to deliver second child - Economic circumstances: welfare, work low-paying and unsatisfying jobs, fathers unemployed or earn little, 50% committed illegal offenses that led to prison, reduced educational and occupational attainment persists into adulthood

Depression

20-50% experience mild to moderate feelings; bouncing back after short time 15-20% one or more major depressive episodes 2-8% chronically depressed Increases sharply from 12-16 in industrialized nations Teenage girls = 2x as likely The stereotypical view of "storm and stress" leads adults to minimize seriousness of adolescent depressing (think 'just a passing phase') Factors: heredity, experience (stressed parents; parents w/ depression or psychological disorders) Learned-helpless attributional style Events can spark it like breakup, divorce, failing at something important, end of a friendship

Friendship

3 Characteristics: intimacy (psychological closeness), mutual understanding of values/beliefs/feelings; loyal (stick up for one another and not leave each other for someone else); self-disclosure (sharing of private thoughts and feelings) Less possessive of friends r/t autonomy; recognize friends need freedom too Opportunities to explore the self; develop understanding of each other; foundation for future intimate relationships; help young people deal with the stresses of adolescence; improve attitudes toward and involvement in school

Sexual Orientation

4% identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual; heredity contributes (possibly x-linked) 3-Phase sequence in coming out: - Feeling Different (6-12): play interests more like those of the other gender; drawn to quieter activities; more emotionally sensitive (boys); more athletic and active (girls); sexual questioning - greater anxiety and dissatisfaction - Confusion (11-12 boys, 14-15 girls): feeling sexually different; awareness of same-sex physical attraction; inner struggle and sense of isolation; lack role models and social support; some try to immerse themselves in heterosexuality; alcohol, drugs, suicidal attempts - Self-Acceptance (end of adolescence): accept sexual identify; crossword about whether to tell others; often face hostility and verbal/physical attacks; many establish relationship before coming out to parents; difficulty finding others like them; support groups are helpful - easier in large cities than in rural areas

Exercise

47% are sufficiently active More women are inactive; greater among low SES Reduces breast and colon cancer, less likely to get diabetes and cardiovascular disease, reduces obesity, reduces anxiety and depression and improves mood/alertness/energy, improves overall cognitive functioning, strengthen immunity, improves self-esteem and life satisfaction

Sexuality

65% have sex by end of high school; wider range of choices and lifestyles nowadays Display of sexuality has increased since 1950s National Health and Social Life Survey in early 1990s was first in-depth study of adult's sex lives; far less active than we think; partners tend to be similar in age, education, ethnicity, religion; meet in conventional ways > 1/3 adults use dating websites; 22% met on Internet (second most common way to meet a partner) Lack of social interaction can lead to idealized impressions; lead to disappointment Women and men eventually have similar average number of lifetime partners; effective contraception has increased number Activity increases in 20s and 30s as people cohabit and marry; then declines r/t demands of daily life; PATTERNS UNAFFECTED BY EDUCATION/SES/ETHNICITY 80% in relationships are satisfied; 88% married couples happy Involves more than technique; also includes love, affection, fidelity

Civic Engagement

A complex combination of cognition, emotion, and behavior Knowledge of political issues, commitment to making a difference in community, skills for achieving goals like how to resolve differing views fairly Family (encourage child to form opinions about controversial issues), school (democratic climate, extracurricular activities), and community experiences (community service, service-learning programs, volunteering) contribute to this

Ethnic Identity

A sense of ethnic group membership and attitudes and feelings associated with that membership

Mature Identity

A sense of self-continuity as one moves through various roles in daily life; redefined in adulthood as commitment and choices are reevaluated; becomes more complex, well-organized, and balanced (of strengths and limitations)

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence; if young people's earlier conflicts were resolved negatively or if society limits their choices to ones that do not match their abilities and desires, they may appear shallow, directionless, and unprepared for the challenges of adulthood No longer described as a "crisis" but as "a process of exploration followed by commitment"

Propositional Thought

Adolescents' ability to evaluate the logic of propositions (verbal statements) without referring to real-world circumstances Example: chip problem; adolescents analyze the logic of the statements; they know "either-or" is always true and "and" is always false, regardless of poker chip's color

Imaginary Audience

Adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern; self-conscious; critical of appearance; any critical remark is mortifying

Substance Abuse

Alcohol and drug use peaks between 19 and 25 yrs, then declines steadily; eager to try wide range of experiences Risks = brain damage, lasting impairments in mental functioning, unintentional injury and death Intensify psychological problems that underlie addiction More info needs to be disseminated; increase among women; more than 90% men and 85% women who smoke start before age 21 Reduced oxygen delivery; heart rate and blood pressure increase; damage eye, skin, hair loss, poor wound healing, reduced sperm count and earlier menopause; increased risk of stroke, heart attack, cancer, melanoma, acute leukemia 1/3 will die from smoking-related disease; vast majority will suffer from at least one illness Treatment programs fail: 90% start smoking again w/in 6 months 10% men and 3% women are heavy drinkers; 1/3 alcoholics (people who cannot limit use) Genetic contribution (genes modering alcohol metabolism and influencing impulsivity and sensation seeking); 1/2 though have no history; if part of religious/ceremonial activities, less likely to be abused Poverty, hopelessness, history of physical/sexual abuse in childhood increase risk sharply Impairs brain's ability to control thought and action; widespread physical damage; 30% of fatal motor crashes involve drunk drivers; 1/2 convicted felons and 1/2 policy activity in large cities involve alcohol Part of sexual coercion (date rape and domestic violence) Combine personal and family counseling, group support, aversion therapy; 50% relapse w/in few months

Identity Diffusion

An apathetic state characterized by lack of both exploration and commitment

Formal Operational Stage

Around age 11; develop the capacity for abstract, systemic, scientific thinking; concrete = operate on reality --> now formal = operate on operations; come up with new, more general logical rules through internal reflection Formal operations require language-based and other symbolic systems that do not stand for real things, such as those in higher mathematics Involves verbal reasoning about abstract concepts; time, space, matter in physics and justice and freedom in philosophy

Mature Moral Thinkers

Behavior must coincide with beliefs to create and maintain a just social world; act prosocially; less often engage in cheating/antisocial/aggressive behavior

Margaret Mead

Believed the social environment is entirely responsible for the range of teenage experiences from erratic and agitated to calm and stress-free

Video Games

Boys play these more,a long with computer programs and creation web pages --- analyze data and use graphics programs; more computer knowledge

Growth Spurt

First outward sign of puberty is this; the rapid gain in height and weight

Bulimia Nervosa

Young people (mainly girls buy gay and bisexual boys are vulnerable too - just like with anorexia) engage in strict dieting and excessive exercise accompanied by binge eating, often followed by deliberate vomiting and purging with laxatives; 2-4% of teenage girls, 5% of whom previously suffered from anorexia

Immune System

Capacity increases during adolescence and declines after 20; thymic hormones reduced w/ shrinking thymus; B cells release far more antibodies when T cells are present --- drop in that too Stress can weaken system response - Psychological (caring for sick, sleep deprivation, depression) - Physical (pollution, allergens, poor nutrition, rundown housing)

Personal Fable

Certain that others are observing and thinking about them, they develop an inflated opinion of their own importance - a feeling that they are special and unique; experiences that others cannot possibly understand; DO NOT result from egocentrism like Piaget thought; rather, they are result of advances in perspective taking which causes teens to be more concerned with what others think Predicted self-esteem and overall positive adjustment; viewing self as highly capable and influential helps young people cope with the challenges of adolescence; can contribute to risk taking by reducing sense of vulnerability

Influences on Moral Reasoning

Child-Rearing = warmth, exchange of ideas, appropriate demands, moral discussions, prosocial behavior, supportive atmosphere --> gain most Schooling = higher education introduces social issues - political and cultural groups; more aware of society diversity and advanced in moral reasoning Peer Interaction = differing viewpoints promotes understanding; cooperation between equals rather than authority relations; cross-race reduces racial/ethnic prejudice Culture = industrialized nations move through stages quicker and advance more b/c in villages moral cooperation is based on direct relations --- no development of moral understanding (based on laws and government institutions and role of larger social structures); collectivist cultures are often more other-directed ----Is highest level about Western societies and individualism??? Common just morality is evident in responses of those from vastly different cultures

Psychological Stress

Chronic stress harms brain's ability to manage stress; increases risk of impairment; obesity/diabetes/hypertension/atherosclerosis High incidence of heart disease in low SES groups Poor immune system Gastrointestinal difficulties Middle and older aged adults are betting at coping; more problem-centered or emotion-centered coping occurs; social support acts as a buffer

Lawrence Kohlberg

Cognitive-developmental theory of moral understanding; "Heinz dilemma" = pits the value of obeying the law (not stealing) against the value of human life (saving a dying person) Emphasized it is the way an individual reasons about the dilemma, not the content of the response (whether or not to steal), that determines moral maturity Most advanced moral thinkers support individual rights (save the life and steal the drug) 3 levels; 2 stages in each level Moral understanding is promoted by same factors Piaget thought were important for cognitive development: actively grappling with moral issues and noticing weaknesses in current reasoning, and gains in perspective taking which allow one to resolve moral conflicts in more effective ways

Body Image

Conception of and attitude toward one's physical appearance

Foreclosure & Diffusion

Concerns and adjustment difficulties; dogmatic, inflexible-cognitive style; internalize values w/o evaluation; resist info that threatens their position Long-term diffused leads to diffuse-avoidant cognitive style; avoid dealing with personal decisions and problems; allow situational pressures to dictate their reactions; go along with the crowd

Failure of Endocrine System

Decreased estrogen production; drop in GH = loss of muscle and bone mass/addition of body fat/thinning of skin/worse cardiovascular functioning Hormone therapy for this leads to cancer, muscle pain, fluid retention in tissues Diet and activity help limit aspects

G Stanley Hall

Described the "storm and stress" of adolescence; a turbulent period that resembles the era in which humans evolved from savages into civilized beings

Postformal Thought

Development beyond formal operational stage; increasingly rational/felxible/practical ways of thinking that accept uncertainties

Information Processing View

Diverse aspects of executive function are underlying cognitive gains in adolescence: attentive (more selective), inhibition (of irrelevant stimuli and well-learned responses), strategies (more effective, better retrieval), knowledge (increases), metacognition (expands, new insights and strategies for solving problems), cognitive self-regulation (better monitoring, evaluation, and redirecting thinking), and speed of thinking/processing capacity (increase, more info held at once, more growth) Metacognition is central to adolescent cognitive development

Dualistic Thinking

Dividing information, values, and authority into right/wrong, good/bad, we/they Younger students regard knowledge as made of separate units whose truth could be determined by comparing them to objective standards apart from person/situation; engaged in this type of thinking Believe knowledge is certain and teachers have knowledge, approach learning by accepting what they are given

Androgens

Especially testosterone, exert a GH-enhancing effect and contribute to gains in body size; leads to muscle growth and body and facial hair in males

Stereotype Threat

Fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype - causes girl to do worse than their abilities allow on difficult math problems

Carol Gilligan

Feminist perspective; "ethic of care" in females, while males stress justice Critics argue both sexes stress justice and caring

Spermarche

First ejaculation; around age 13.5

Menarche

First menstruate; around 12.5 for North American girls; seen even earlier now; 10.5-15.5 years is the range Overweight and obesity are contributing to earlier menarche

Cliques

Groups of 5-7 who are friends and usually resemble one another in family background, attitudes, and values; limited to same-sex members Predicts academic and social competence in girls; more important; expresses emotional closeness By mid-adolescence, mixed-sex cliques are common

Achievement & Moratorium

Healthy routes; active, information-gathering cognitive style to make decisions and solve prelims; evaluate info and critically reflect on and revise views; feel more in control; more advanced in moral reasoning

Atherosclerosis

Heavy deposits of plaque containing cholesterol and fats collect on the walls of the main arteries; sex hormones may heighten results of a high-fat diet

Health and Fitness

Leading cause of death in early adulthood: unintentional injuries, cancer, cardiovascular disease, suicide, homicide, AIDS Higher poverty and obesity rates; lenient gun-contorl Income/education/occupational status are health indicators Eating wrong type and amount of food --> long-term consequences for adulthood BMI: 25-29 = overweight; 30 or greater = obese; 36% of adults are obese; 33% overweight 1980s is when obesity began to soar Suffer great social discrimination; anxiety, depression, low self-esteem; negative stereotype that obesity is a personal choice Intervention (difficult): lifestyle change in diet and exercise; accurate record of food intake (30-35% believe eat less than they do); counseling and education and encouragement; teach problem-solving skills especially during periods where high self-control is needed; longer treatments needed (25-40 weeks) so habits can develop Regular exercise creates chemical byproducts that help eliminate cholesterol from the body

Early Adulthood

Leaving home, completing education, beginning full-time work, attaining economic independence, establishing a long-term sexually and emotionally intimate relationship, and starting a family

Gender Intensification

Increased gender stereotyping of attitudes and behavior; movement toward more traditional gender identity; stronger for adolescent girls Puberty magnifies sex differences Dating leads to more gender-typed activity to increase attractiveness Cognitive changes and greater concern of what others think Parents with traditional gender-role beliefs

Decline in Immune System

Increased susceptibility to disease and cancer and changes in blood vessel walls

Adrenal Androgens

Influence girl's height spurt and stimulate growth of underarm and pubic hair; little impact on boys

Culture & Identity

Influences another aspect of mature identity: constructing a sense of self-continuity despite major personal changes

Suicide

Jumps sharply at this time; 3rd leading cause of death; boys more often in 3/4:1 ratio; girls have more unsuccessful attempts; gender-role expectations may contribute Factors: family poverty, school failure, alcohol/drug use, depression Gay/lesbian/bisexual are at high risk, attempt this 3x as often 2 types of people: highly intelligent but solitary and withdrawn; antisocial tendency group Triggering events include parental blaming or getting caught or breakup of important peer relationship Belief in personal fable (cognitive change) contributes; think no one can possibly understand their intense pain Pick up on signals; provide counseling/support especially for cultural heritage connection; listen/express compassion; antidepressant medication; gun-control legislation; support for bereavement; less media publicity

Cross-Linkage Theory of Aging

Over time, protein fibers that make up the body's connective tissue form bonds/links with one another; when these cross-link, tissue becomes less elastic leading to many negative outcomes - Loss of flexibility - Clouding of lens - Clogging of arteries Reduced by external factors like regular exercise and a healthy diet

Fertility

Problems w/ 11% 15-29 yrs; 14% 30-34 yrs; 40% 35-44 yrs Reduced quality of ova (late 30s-40s), decreased semen volume, sperm motility, % normal sperm (after 35)

Acculturative Stress

Psychological distress resulting from conflict between the minority and the host culture

School Transition

REVIEW ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND DROPPING OUT

William Perry: Epistemic Cognition

Refers to our reflections on how we arrived at facts, beliefs, and ideas; mature/rational thinkers consider justifiability of their conclusions; if cannot justify, revise it and seek more balanced route to gaining knowledge Mature epistemic cognition contributes to effective decision-making and problem-solving Advances depend on further gains in metacognition, likely to occur in situations that challenge young people's perspectives and induce them to consider rationality of their thought processes Challenging, ill-structured problems, interaction w/ others roughly equal in knowledge/authority beneficial for preventing acceptance of another's reasoning based on peer or expertise Collective rationality - challenge each other to justify reasoning and collaborate in working out most defensible strategy

Conventional Level

Regard conformity to social rules as important, but not for reasons of self-interest; maintaining current social system is thought to ensure positive relationships and societal order Stage 3: good boy - good girl orientation; morality of interpersonal cooperation (rules promote social harmony; maintain affection/approval of peers and ratlines; capacity to view a relationship from point of an outside observer; ideal reciprocity = same concern for welfare of another as they do for themselves AKA "Golden Rule" Stage 4: social-order-maintaining orientation (larger perspective of societal laws; rules must be enforced in same way for everyone; each member has personal duty to uphold them; vital for social order

Pragmatic Approach to Morality

Reject Kohlberg; believe each person makes moral judgments at varying levels of maturity depending ton current context and motivations; practical tools that people use to achieve goals (rather than efforts to arrive at just solutions) People act first, then invoke moral judgments to rationalize, regardless of self-centered or prosocial behavior; use moral judgments for immoral purposes (excuse their transgressions) ^ Others argue people often rise above self-interest to defend others' rights; moral leaders in business; greater higher-stage reasoning; forethought behavior

Primary Sexual Characteristics

Reproductive organs (ovaries, uterus, vagina, testes, scrotum, penis)

Dating

Seek partners who offer personal compatibility, companionship, affection, and social support by late adolescence; ready for greater psychological intimacy Early attachment bonds lead to an internal working model - set of expectations about attachment figures (guides later close relationships) Security = quality of friendship and romantic ties Early dating is related to drug use, delinquency, and poor academic achievement Uninvolved parenting and aggression in family/peer relationships = increased risk of dating violence

Autonomy

Sense of oneself as a separate, self-governing individual; becomes an important task 2 aspects: emotional component (relying more on oneself for support/guidance) and behavioral component (making decisions independently w/ one's own judgment and suggestions of others) Parent-child relationships remain vital for helping adolescents become autonomous, responsible individuals Predicts high self-reliance, effortful control, academic achievement, positive work orientation, favorable self-esteem, ease of separation in transition to college

Consequences of New Cognitive Capacities

Sensitivity to pubic criticism, exaggerated sense of personal uniqueness, idealism and criticism, difficulty making everyday decisions

Self-Concept

Separate traits into abstract descriptors (smart and curious --> intelligent); often contradictory generalizations; pressure to display different selves in various situations; "which is the real me"? Emphasis on social virtues; increasing concern w/ being viewed positively by others

Substance Use and Abuse

Seriously troubled hong people; impulsive/disruptive/hostile attitudes seen in early childhood; express unhappiness through antisocial acts; genetic roots Environmental factors = low-SES, family mental health probe, older sibling or parent drug abuse, lack of warmth and involvement by parents, physical/sexual abuse, poor school performance 35-85% relapse rates w/ therapy; start it gradually and focus on increasing motivation

Crowd

Several cliques with similar values form a larger, loosely organized group known as this; based on reputation and stereotype; identity within larger social structure of school Many peer-group values are extensions of ones acquired at home Cliques and Crowds can modify beliefs and behavior Decline in importance as adolescents settle on personal values and goals; no longer need to broadcast who they are through dress/language/activities "Brains" and "normal" crowds grow as teenagers focus more on their future

Deidealization of Parents

Start to see parents as "just people"; no longer bend as easily to parental authority; still need guidance and protection from dangerous situations since emotional/social network outpaces cognitive-control network Parent-child relationship is the single most consistent predictor of mental health Young people fill unstructured time w/ activities away from home (jobs, volunteer pursuits, time with friends)

Anorexia Nervosa

Tragic eating disorder in which young people starve themselves because of a compulsive fear of getting fat; 1% of North American and Western European teenage girls affected; boys account for 10-15% of cases; boys are on the rise

Relavistic Thinking

Viewing all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought; aware of a diversity of opinions on many topics; give up possibility of absolute truth in favor of multiple truths, each relative to its context More flexible and tolerant; realization that one's own beliefs are often subjective; construct/interpret/evaluate evidence from diverse frames of reference; acutely aware that each person creates own "truth"

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Visible on the outside of the body and serve as additional signs of sexual maturity (breast development, underarm and pubic hair)

Metacognitive Understanding

Vital for scientific reasoning; experiment with various strategies, reflect on and revise them, and become aware of the nature of logic; apply their appreciation of logic to an increasingly wide variety of situations; ability to think about theories, deliberately isolate variables, consider all influential variables, and actively seek discomforting evidence is RARELY present BEFORE adolescence Many still continue to show self-serving bias - apply logic to ideas they doubt more than ideas they favor; open-minded approach is also a personality trait

Multitasking

Working on one task activates hippocampus - vital role in explicit memory, enables new information to be used flexibly and adaptively; conscious, strategic recall Multitaskers activate subcortical areas involved in implicit memory - a shallower, automatic form of learning that takes place unconsciously

Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning

Young people start with a hypothesis, or prediction about variable that might affect an outcome, from which they deduce logical, testable inferences; then they systematically isolate and combine variables to see which of these inferences are confirmed in the real world; problem solving begins with possibility and proceeds to reality Pendulum Problem: adolescents can hold three factors constant while varying one at a time and test each variable separately and if necessary in combination; concrete operational cannot separate the effects of each variable; length, width, height, and force are all factors Concrete children have more difficulty inhibiting activation of well-learned knowledge which impedes effective reasoning (dogs bigger than elephants and elephants bigger than mice, dogs bigger than mice -they say false) Logical necessity = the accuracy of conclusions drawn from the premises rests on the rules of logic and not on real-world confirmation