Developmental psychology test #3
Social referencing
. Social reinforcement refers to reinforcers such as smiles, acceptance, praise, acclaim and attention from other people. In some cases, simply being in the presence of other people can serve as a natural social reinforcement.
Poverty
1 person: $11,500 Family of 4: $23,500
birth order effect
Birth order refers to the order a child is born in their family; first-born and second-born are examples. Birth order is often believed to have a profound and lasting effect on psychological development. an example is first borns are suppose to be more intelligent( first borns account for more nobel prize winners)and later borns are more heavily represent among nobel peace and literature winners
Prematurity
Born before 9 months
experience- dependent skills
Can be learned at any point in life
diasthesis- stress/dual risk
Environmental stress exacerbates genetic vulnerabilities Diasthesis (Predisposition) interacts with the subsequent stress response of an individual Behavior is a result of genetic vulnerability AND risk factors in the environment
Shared environment
Environments experiences by both siblings within the same family that have the SAME effect on both of them Possible Examples Family Income School Quality Parental affection
non-shared environmental
Environments that are uniquely experienced by a person, relative to their sibling Possible Examples Birth order effects and differential treatment by parents Peer effects Different classrooms at schools Chance experiences and encounters
behavioral genetics studies
Examine the role of genetic and environmental influences on behavior Most common methods
Reductionism
Attempts to explain complex, higher-level phenomena (ex. Behavior) by appealing to lower, more fundamental level things/phenomena
Vaccines
Autism NOT linked to number of vaccines given in total OR in a given day
Thimerosol
Autism rates have not decreased since this was removed from vaccines Mercury derivative
mind-blindness
Autistic people lack information about other people's intentions, feelings, and thoughts
congenital adrenal hyplasia
Excessive production of androgens Can alter development of primary or secondary sex characteristics in some Girls showed preferences for cars, Lincoln logs, etc.
big 5 personality traits
extraversion/extroversion openness conscientiousness agreeableness neuroticism
Hex- A
provides enzyme for lyzomes
brain plasticity
refers to the brain's ability to CHANGE throughout life. The human brain has the amazing ability to reorganize itself by forming new connections between brain cells
niche-picking
seen in birth order when one child is good at something the other child will pick something else to be good at so they are not competing
How does the first borns death effect IQ?
-If the first born dies the second born scores higher - this means the family dynamic is the best explanation not the environment
What might cause birth order effects to occur
1. Prenatal/ guestational factors- maternal antibody levels tend to increase with higher birth order 2. Family Resources model - more children, less resources 3. Parental resources
Why might birth order effect occur ?
1. prenatal / gestational factors- maternal antibody levels tend to increase with higher birth order 2. Family Resources model - the more children in a family the less resources
Autism spectrum disorder
Complex disorders of brain development characterized by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors (autismspeaks.org) Core Deficits in Autism Social Communication & Interaction (Less Likely To:) Restricted, Repetitive, Behaviors, Interests, or Activities (RRBs) Attend to others Seek attention Be interested in engaging with others Respond to simple social games Respond to own name Express wide range of emotions Imitate Gesture: pointing, showing, reaching, waving Practice raspberries, babbling, or vocalizations Repetitive motor movements Hand-Flapping Spinning, pacing, jumping Toe-walking Need for "sameness" Same "things" Same routines Highly restricted, fixated interests Sensitive to sensory output............................ Red Flags (TA Lecture) No big smiles or other warm, joyful expressions by 6 months No back-and-forth sharing of sounds or other facial expressions by 9 months No babbling by 1 year No back-and-forth gestures by 1 year No words by 16 months No meaningful, two-word phrases (not including imitating/repeating) by 2 years Estimated: 2 per 1000 children
joint attention
Coordinating attention with a social partner around an object for the purpose of sharing an awareness of the object (TA Lecture) Problems responding to joint attention AND initiating joint attention In language and social interaction, infants attend to what another person is looking at by 1 year Paying attention to others' emotions and responding accordingly Distress of another does not seem to affect someone with autism People with autism DO have feelings, but have a hard time expressing them or explaining them in a way others can understand Understanding that other people's desires may differ from one's own
correlations
Determining heritability by measuring a trait in individuals with shared genes and/or shared environments Biological parent Siblings Identical twins (raised together OR apart) Fraternal twins (raised together OR apart) Adoptive parents and adopted child Biological parents and adopted child Based on degree of genetic relatedness, do you get a degree of correlation? Height, IQ, personality, etc.
Brain localization
Different parts of the brain work for different things
abecedarian program
Full-time day care: 50 weeks a year - from birth until children entered school Cost: $13,900 per child/year · For every $1 spent, it saves $7 · 7:1 benefit to cost ratio Much bigger impact because you are catching the birth-3 years that head start was missing More cognitive benefits Try to also get parents involved: teach them how to educate and stimulate their children outside of school
differential facilitation
Genetic differences are most evident in average environments because the quality of environment needed to facilitate functioning varies by individual
Modularity
Good at one thing, but not so good at another
sickle cell anemia analogy
Harpending and Cochran Carriers for the lysosomal storage disorders may actually benefit from greater intelligence as a result of lipid build up Sickle cell anemia carriers = immune to malaria
headstart program
Head Start is a program of the United States Department of Health and Human Services that provides comprehensive early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families. The program's services and resources are designed to foster stable family relationships, enhance children's physical and emotional well-being, and establish an environment to develop strong cognitive skills. -benefits of early education- Research has established that preschool education can produce substantial gains in children's learning and development but researchers disagree about whether such gains are permanent - preschool education is beneficial for test scores even the more effective programs tend to show positive results in the short rather the long term
General intelligence
Hexosaminidase A (HEX A) deficiency is caused by a deficiency in an enzyme called beta-hexosaminidase A. This enzyme helps break down a particular fatty acid called GM2 ganglioside.
Cortisol
High cortisol levels are indicators of stress · Stress affects: memory, learning, and attention § Affects impulse control § Stress can make it difficult for children to focus on school because of things going on at home
"learned helplessness"
If an organism has tried to avoid an aversive stimuli before, but has failed then it learns that it is "helpless" to this stimuli and gives up trying even if there might be a way out of it o "If people in poverty attempt something to bring themselves out of poverty and it fails then they stop attempting to do things to get out of poverty"...............Seligman o Three Groups of Dogs - Group One: dogs put in harnesses then released after a period of time - Group Two: dog was given an electric shock which it could end at any time by pressing a lever - Group Three: dog was matched with another dog in group 2, whenever a dog in group 2 got a shock the one in group 3 got the same, but its lever would not stop the shock To this dog, it seems as if the shock ended at random even though it was the dog it was paired with stopping it o Part 2 of Experiment - Dogs were given shocks, but all groups could jump over barrier to avoid the shocks - Groups 1 and 2 learned quickly, while Group 3 let the shocks happen without doing anything because they had learned that nothing they tried would help
differential susceptibility
Individuals vary in the degree they are affected by experiences or quality of environment
age trent of heritability
Influence of genes seems to have a cumulative effect over time
Gene shortage
It can take some 100 to 2500 genes to make or work each adaptation, yet the human genome project revealed that there are only some 30,000 functional genes in humans. This is no where near enough to produce all of the behavioral traits being claimed, such as the emotions, fears, disgusts, and daily decisions on levels of promiscuity, helpfulness and conduct. Combination of many genes is what results in variety and genetic disorders
corpus callosum
Larger splenium located here (for females) More width and surface area Leads to more communication between the hemispheres
domain- specific knowledge & modularity
Learning theories of development hold that we have many independent, specialized knowledge structures RATHER than one cohesive knowledge structure
prefrontal cortex
Linked to attention, planning, emotional inhibition, and decision making Girls' prefrontal cortex develops at earlier ages Girls more likely to maintain active brain states - even when bored
goals
Male Goals: Making a lot of money Inventing or creating something Having a full-time career Being successful in their career Female Goals: Working part-time at some point Living close to parents or family Having a meaningful spiritual life Having strong friendships A lot of overlap between the two, but seems to follow stereotype lines when broken apart
Asperger's syndrome
May have normal IQ with no speech delays OR Higher IQ Higher language functioning Better than "normal": Visual-spatial skills - like block design Perfect musical pitch
variability/variance hypothesis
Men are overrepresented at the high and low end of the IQ spectrum Amount of variance in IQs is nowhere near as large as variance in number of males and females entering physical sciences and math fields
Meta analysis
Meta-analysis is the statistical procedure for combining data from multiple studies. When the treatment effect (or effect size) is consistent from one study to the next, meta-analysis can be used to identify this common effect.
meta-analysis
Meta-analysis is the statistical procedure for combining data from multiple studies. When the treatment effect (or effect size) is consistent from one study to the next, meta-analysis can be used to identify this common effect.
Pieitrophy
Most genes are involved in multiple functions It is not ONE GENE-ONE SKILL correlation, but multiple genes being involved in one function etc. Infinite number of gene combinations could result in a multitude of genetically influenced (or even genetically determined) physical, behavioral, or cognitive traits
MMR vaccine
NOT linked to autism
nature vs nurture
Nature is defined as how genes, hormones and neurotransmitters interact to influence human behavior vs how upbringing, peer influence, culture , schooling, parenting and reinforcement/ punishment schedule effects human behavior
Heirarchical reductionism
Richard Dawkins Reduction to component parts, but not to the smallest possible parts
sex vs gender
Sex: what you were biologically born as Gender: what you identify as
Theory of mind
Simon Baron-Cohen Renders people on the Autism spectrum as unable to identify or respond to the thoughts, beliefs, or emotions of other people
Low birth weight
Smaller than 6-8 lbs. § Poorer brain development § More impactful on IQ than prematurity Parents lack the resources for prenatal care and nutrition
Twin studies
Studies the difference between nature and nurture by observing the differences between twins, identical (same sperm and egg; 100% overlap of genes) and fraternal (separate egg and sperm; 50%-ish overlap of genes; pretty much same genetic relatedness as siblings) twins
empathizer
Tend to be female. • Show the drive to identify another person's emotions and thoughts, and to respond to these with an appropriate emotion. • Empathizers intuitively figure out how people are feeling, and how to treat people with care and sensitivity. • Not preoccupied with patterns or repetitive events. Relaxed about details. • Develop language rapidly. Sociable and communicative.
Systemizers
Tend to be male. • Possess a drive to analyse and explore a system - such as a vehicle, a computer, a maths equation, or even an army unit - to extract underlying rules that govern a system's behaviour; and the drive to construct systems. • Intuitively figure out how things work, or what the underlying rules are. • Repetitive behaviour, preoccupation with arranging things, obsession with detail. • Less interested in chatting. Less sociable. Empathizers
Raven's progressive matrices
Test used in measuring abstract reasoning and regarded as a non-verbal estimate of fluid intelligence
object- person continuum
The degree to which people related to objects vs. people lies on a continuum with empathizers on one end and systemizers on the other
heritability
The extent that individual differences within some population can be accounted for by genetic variation To what extent is some trait that varies in a population due to genes - there MUST be variation
Concordance rates
The extent to which a diagnosis (ex. Dyslexia or schizophrenia) is shared by people of various degrees of generic relatedness Binary Diagnosis If one person has the disorder, what is the likelihood that an identical/fraternal twin/parent/sibling etc. has it? If one twin has schizophrenia, what is the likelihood that their identical twin has it? 70%, but nutrition and other environmental influences are involved too
family resource model
The more children in a family the fewer resources per children (especially for later-borns.(Resource depletion with each additional child
Epistasis
The phenotypic expression of one gene is affected by activity (or lack thereof) in other genes
experience- expectant skills
There are certain skills that are most easily learned early in life - like seeing or talking § All normal human beings acquire § Virtually all children are exposed to them because the experience required is so basic § Neurophysiology underlying a trait "expects" to meet up with the needed experience Acquired easily, automatically, and unconsciously
Extraversion/extroversion
They enjoy being with people, participating in social gatherings, and are full of energy. A person low in extraversion is less outgoing and is more comfortable working by himself.
False Belief test
This test is designed to measure whether or not a child is able to reason about other people's mental states. A character puts an object into a box then leaves the room. Another character comes in and removes the object from the place where it was and puts it into another box. The child must tell where the original character will look for the object when he comes back. For the successful completion of the task the child must know the difference between their knowledge and the wrong belief of the original character. Results suggest that children of 3 to 4 years of age are not able to correctly identify the original location where the character will look for the object, while almost 90% of 6 to 9-year-olds are. example: candles in crayon box- chidden cant put them selves in a position where they can predict what other people will think
Meme
an element of a culture or system of behavior that may be considered to be passed from one individual to another by nongenetic means, especially imitation.
Organochloride pesticides
Used to kill mites on farm fields Rate of autism = very high for mothers who live near fields
Baby X-technique
When strangers think the baby is a BOY: males speak in a deeper voice, talk less, show the babies toys and play with them When strangers think the baby is a GIRL: babies are talked to more (in a softer voice), aren't shown as many objects, etc.
critical periods
a maturational stage in the lifespan of an organism during which the nervous system is especially sensitive to certain environmental stimuli. § Infancy is not the only critical period § Pruning coincides with actual learning, not the increase in density of connections that occurs in the first three years
discrimination
a reason that larry summers said explained why there were less woman in STEM fields
hypothalamus
a region of the forebrain below the thalamus that coordinates both the autonomic nervous system and the activity of the pituitary, controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.
Lysosomal storage disorder
autosomal Recessive Disorders Being heterozygous for a certain trait could have an advantage Being heterozygous for Sickle Cell Anemia provides protection from malaria Ashkenazi Jews are more susceptible to these disorders (Tay Sachs) -> typically causes death in the first 4 years, but maybe if you are heterozygous it will increase the lipids in the brain and make you smarter
niche- picking
child selectively attends to and seeks out the environment that are compatible with his or her genotype
Mitochondrial disorder
common factor among mitochondrial diseases is that the mitochondria are unable to completely burn food and oxygen to generate energy, which is essential for normal cell function. It's often inherited. Symptoms might include poor growth, developmental delays, and muscle weakness. There's no cure, but physical therapy and medications can manage symptoms.
Geshwind-Galaburda hypoth.
differences in maturation rates between the hemispheres are mediated by testosterone levels Androgens slow growth of the LEFT hemisphere, but promote growth of the RIGHT hemisphere Female brains mature FASTER than male brains
agreeableness
individual behavioral characteristics that are perceived as kind, sympathetic, cooperative, warm and considerate.
neuroticism
is a higher-order personality trait in the study of psychology characterized by anxiety, fear, moodiness, worry, envy, frustration, jealousy, and loneliness.[1] Individuals who score high on neuroticism are more likely than average to experience such feelings as anxiety, anger, envy, guilt, and depressed mood.[2] People who are neurotic respond worse to stressors, are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult.
conscientiousness
is the personality trait of being careful, or vigilant. Conscientiousness implies a desire to do a task well. Conscientious people are efficient and organized as opposed to easy-going and disorderly.
organizing effect of hormones
it has been shown that fetal testosterone (FT) levels measured in the womb (in amniotic fluid, in studies of women who had amniocentesis during pregnancy) are related to the child's social and language development postnatally.
parental resources
money and attention
Gene- Environmental interaction
niche picking (active) evocative interaction passive interaction
openness
openness to new experience
Autism
term for a group of complex disorders of brain development. These disorders are characterized, in varying degrees, by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviors. With the May 2013 publication of the DSM-5 diagnostic manual, all autism disorders were merged into one umbrella diagnosis of ASD. ASD can be associated with intellectual disability, difficulties in motor coordination and attention and physical health issues such as sleep and gastrointestinal disturbances.
innate differences
the difference that male and females are born with
sex difference
the different attitudes men and woman have that are a result of nature and nurture
Holism
the theory that parts of a whole are in intimate interconnection, such that they cannot exist independently of the whole, or cannot be understood without reference to the whole, which is thus regarded as greater than the sum of its parts. Holism is often applied to mental states, language, and ecology.
brain lateralization
type of traumatic brain injury that occurs when the tissue of the brain is mechanically cut or torn.
Genes
unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring.