Developmental Psychopathology

What is the goal of interventions?

Interventions for children and adolescents often are intended to promote further development, rather than merely to restore a previous level of functioning -->boost the child's abilities and skills and eliminate distress

How is CD and ODD assessed?

Interviews and Checklists -parents, teachers, youth -CD - youth are an important informant, because behaviours may be hard for other people to see -ODD - not clear how much youth report adds to parent and teacher report e.g Brief Child and Family Phone Interview -six items related to ODD and CD

What is MAOA?

MAOA is an enzyme that metabolizes neurotransmitters such as dopamine and norepinephrine (makes them inactive) -low MAOA activity has been linked to aggression -individual differences in MAOA activity linked to a particular gene Combination of low-MAOA activity and abuse leads to heightened anti social behaviour problems -MAOA activity moderates the association between abuse and later conduct problems -children who have low-MAOA activity will show the association and children who don't won't

How do mental health care providers view development?

Many child and adolescent problems involve failure to show expected developmental progress -transitory (e.g bedwetting) -initial indication of more severe problem -compare behaviour to abnormal and normal development

Are problem behaviours abnormal or normal?

Many problem Behaviours shown by children and youths are not entirely abnormal -most children and youth exhibit problem behaviors (e.g worrying about forgetting things) -familiarity with know psychological disorders and troublesome problem behaviours

What are the types of severity for ODD?

Mild: symptoms are confined to one setting (e.g at home, at school, at work) Moderate: some symptoms are present in at least two settings Severe: some symptoms are present in three or more settings

After observing the behaviour what should you do?

Modify the contingencies -if the child is being rewarded for the behaviour, you need to stop the reward Monitor changes in behaviours when you modify the contingencies

What criteria must be met with regards to the symptoms?

Note: symptoms must correspond with age group. For children younger than 5 years, the behaviour should occur on most days for a period of at least six months unless otherwise noted. Individuals 5 years or older the behaviour should occur at least once per week for six months unless otherwise noted -other factors should be considered: intensity of the behaviours are outside a range that is normative for the individual's developmental level, gender, and culture

What do prospective studies show us?

Prospective studies also allows us to determine what happens to children with a particular difficulty -follow children with a particular disorder and find out what happens to them -are psychological symptoms stable over time? get more severe, weaken, no change Is depression in childhood associated with depression in adulthood?

What is a rating scale?

Questions about behaviours and Feelings -e.g children's depression inventory -->first one describes you best: all bad things are my fault, many bad things are my fault, and bad things are usually not my fault

What are rating scales and why are they used?

Questions about behaviours and Feelings -e.g children's depression inventory -->first one describes you best: all bad things are my fault, many bad things are my fault, and bad things are usually not my fault -shorter compared to structured/semi-structured interviews -do not require an interviewer

What are emotion regulation problems?

Regulation problems involve weak or absent control structures (e.g trouble concentrating in class)

What is steps?

S say what the problem is (encoding and interpretation) T think of solutions (response search) E examine each one (response selection) P pick one and try it out (response decision S see if it worked (evaluation)

WHo is in your study affects the conclusions you can draw?

Sampling will change your findings and your interpretations -->e.g boys versus girls --->e.g teenagers versus preschoolers. They are at different developmental periods -->e.g children from middle-income families versus children from low-income families

When must symptoms of hyperactivity occur in order for a diagnosis to be made?

Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms are present in two or more settings symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social academic, or occupational functioning the symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder and are not better explained by another mental disorder

What would social causetion and social selection's hypotheses be?

Social Causation -increase in income should reduce children's symptoms Social Selection -increase in income should have no effect on children's symptoms -->poverty is the consequence of psychopathology

Which interview style is used in research?

Structured and semi-structured interviews are the standard instruments in psychopathology research -unstructured interviews are not used in research

Which style of interview do researchers use?

Structured and semi-structured interviews are the standard instruments in psychopathology research -unstructured interviews are not used in research

What is structured observation

- structured observation:structured situations involving specific tasks or instructions carried out in the clinic or laboratory -sets up a situation or provides instructions to elicit behaviours of a particular interest -strange situation ~ attachment

What is unstructured observation?

- unstructured observation in the child's natural environment (naturalistic observation) -sometimes the child is video recorded

What are the indirect benefits of behavioural observation?

-->indirect benefits, observation skills, assessing parental motivation and providing parents with realistic estimate of their child's rate of responding and feedback with regards to the treatment -->the parent gains these through observing their child

What is the validity and reliability of rating scales compared to structured interviews?

-->some evidence suggests that rating scales/checklists yield comparable diagnoses -->perform just as well for researchers who are measuring symptoms -raises the possibility that clinicians could use shorter assessments

Which two disorders are linked to ODD?

-50% receive a diagnosis of anxiety or depression -ODD might be the precursor for depression or anxiety, due to the negative mood ODD produces rather than defiant behavoiur

When are kids with ADHD more likley to develop conduct disorder?

-8 year old boys with ADHD but not conduct disorder were found to have more risky behaviours -risky driving behaviours, STDs, head injuries and emergency department admissions -more deaths not related to medical conditions -the relationships between ADHD and risk taking was accounted for by the later development of Conduct disorder/Antisocial Personality -if the boys did not later develop CD/APD they did not differ from the control group based on risk taking behaviour

What is A-B-A-B reversal design?

-A-baseline of behaviour -B-intervention phase -A return to baseline (remove intervention) -B reintroduce intervention

What is antisocial personality disorder?

-APD: pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others, including repeated illegal behaviours, deceitfulness, failure to plan ahead, repeated physical fights, or assaults, disregard for the safety of others, failure to sustain work behaviour, lack of remorse

Who is Beers?

-Beers, wanted to raise the standards of care and disseminating reliable information -->detection and intervention methods began to flourish, even though mental illness was feared

What does the DSM leave out in ADHD?

-DSM does not specify how to combine information from different informants -DSM-IV fields trials used the 'or' rule for symptoms

Explain how EEG detects states of arousal.

-EEG waves are related to different states of arousal, differential patterns of EEG activation may suggest sleep disturbances or various emotional states -greater amount of electrical activity in the right frontal lobe of the brain -left frontal lobe is associated with anxiety and depression

How can one assess ADHD with neuropsychological tests?

-Neuropsychological tests of cognition, attention -at present, these are not used in diagnosis, but can provide valuable information about functioning/symptoms that are not observable

Why do we need to us biological tests when testing for ADHD?

-Neuropsychological/biological methods -->No blood test equivalent, however, it is important to rule out biological causes -->sudden ADHD symptoms could be due to head trauma

What is the prevalence of ODD and CD?

-ODD is more prevalent than CD during childhood -by adolescence prevalence is equal -ODD either declines or stays constant from early childhood to adolescence -CD increases over the same period -prevalence is equal across countries and cultures

What is PET?

-PET scans assess cerebral glucose metabolism

What do RCTs look at with their findings?

-RCTs are looking at averages -within the treatment group, some people will not have improved -in the treatment group there will be people who do not get better, it will be significant usually -->we want to figure out why this group did not improve

What do RCTs look at?

-RCTs are looking at averages -within the treatment group, some people will not have improved -in the treatment group there will be people who do not get better, it will be significant usually -->we want to figure out why this group did not improve

What is response search?

-What could I do? -children who are aggressive generate fewer responses -when you give them a hypothetical situation they generate few strategies and aggressive strategies, and fewer prosocial strategies

Explain the A-B-A-B design.

-a baseline of behaviour is first taken (A), followed by an intervention phase (B), then a return-to-baseline phase where the intervention is removed (A), and a phase where the intervention is reintroduced (B) -if changes occur during the intervention phases, this provides evidence that change sin behaviour are due to the intervention

What is behavioural genetics?

-a branch of genetics that investigate possible connections between a genetic predisposition and observed behaviour, taking into account environmental and genetic influences

What do genes do?

-a gene produces protein -these proteins are vital for the brain to function, and rarely cause a behaviour to happen -produce tendencies to respond to the environment in certain ways -each person has genetic vulnerabilities, tendencies and predisposition: rarely the outcomes are inevitable

What is a substance disorder according to the DSM?

-a problematic pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by at least two of the following, occurring within a 12 month period:

What do they look at in the child's developmental milestones?

-age they started to walk, talk, bladder control and self-help skills

What are neurobiological factors?

-behavioural activation system (BAS) stimulates behaviour in response to signals of reward or nonpunishment -behavioural inhibition system (BIS) produces anxiety and inhibits ongoing behaviour in the presence of novel events, innate fear stimuli and signals of non reward or punishment -other behavioural patterns can result in a balance or imbalance in the two systems

What is the public health view of CD?

-blends all the perspectives with public health concepts of prevention and intervention

What is the main differences between categorical and dimensional?

-categorical -->someone who has that disorder is fundamentally different than someone who does not Dimensional -present in everyone to varying degrees, they are not fundamentally different just different variations

What is the effect of race and ethnicity and expression of mental disorders?

-certain mental disorders are overrepresented in certain ethnic groups (e.g substance abuse) -->this more due to SES -likely due to misunderstanding of their culture and poor treatme

Who was John Locke?

-changed childbirth practices and child-rearing -believed in individual rights, children should be raised with care -universal health care

What is operant conditining?

-changing rates of behaviour through consequences -what happens after a behaviour determines whether you will see more or less of it

What are client-centered treatments?

-child psychopathology as the result of social or environmental circumstances that are imposed on the child and interfere with his/her basic capacity for personal growth and adaptive functioning -interference causes the child to experience a loss in self-esteem and emotional well-being resulting in future problems -therapist is empathic: non-judgemental and genuine acceptance -feels the child can achieve their goals without the therapist serving as an adviser, respects the child's self directing abilities

What are psychodynamic treatments?

-child psychopathology is caused by underlying unconscious and conscious conflicts -help the child develop an awareness of unconscious factors that may contribute to his or her problems -use play therapy (younger children) verbal interactions (older children) -as the conflicts are revealed, the therapist helps the child resolve the conflicts and develop more adaptive ways of coping -effective for long and short term

What are the characteristics of early and adolescent onset for CD?

-children diagnosed with childhood-onset are more likely to be boys, show more aggressive symptoms, account for a disproportionate amount of illegal activity and persist in their antisocial behaviours -adolescent onset, more likely to be girls, and do not display as severe symptoms, less likely to commit violent offenses or persist in their antisocial behaviour -age of onset makes a differences

How are mental problems unevenly distributed?

-children from disadvantaged families and neighbourhoods -children from abusive or neglectful families -children receiving inadequate child care -children born with very low birth weight due to maternal smoking, diet, or abuse of alcohol and drugs -children born to parents with mental illness or substance abuse problems

What is Bronfenbrenner's ecological model of human development?

-children live in families who live in neighbourhoods live socioeconomic systems -treatment intervenes at one of these levels -systems may reinforce problematic behaviour -interventions for disruptive behaviour consider these systems otherwise their treatment would not be very effective

What are the disadvantages to the DSM?

-children often do not fit into categories -->comorbidity, more than one diagnosis (e.g bulimia and depression), this is very common it is the rule not the exception. We might not have organized it correctly because people are not fitting in it -impaired but does not meet criteria, people are suffering but they do not fit into any of the boxes, they don't meet enough criteria -loss of information, different people meet different criteria but they will be diagnosed with the same label and a lot of their specific information is loss -current categories proving inadequate for genetic and neuroscience research, we don't have concrete problems -->may not be the most valid groupings

What role does medicine play in psychosocial interventions?

-children often require medication or medical intervention that must be coordinated with psychosocial interventions -integration with effective teaching strategies

What is self-domain?

-children start to differentiate themselves from the environment and the develop self-identity and autonomy

How do kids with ADHD have impaired academic functioning?

-children with ADHD experience difficulty in school, especially those with co-occurring disorders -lower productivity, grades and test scores -placed in special education classes -may not finish post-secondary education or expelled or fail high school

How have laws helped children with mental disorders?

-children with disabilities have public education that emphasizes special education and related services to meet their needs and prepare them for employment and independent living -the rights of children with disabilities and of the parents of such children are protected

Which hormones affect children with fears and anxiety?

-children with fears and anxiety are affected by levels of stress hormones circulating in the body, have parents who had similar problems during childhood

What do children with fears and worries develop?

-children with fears and worries sometimes develop a belief system that can be self-defeating, leading them to believe that they will fail at everything

What is an issue with the DSM-5?

-children's behaviour seldom falls into a category

How was children's mental health originally viewed?

-children's mental problems were never discussed -it was believed the devil possessed them, anyone who questioned that view was not taken seriously

What are the cause of children's psychological disorders?

-children's psychological disorders are the result of failure in one or more areas of development

What is classical categorical approach?

-classical categorical approach assumes that every diagnosis has a clear underlying cause such as an infection or a malfunction of the nervous system -->each disorder is different from other disorders

How is an unstructured interview less comprehensive? What is the confirmatory bias?

-clinicians tend to make diagnostic decisions before they have collected all of the relevant information -biases: -confirmatory bias: tend to selectively collect information to confirm diagnostic decisions -tend to ignore information that is disconfirmatory -combine information in idiosyncratic ways -use an availability heuristic where they base decisions on examples that come to mind easily -->e.g if they just diagnosed a child with depression, may be more likely to do it again

How is anxiety protective?

-co-occurring anxiety has been identified as a protective factor that inhibits aggressive behaviour -anxiety increases their risk for later antisocial behaviours

What are co-occurring problems with CD?

-co-occurring problems, such as ADHD, academic deficiencies and poor relations with peers -parents often use harsh punishment that contribute to the problem and often have their own problems and stresses (e.g marital discord -their parents feel these children are out of control and they feel helpless to do anything about it

What is the coercion theory?

-coercive parent-child interactions are made up of well-practiced actions and reactions, which may occur with little awareness

What influences a child's ability to adapt in the environment?

-competence: the ability to successfully adapt in the environment -successful adaptation varies across culture and ethnicity: traditions, beliefs, languages, and value system need to be taken into account -minority children must cope with racism and segregation which influence a child's adaptation and development

How is a mental disorder viewed?

-complexity of biological, familial, and sociocultural factors in order to understand developmental changes -knowledge from several disciplines: psychology, psychiatry, sociology

What are the differences in prevalence between genders?

-conduct problems are 2-4 times more common in male children -smaller differences in early teens -->increase in girls engaging in covert, non aggressive behaviour -early-onset persistent CD -10 male: 1 female ratio -adolescent-limited CD -2 male: 1 female

What is the legal perspective of conduct disorder?

-conduct problems are defined as delinquent or criminal acts -delinquent acts include property crimes (e.g vandalism, theft) and violent crime -excludes anti social behaviour of very young children that occur at home or school

What is the confirmatory bias?

-confirmatory bias: tend to selectively collect information to confirm diagnostic decisions -tend to ignore information that is disconfirmatory

What is relation between cool and hot executive function in CD and ADHD?

-cool and hot executive functions are associated with distinct but interconnected brain networks -cool EF are associated with deficits in ADHD -hot EF deficits are associated with CD -if the child has CD and ADHD they show both deficits

What is the midbrain?

-coordinates movement with sensory input Midbrain houses the reticular activating system (RAS), contributes to processes of arousal and tension

What is family counseling?

-coping with individual and family stresses associated with ADHd -including mood disturbance and marital strain

What is treatment?

-corrective actions that will permit successful adaptation by eliminating or reducing the impact of an undesired problem or outcome that has already occurred

What are Objective indices?

-cortisol -heart rate highlight areas of impairment not physical 'cause' -->cortisol is not causing the behavioural issue

What was the community treatment as usual?

-could be nothing, could include any of the above

What is the effect of the smaller cerebellum in ADHD?

-default mode network operates abnormally in ADHD, active at rest but shuts off during task engagement but not as effectively in those with ADHD

What are possible causes of ADHD?

-deficits in cognitive functioning, reward and motivation, arousal level, and self-regulation -ADHD children show similar symptoms but different kinds of problems -appears it is a neurodevelopmental disorder, genetic contributor -environment affects the emotion regulation

Where is delayed brain maturation in children with ADHD?

-delayed brain maturation in children with ADHD, especially the prefrontal regions -brain development differences between those who had ADHD in adulthood and those who did not

What are mood disorders?

-depression is common, and increases as the children age -they feel hopeless that they are unable to cope with everyday life -depression lowers self-esteem, reduces pleasure, increases irritability, disrupts sleep, appetite, and the ability to think -higher rates of suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm -highest risk for suicide: ADHD co-occurring conduct problems and depression

What is the positive affect and approach?

-describes the 'easy' child who is approachable and adaptive to his or her environment -possesses the ability to regulate basic functions of eating, sleeping and elimination relatively smoothly

How do children process information?

-desire to evaluate their behaviour in various circumstances, especially involving possible failure or harm -these self-appraisals can be on faulty beliefs or distortions

What do they look at in the description of the presenting problem?

-detailed description of the problem and surrounding events and how parents have attempted to deal with the problem in the past

What should we continue to focus on in measuring behaviour?

-developing standardized approaches that are easy to use in clinical practice -determining when 'more is better' -->not clear that interviews are more reliable or more valid than rating scales -->not clear that adding observational procedures always confers added benefit

What is the hindbrain?

-essential regulation of autonomic activities (e.g breathing, heartbeat)

What are the advantages of A-B-A-B reversal design?

-external event happened at the same time as the onset of the intervention - father had been working nights but switched back to days and was able to spend more time with Bob after school -unlikely this event would also stop at the exact time as you withdraw the intervention -temporal ordering -A changes B

What are the disadvantages of RCT?

-external validity -findings may not generalize to real world clinical samples -->very specific population: often people recruited from advertisements, not found in clinics -->difference in people who are actively seeking it out than those who are not -->screening out for co-morbidity: they only take people who are depressed and not anxious,

What are the disadvantages of RCTs?

-external validity -findings may not generalize to real world clinical samples -->very specific population: often people recruited from advertisements, not found in clinics -->difference in people who are actively seeking it out than those who are not -->screening out for co-morbidity: they only take people who are depressed and not anxious, however most people who have depression have anxiety -often done in university clinics, manualized treatment, very well-trained therapists -->often these aren't how people practice psychology outside these settings -->they are highly trained, they are motivated because they want it to work, they have a lot of experience with these treatments. The more experience the better you are. However, psychologists do not have the luxury of only treating OCD -->the graduates students are trained, they have a manual and the head researcher is watching them --> in the real world often people don't come in

What are the disadvantages of A-B-A-B reversal design?

-external validity, may not generalize to all the children, this is way we need 9 single cases -can be hard to interpret the findings, it might come down a little but not clear -stable change, you might not be able to re-establish baseline when you withdraw the intervention -ethics, if you are dealing with serious problems. e.g treatment to prevent an autistic kid from hitting his head it may not be ethical to withdraw the treatment

What is the expression of internalizing and externalizing problems?

-externalizing problems are higher in boys in preschool and elementary years and these problems decrease for both boys and girls until the rates coverage at 18 -internalizing problems show similar rates in childhood, but girls outpace boys over time

What are extraneous influences?

-extraneous influences that could explain the results are called threats to internal validity -->e.g maturation, effects of testing (how the test changes behaviour), subject-selection biases

What does ODD negatively affect?

-extreme ODD have negative effects on parent-child interactions -child and adolescent ODD, predict social and interpersonal difficulties in early adulthood: poor functioning with peers and romantic relationships

Explain the facilitated communication study.

-facilitated communication, assistants guided children's hands to type messages, but the autistic kids couldn't type, the people were typing for them -when they gave different questions to the assistants than the autistic persons, the answers corresponded to the facilitator's questions

What is Norepinephrine? Which disorder is it related to?

-facilitates or controls emergency reactions and alarm responses -plays a role in emotional and behavioural regulation -disorder: acts generally to regulate or modulate behavioural tendencies, no a specific disorder association

Explain how disability and risk can be defined by adaptational failure.

-failure to reach developmental milestones -lack of progress along adaptive developmental trajectories

What is progressive legislation?

-free and appropriate public education for any child with special needs in the least restrictive environment for that child -each child with special needs regardless of age must be assessed with culturally appropriate tests -each of these children must have an individualized education program tailored to his or her needs and must be re-assessed

Explain embryonic development.

-generates an initial abundance of neurons -undifferentiated cells, and develop axons once they reach their destination -their synapses lay the foundation for further growth and differentiation -genes determine the main highways axons travel -axons follow chemical cues strewn along their path that tell them the direction to various destinations

What is the gene-environment interaction?

-genes influence how we influence how we respond to the environment and the environment influences our genes

What are three goals of anger coping program?

-goal: to inhibit early angry and aggressive reactions -sample activities: -building domino towers while being verbally distracted by peers -learn to identify bodily cues that signal angry arousal and identify thoughts that contribute to greater or reduced anger goal: to cognitively relabel stimuli perceived as threatening -use stories and role-plays to recognize which parts of social situations lead to angry or aggressive emotions goal: to solve problems by generating alternative coping responses and choosing adaptive, nonaggressive alternatives -use cartoon-sequences and role plays to practice generating and evaluating different solutions to interpersonal problems

Is observation feasible?

-hard for clinicians to use this approach as it is very labour intensive -you need to see them in different environments, times, different people

What is difficult wit observation and ODD?

-hard to determine what is typical and not for children -lots of the items are not as applicable to preschoolers, what is the three year old equivalent of staying out all night -what is concerning and what is not

What were the early beliefs of the origins of psychological disorders?

-he walked around like an animal and psychologist tried to reverse his retardation -->he did learn through his training, but he did not fully recover -->showed that we could help children with disabilities improve

Who is Victor of Averyon?

-he walked around like an animal and psychologist tried to reverse his retardation -->he did learn through his training, but he did not fully recover -->showed that we could help children with disabilities improve

What are issues with parents and kids with CD

-high levels of conflict, poor parenting practices (e.g ineffective discipline, negative control, inappropriate use of punishment and rewards, failure to follow through on commands, and a lack of involvement in child rearing -parent could exhibit social-cognitive deficits similar to those of their children, tendency of antisocial children to infer hostile intent of others may mirror the social perceptions of their parents

What are health related problems with CD?

-high risk for personal injuries, illnesses, drug overdoses, STDs, -premature death -antisocial behaviour predicts early sexual activity, and risky sex -->increases pregnancy and disease

Why did people think informants disagree?

-historically, researchers have thought that this was error -->e.g teachers are giving bad reports -but, different informants provide reliable and valid reports -->one informant is not giving bad reports -some exceptions e.g children's report of ADHD -teachers and parents show limited agreement, but both are providing good reports

What is interpretation?

-hostile attribution bias, did the other kid mean to do it? -very robust evidence linking hostile attribution bias and aggressive behaviour (more than 40 studies) -children with aggressive behaviour problems are more likely to think the other child did it on purpose

Which disorders are more common in girls and boys?

-hyperactivity, autism, childhood disruptive disorders, and learning and communication disorders are more common in boys -anxiety, depression and eating disorders are more common in girls

How does HPA regulate stress?

-hypothalamus secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete the ACTH into the bloodstream -ACTH, causes the adrenal glands to release cortisol -works on a feedback loop, cortisol modulates the stress response by acting on the hypothalamus to inhibit the release of CRH -this loop can be damaged by traumatic events, child or adolescent maintain a state of fear which results in disorders

What is problem-solving skills training?

-identifies the child's cognitive deficiencies and distortions in social situations and provides instruction, practice and feedback to teach new ways of handling social situations -the child learns to appraise the situation change his or her attributions about other children's motivations, be more sensitive to how other children feel, and generate alternative and more appropriate solutions -reduces hostile-attribution biases, increases competent response generation to social problems, and devaluing aggression

What are prospective designs?

-identify children and follow them over time -->establishes temporal link

What is the goal of behaviour analysis?

-identify wide range of antecedents and consequences -goal: identify as many factors as possible that contribute to a child's problem behaviours, thoughts, and feelings and to develop hypotheses

What is the focus of relapse prevention?

-identifying high risk situations, e.g if you are with your high school friends at a party, you might not want to go -developing skills for refusing, how will you tell your friends no -developing interests that would help them stay away from high risk situations, what are other goals that you have -developing a new peer network, they might not be able to stay sober with their old friends

How does the researcher determine if there is an effect?

-if behaviour changes when it is specifically stated, a cause-and-effect relationship between the treatment and the behaviour change is inferred' -don't have to return to baseline when treating dangerous behaviours

Explain how parental expectations influence substance use.

-if teens held positive expectancies and parents hold low expectations of their children, they are more likely to drink -whereas if they held these beliefs but their parents had clear expectations they would not use alcohol, they are not likely to use it -consistent between ethnicities and genders

What is the problem with A-B-A-B?

-if the intervention really works, the behaviour may not reverse during the return-to-baseline phase -not ethical to stop treatment if the child will be placed in harm

How is abnormal development continuous and discontinuous?

-impairments or psychological disorders do not suddenly emerge, they have warning signs or connections to earlier developmental issues -abnormal child development may be continuous or discontinuous across childhood, adolescence, and adulthood

What outcomes do want with regards to societal importance?

-improvement in the child's participation in school-related activities (e.g increased attendance) -decreased involvement in the juvenile justice system -reduced need for special services -reduction in accidental injuries or substance abuse -enhancement of physical and mental health

What does impulsive behaivour predict?

-impulsive behaviour in childhood predicts reduced life expectancy -accident-prone, auto accidents, risk taking, reduced concern for health-promoting behaviours (e.g proper diet, safe sex)

What do they look at in the medical history?

-including injuries, accidents, operations, illnesses, and prescribed medications

What is emotion reactivity?

-individual differences in the threshold and intensity of emotional experiences, which provide clues to an individual's level of distress and sensitivity to the environment

Explain how disorders come about.

-individuals with the same specific disorder express the features of their disturbance in different ways (e.g some children with a conduct disorder are aggressive, whereas others may be destructive to property or engage in theft or deceit) -the pathways leading to any particular disorder are numerous and interactive, as opposed to unidimensional and static

Why is attachment important?

-infant caregiver relationships helps the infant regulate her/his behaviour and emotions, especially under conditions of threat or stress -attachment serves an important stress-reduction function -infant balances preserving the familiar but exploring new information -self-reliance develops when the attachment figure provides a secure base for exploration -a child's internal working model of relationships (what he/she expects from others and how he/she relates to others) emerges from this first crucial relationship and is carried into later relationships

What is insecure attachment? anxious avoidant

-infant engages in exploration, but with little effective interaction with caregiver -little wariness of strangers and is upset only if left alone -as stress increases avoidance increase -avoidant pattern of early attachment tend to mask emotional expression -believe they are vulnerable to hurt, and others are not to be trusted -disorders: conduct disorders, aggressive behaviour, depressive symptoms

What are structured interviews?

-interviewer has a set of questions that are presented to the respondent -->they use them for every patient -improves comprehensiveness -reduce bias -questions are fixed and interviewer as almost no flexibility -these can be administered by a computer

What are Case study?

-involves an intensive anecdotal, observation and analysis of an individual child, long tradition in the study of abnormal development and behaviour -bring together a wide range of information about an individual child -understand the child's psychological functioning, current environment, and developmental history -yield narratives rich in detail and insights of possible factors linked to the disorder -viewed as unscientific and flawed: selective biases, -good base for further experiments

What is the cerebal cortex?

-largest area of the forebrain -gives us distinct human qualities and allows us to plan as well as to reason and to create -two hemispheres -left hemisphere: verbal and other cognitive processes -right hemisphere: social perception and creativity

How is maladaptive behaviour viewed?

-maladaptive behaviour must be viewed as what is normative for a given period of development -highlighting developmental processes (eg language acquisition), look at variations and extremes in developmental outcomes

What are parent management training?

-manage their child's oppositional and noncompliant behaviours -cope with the emotional demands raising a child with ADHD -contain the problem so that it does not worsen -keep the problem from adversely affecting other family members

What is parent management training?

-managing disruptive child behaviour at home, reducing parent-child conflict, and promoting prosocial and self-regulating behaviours

Why do kids not see mental health care?

-many children do not receive mental health care due to poor understanding of mental disorders and limited access to intervention

How does culture affect the expression of disorders?

-meaning of behaviours and expression of symptoms varies: e.g fire setting, differences in expression -impact varies by disorder: less cultural impact on more neurobiological based disorders

What do researchers need to keep in mind when developing experiments for kids with mental disorders?

-motivating the children -keeping within the time limitations -ensuring instructions are well understood -coping with boredom -distraction -fatigue

What family problems are linked to ADHD?

-negativity, noncompliance by the child, excessive parental control, and sibling conflict -parents experience distress, depression (mothers) and anti social behaviour, substance abuse in fathers -parents of children with ADHD may have ADHD this can be a barrier to effective treatment for the child

What are the core characteristics of ADHD?

-neurodevelopmental disorder, early onset and persistent course

What is no treatment control group?

-no treatment control group (something in the intervention was better than nothing) -->good starting point

What is a nomothetic strategy?

-nomothetic strategy: determine the general category for the presenting problem -DSM does not generalize well to children: different disorders, and its insensitivity to the developmental complexities that characterize the problem

What are there poor social skills?

-not deficient in social reasoning or understanding, they don't use what they know -continue to be dominant or assertive even when the situation changes and requires accommodation, negotiation or submission -their social agenda may differ from their peers, especially if they are aggressive -they may prefer troublemaking, sensation seeking and having fun at the expense of following rules and getting along with others

What type of gene combination is the cause the disorders?

-often similar and multiple interactive genes are the cause than a single gene

What often needs to be included in the treatment?

-often you need to treat related family problems (e.g maternal depression, abuse)

What is behavioural observation with recording?

-parents or other observers record baseline (prior to intervention) on one or two problems they wish to change -often use portable electronic device to cue parents to record and rate the intensity of specific symptoms -parent's recordings are ongoing information about behaviours of interest in life settings

What do we have to consider when using harmful procedures?

-procedures that are the least stressful to the child and family -if it is harmful, the gains must significantly outweigh the risks -the time and resources a research project will require should match the knowledge that it will obtain -if it is harmful and there is no other way to do the study it must be abandoned or altered

What is individual counseling?

-providing a supportive relationship in which youth can discuss personal concerns and feelings

What are proximal and distal?

-proximal: close-by events -distal: further-removed events -e.g river is affected by proximal events (e.g rainstorm) and distal events (e.g seasons)

What is a psychological disorder?

-psychological disorder: pattern of behavioural, cognitive, emotional, or physical symptoms shown by an individual

What is a structured interview?

-questions are fixed and interviewer as almost no flexibility -these can be administered by a computer

Why is sampling important?

-random sampling is required -need random sampling for prevalence otherwise you cannot generalize -need to be able to generalize to the population of interest

What are personality disorders?

-rarely diagnosed until late adolescence or early adulthood -antisocial, borderline, histrionic, paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal, narcissistic, avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive -enduring pattern of inner experience and behaviour that deviates from the expectations of individual's culture -->different ways of thinking, feeling and behaving -->inflexible, pervasive across situations, significant distress/impairment in functioning -->criteria only used on children when the personality traits are pervasive, persistent and not linked to a particular developmental stage or mental disorder -->symptoms must be present for one year in children, unless it is antisocial personality disorder -adolescents express behaviour that is not normal for adults, (e.g mood swings) so the criteria has to update for this.

What is the course of SUDS?

-rates of substance use peak around late adolescence, and decline during young adulthood -early-onset risk taking may signal a more troublesome course

What was the combination treatment condition?

-received medication and psychosocial treatment

What are the side effects of stimulants?

-reduced appetite, weight loss, slowing of growth, increase in heart rate, difficulty falling asleep -careful to hit the right dose: maximum therapeutic benefit and lowest amount of side effects -you start low and increase slowly, otherwise if you go to high then the side effects are severe and they could stop taking it

What is Benzodiazepine-GABA? Which disorder is it related to?

-reduces arousal and moderates emotional responses, such as anger, hostility, and aggression -is linked to feelings of anxiety and discomfort -disorder: anxiety disorder

What are referred boys and girl characteristics?

-referred boy and girls show the same amount of externalizing behaviour -referred girls are more deviant than boys in relation to their same-age, same-sex peers -girls' behaviour is more covert and overt is more common in boys

What is the endocrine system?

-regulatory system, -result of anxiety and mood disorders (children and adults) -endocrine glands release specific hormones into the bloodstream -adrenal glands produce epinephrine (adrenaline) in response to stress -epinephrine, energizes us and prepares our body for threats -thyroid gland produces thyroxine -thyroxine, proper energy metabolism and growth, causes certain eating disorders (children and youth) -pituitary gland, regulates bodily functions with a variety of hormones including estrogen and testosterone -endocrine system is closely linked to the immune system

What do they look at in the child's interpersonal skills?

-relations with adults and other children and play and social activities

What is applied behaviour analysis?

-relationships between behaviour and its antecedents and consequences, known as functional approach -functional relationships between stimuli, responses and consequences -behaviours are acquired or changed as a result of particular consequences -->positive and negative reinforcement, increase the target response -->extinction and punishment decrease a response

What do they look at in the child's work history and relationships

-relationships with the same and opposite sex

What were the strengths of the study?

-representative general population sample -well characterized adversity histories btw age 3-11: 8% severe maltreatment -more than one indicator of maltreatment (including harsh parenting, retrospective report of abuse when participants are adults) -28% probable maltreatment, 1 indicator of maltreatment -64% no maltreatment -ascertained antisocial outcomes rigorously -->psychiatric information collected from multiple informants -->criminal records

What does stop-signal task?

-requires quick execution of an action, and the occasional inhibition of this action -participants are asked to respond as fast as they can to symbols on a computer screen -on some trials, they will get a signal to inhibit their response (e.g tone will play

Which type of boy is likely to display resilience?

-resilience in boys is associated with household in which there is a male role model, structure, rules, and encouragement of emotional expressiveness

How can a person not succumb to marginalization's effects?

-resisting the effects of poverty and marginalization takes personal strength and family support

What is the continuous performance task?

-respond to a stimulus (e.g the letter X) only after seeing another stimulus (e.g the letter A) -missing the letter X when you should have responded is thought to be a measure of inattention -responding to X when you should not have is thought to be a measure of impulsivity

What is responsiveness?

-responsiveness: Changing A leads to change in B -single-case designs, RCT

What is a retrospective design?

-retrospective design, a sample of people is identified at the current time and asked for information relating to an earlier time -they select people who already have the outcome and compare them to people who do not

What is a risk factor?

-risk factor, a variable that precedes a negative outcome of interest and increases the chances that the outcome will occur

What do they look at in the child's educational history

-school attended, academic performance, attitudes toward school, relations with teachers and peeres and special services

How have the disadvantages improved tests?

-selected normative groups that are representative of the population -test items that are free from cultural bias -provide tests that are fair to all test takers regardless of age, gender, disability, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, linguistic background or other personal characteristics

What is a semi-structured interview?

-semi-structured -->interviewer has a lot of latitude in asking the questions -->clinical judgment involved in determining when a symptom is present

What is the usefulness of syringe-exchange programs?

-sharing of needles contributing to the spread of HIV among IV drug users and their sexual partners -exchanging news, sterile needles and syringes for used ones -most programs also include other services: -hiv testing and counseling -condom distribution -referral to drug-abuse treatment

What was an early issue of seeing psychological diseases as biological diseases?

-since the paradigm was based on a biological disease model only visible disorders were focused on (e.g psychoses) -you couldn't reverse mental illness or significantly improve -->strict punishment and protect those who are not affected

Are stimulants helpful?

-stimulant medications have large, beneficial, acute effects on multiple key domains of functioning in ADHD -but, 20% of children may not improve -for children who do improve, behaviour is better but may still be problematic -may not help academic performance, peer relationships, or family functions -beneficial effects may not maintained over time and will stop once medication is stopped

What medication is used for ADHD. What does it do?

-stimulants -methylphenidate (Ritalin) -increase activity in the prefrontal cortex -very fast acting: 30 minutes -effects stop when the drug wears off

What do stimulants do?

-stimulants produce increases in sustained attention, impulse control, and persistence of work effort and decreases in irrelevant activity -may improve academic productivity: cooperation and social interactions with parents, teachers, and peers and physical coordination such as handwriting -rarely make children 'high', nervous, or jumpy, or turn them into non feeling zombies

What is behavioural assessment?

-strategy for evaluating the child's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours in specific settings and using this information to formulate hypotheses about the nature of the problem and treatment -more direct, rather than inferring how children think

What is social causation?

-stress of poverty leads to an increase in childhood psychopathology

What context is CD often seen in?

-strongly associated with poverty -strongly associated with exposure to violence -certain behaviours might be linked to conduct disorder but they might be doing it to survive: need to eat, don't have enough money, they could get really hurt if they don't fight back

ADHD-HI and ADHD-C

-struggle to inhibit behaviour -more aggressive, defiant, rejected by peers, and suspended from school

How is the single-case replicated?

-successive introduction of treatment for the same behaviour in the same individual across situations or for the same behaviour across several individuals in the same situation

What is parent management training?

-teaches parents to change their child's behaviour in the home and in other settings using contingency management techniques -the focus is on improving parent-child interactions and enhancing other parenting skills (e.g parent-child communication, monitoring, and supervision) -changing the way parents interact with their child leads to improvements in the child's behaviour -teach the parents to monitor the child's behaviour, prescent clear commands and rules, and systematically provide rewards and minor forms of punishment (e.g time out)

What the connection between self-control and temperament?

-temperament influences later development by affecting a child's development of self-control -fearful temperament is linked to better self-control

What is temporal ordering?

-temporal ordering: A occurs before B -->prospective design, single case designs, RCT

What is the best form of discipline for kids with CD?

-the relationship between parental discipline and conduct problems may be affected by discipline - too much or too little can be adverse effects -discipline may be most effective in same gender parent-child pairs: discipline of daughters by mothers and sons by fathers

What are contributors?

-there are many contributors to disordered outcomes in each individual -contributors vary among individuals who have the disorder

What is a problem with group counseling?

-there are programs to help people with CD, but clumping them all together and allowing them to form friendships may lead to poor outcomes

When do children with ADHD have optimal performance?

-they perform best on self-paced tasks that they chose, and what they find interesting and do not require sustained attention

What are stimulants?

-treat symptoms of ADHD since the chance discovery of their effectiveness -dextroamphetamine, amphetamine-dextroamphetamine (Adderall), and methylphenidate (Ritalin) -most commonly used

How can treatments be adapted?

-treatments can be adapted: change in surface structure (e.g mode of service delivery, treatment setting) and deep structure changes (factors unique to a particular racial group, e.g cultural beliefs regarding how trauma affects health)

What is the goal of treatment?

-treatments want to enhance a child's development rather than removing symptoms

What are twin studies?

-twin studies control for the contribution of genetic factors -compare identical or monozygotic twins to dizygotic or fraternal twins -studies of twins provide powerful research to demonstrate the genetic role

What are symtpoms of CD in preschoolers?

-two diagnostic challenges -impossible or improbable symptoms for young children (e.g truancy from school) -adapting symptoms to younger age group -chronic rule violations and disregard for other's rights and needs -verbal aggression, physical aggression, lying, property destruction from a three or four year old -some non-compliance is normative

Explain the classroom observation for ADHD.

-typically want to do it over several days -different classroom situations e.g not only math class, might do well in free play or they might do well if they have one on one attention -specific context impacts behaviour in a given setting -off task behaviour, excessive gross motor activity, negative vocalizations (refusal to obey commands)

What is an interaction?

-under stress, diathesis increases likelihood of disorder

What is the frontal lobe? What does it mature?

-underlies our thinking and reasoning abilities -memory -make sense of social relationships and customs and relate to the world and people -functions continue to mature into adolescence and early adulthood

many have argued that ADHD is a product of Western culture?

-unrealistic expectations concerning children's behaviour -people have an ideal in their head and any deviation is not normative -pharmaceutical industry, a lot of people make money prescribing ADHD medication Note that prevalence of ADHD is similar worldwide -use of Ritalin is 5x higher in North America -we see ADHD world wide, but north america prescribes more -the presence of ADHD is associated with significant difficulties

What are combined treatments?

-use of two or more interventions

What are developmental tests?

-used to assess infants and young children, screen, diagnosis, and evaluate early development

What is relapse prevention?

-very important -many youth improve when they are away from home, but relapse when they return -one half of adolescents receiving treatment for substance use relapse within 3 months -only 20% to 30% are not using at 1 year

What is encoding?

-very little is know about encoding

What is the diencephalon?

-very top of the brain stem below the forebrain -contains the thalamus and hypothalamus, regulate behaviour and emotion -relay between forebrain and the lower areas of the brain stem

What diagnosis are more common depending on which type of rule you use?

-when you look at parent or teacher alone, you see more diagnoses of PI and PH -when parent and teacher are combined using the 'or' rule for symptoms (symptom present if identified by either informant) most of those cases became combined

What are the disadvantages of dimensional measurement?

-which dimensions? -->becomes very complicated very quickly, this can interrupt communication

What is the life of a child with ADHD?

-you always need to keep your eyes on the kid with ADHD -their behaviour is dangerous, running into traffic and running off -strain on the family, the parents argue about how they will manage it, different expectations and beliefs -sibling relations are strained

What are the two main issues around children's mental health?

1 in 8 children has a significant mental health service Inadequate services less than 10% receive services effectiveness is often unknown

What are the ABCs?

A = Antecedents, or the events that immediately precede a behaviour B = Behaviour(s) of interest C = Consequences, or the events that follow a behaviour A = whenever felicia's mother asks her to go to school (antecedent) B = Felicia complains that she has stomach pains and refuses to go (behaviours) C = her mother lets her stay home (consequence)

What are the possibilities with A and B?

A and B are related to each other -but A could cause B or B could cause A -or there is a third variable causing them

How can you determine if A causes B?

A and B have to be related empirically (correlation) Elimination of other possible causes -case-control design, prospective design, single-case designs, RCT -temporal ordering: A occurs before B -->prospective design, single case designs, RCT -responsiveness: Changing A leads to change in B -single-case designs, RCT

What is the DSM definition for conduct disorder?

A repetitive and persistent pattern of behaviour in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms or rules are violated, as manifested by the presence of at least three of the following 15 criteria in the past 12 months from any of the categories below, with at least one criterion present in the past 6 months

What is the ideal outcome in A-B-A-B reversal design?

A: stable behaviour B: decreases behaviour A: increases behaviour B: decreases behaviour

What is ADHD?

ADHD, persistent age inappropriate symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are sufficient to cause impairment in major life activities inattentive: not focusing and behaving carelessly hyperactive: constantly in motion impulsive: acting without thinking

What can abnormal mental disorders show?

Abnormal mental disorders can show abnormal structural differences, abnormal activity in certain areas, or abnormal brain connectivity

Which types of disorders are blacks and white most likely to get diagnosed with?

African American adolescents were more often diagnosed with organic/psychotic disorders and less often with mood/anxiety disorders white children are more likely to receive treatment than hispanic and african children

What are the symptoms of ODD?

Angry/Irritable Mood 1) often loses temper 2) if often touchy or easily annoyed 3) is often angry or resentful Argumentative/Defiant Behaviour 4) often argues with authority figures or, for children and adolescents, with adults 5) often actively defies or refuses to comply with requests from authority figures or with rules 6) often deliberately annoys others 7) often blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehaviour Vindictiveness 8) has been spiteful or vindictive at least twice within the past 6 months

What is the ABC model?

Antecedent-Behaviour-Consequence -in which situations does this behaviour occur? -what happens next? what happens after the behaviour occurs

Who has a certain problem?

Assess factors that influence rates and distribution of a disorder in a population -Demographic factors: age, gender, SES

What is the most costly mental health problem?

CD

What does callous and unemotional predict?

CU interpersonal and affective traits predict persistent delinquency, future recidivism and symptoms of APD in early adulthood

Which emotions do children pay attention to?

Children attend to emotional cues from others, which allows them to learn an interpret and regulate their own emotions -infants learn the importance of emotions for communication and regulation -by two, they can attribute cause to emotional expression

How are children taught in the anger program?

Children taught -inhibit early angry and aggressive reactions -to cognitively relabel stimuli perceived as threatening -to solve problem by generating alternative coping responses and choosing adaptive, nonaggressive alternatives

What are the different types of presentation of ADHD?

Combined Presentation: both inattention criteria and hyperactivity-impulsivity criteria are met for the past six months predominantly inattentive presentation: inattention criteria is met but not hyperactivity criteria for the past 6 months predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation: if hyperactivity-impulsivity criteria is met but inattention criteria is not met for the past six months

What are correlates?

Correlates -variables associated at a given point in time -not clear that one precedes the others

What is the DSM type?

DSM treats it as categorical -research evidence suggests it may be dimensional

How does ethnicity and race affect mental disorders?

Ethnicity and Race: effects generally better accounted for by SES and culture

What is family conflict linked to with ADHD?

Family Conflict is likely related to the presence, persistence, or later emergence of associated oppositional and conduct disorder -family conflict heightens the emergences of early ODD and later comorbid ADHD and CD

What is epidemiolgoy? What quesitons do they ask?

How common is a given problem? Who has a given problem? are certain people at risk these are their two main questions

What do you do if you want to see more of a behaviour?

If you want to see more of a behaviour -reward it with something positive -pay attention to it, so that you reward it -remove something negative -if you want to see less of a behaviour -consequence it with something negative -remove something positive

What must be met for a diagnosis of inattention to be made?

Inattention: six (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted for at least 6 months that is inconsistent with developmental level and that negatively impacts social and academic/occupational activities note solely manifestation of oppositional behaviour, defiance, hostility or failure to understand instructions age 17 and older, at least 5 symptoms

What was the feedback in the alcohol study?

Individualized feedback about: -actual drinking norms -comparisons between individual's drinking pattern and the norm this is how much you drink this is how much you think others drink this is how much others actually drink percentile ranking showing where you are relative to others on your campus

How do you determine a causation between A and B?

Theoretical expectation that A would cause B A and B have to be related empirically (correlation) Elimination of other possible causes -case-control design, prospective design, single-case designs, RCT

What is the process of science?

Theory and prior research, you realize what is left to discover, what don't we know research question hypotheses/predictions, how will I test my hypotheses methods of measurement research design data collection/findings inferences/interpretation, interpret your results

What is tolerance?

Tolerance, defined by: a need for markedly increased amounts of alcohol to achieve same effect -a diminished effect with continued use of the same amount of alcohol

What do you need to consider when you look at a person's situation?

You need to identify what the patient thinks the problem is

What is a sluggish cognitive tempo?

a cluster that includes symptoms such as daydreaming, trouble staying awake/alert, mentally foggy/easily confused, slow processing of information, stares a lot, spacey, forgets what was going to say, lethargic, hypoactive

What are the symptoms of inattention?

a) often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or during other activities b) often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities (e.g has difficulty remaining focused during lectures, conversations, or lengthy reading) c) often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly (e.g mind seems elsewhere) d) often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores or duties in the workplace e)often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities (e.g difficulty keeping materials and belongings in order, poor time management, fails to meet deadlines, disorganized work) f) often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort (e.g schoolwork or homework) g) loses things necessary for tasks (e.g school materials, pencils, wallets) h) is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli i) forgetful in daily activities (e.g doing chores, running errands

Which type of stress puts a child at risk?

acute stressful situation and chronic adversity put children's successful development at risk -chronic poverty, serious caregiving deficits, parental mental illness, divorce, homelessness, and racial prejudice are risk factors that increase children's vulnerability to psychopathology especially in the absence of compensatory strengths

What is gambling consider?

addictive disorder

How do CD kids misinterpret agression?

aggressive children have distortions in their thoughts about social situations -underestimate their own aggressiveness and its negative impact and overestimate the amount of aggression directed at them

What is prevalence

all cases during a timer period

What do american students overestime?

american university students overestimate how much their peers drink

What is the amplifier hypothesis?

amplifier hypothesis: stress amplifies the maladaptive predispositions of parents (e.g poor mental health), disrupting family management practices and compromising parents' ability to be supportive of their children

What is assent?

assent: child shows some form of agreement to participate without understanding the full significance of the research -you need to obtain this from school age children (7 years old) -consider age, developmental maturity, psychological state and family factors and the influence of the investigator seeking assent

How should parents deal with emotion regulation?

authoritative parents establish limits that are both sensitive to the child's individual development and needs and demanding of the child to foster self-control and healthy regulation

What is Multisystemic therapy?

based on research evidence -combines treatments: problem solving skills training, PMT, change global reinforcement context -->association with deviant peers

What is behaviour analysis?

behaviour analysis or functional analysis of behaviour: general approach to organize and use assessment information in terms of antecedents, behaviours and consequences

What are behavioural exlplanations?

behaviour is understood based on the situation rather than stable traits

Explain the behaviour management portion of parent management.

behaviour management principles and techniques, identifying behaviours they wish to encourage or discourage, using rewards and sanctions to achieve specified goals, establishing a home token program, noticing when the child does well and praising their child's strengths and accomplishments -disruptive behaviour, time-out, and how to manage non-compliance at home -school-home based reward program, teachers give the child a daily report card -->if it is good the child is given tokens

What is neurobiology?

brain and nervous system function

What are biological determinants?

brain damage, brain dysfunction, neurotransmitter imbalances, and genetic influences

What is bullying?

bullying: one or more children intentionally and repeatedly expose another child who cannot readily defend himself to negative actions -->involves imbalance of power -youths with a particular genotype were found to be less likely to suffer adverse effects following bullying victimization

What is categorical classification systems?

categorical classification systems: DSM-5 is an example, they are based primarily on informed professional consensus, an approach that has dominated and continues to dominate the field of child (and adults) psychopathology

What is etiology?

causes of childhood disorders, considered biological, psychological and environmental processes interactions

What are cognitive explanations?

certain thought patterns develop over time and relate to behavioural strategies (e.g problem solving

What is acculturation?

children from cultural minority groups face challenges in adapting to their receiving culture

How do young children rely on emotions?

children look to the emotional expression and cues of their caregivers to provide them with information needed to formulate a basic understanding of what is going on -for young children, emotions are a form of communication that permits them to explore their world with increasing independence

Which type of behaviour are children with CD more likely to display?

children with CD usually display overt and covert problems -in conflict with authority -severe family dysfunction -poorest long-term outcomes

Who improves with early onset?

children with early onset who improve are those with mild symptoms

What is a clinical assessments?

clinical assessments: systematic problem-solving strategies to understand children with disturbances and their family and school -assess the child's emotional, behavioural, and cognitive functioning as well as the role of environmental factors -hypothesize the nature of the problem, its causes and the likely outcomes if the problem is treated as opposed to leaving it untreated -achieve effective solutions to the problems children and their families face, and promote and enhance their well-being -clinical assessments are meaningful to the extent that they result in practical and effective interventions -->close and continuing partnership between assessment and interventions is vital; shouldn't be viewed as separate

What processes do children with ADHD have deficits in?

cognitive, language, motor, emotional

what were the results of anger coping?

compared to other two conditions, anger coping and anger coping + goal setting both led to reductions in disruptive and aggressive off-task behaviour in the classroom -note that ratings were done by observers who were blind to treatment condition

What is construct validity?

construct validity: scores on a measure behave as predicted by theory or past research -->e.g test of intelligence if children who score high have good grades in school -convergent validity: the correlation between measures that are expected to be related (e.g self-report and interview of depression)

What is continuity?

continuity: developmental changes are gradual and quantitative (e.g expressed as amounts that can be measured, e.g weight) -future behaviour patterns can be predicted from earlier patterns -seen in conduct disorders (evolves into serious antisocial acts)

What are cool and hot executive functions?

cool executive functions: attention, working memory, planning and inhibition hot executive functions: incentives and motivation

What is a correlation coefficient? What can this tell us?

correlation coefficient, a number that describes the degree of association between two variables -the size of the correlation indicates the strength of the association -positive, as one variable increase so does the other -negative, as one variable decrease so does the other

What are correlational studies?

correlational studies, examine relationships among variable

What do you need cultural formulation for?

cultural formulation is necessary to establish a relationship with the child and family, motivate family members to change, obtain valid information, arrive at an accurate diagnosis, and develop meaningful recommendations for treatment

What is pseudoscience?

demonstrations of benefit are based on anecdotes or testimonials, the child's baseline abilities and the possibility of spontaneous improvement are ignored, and related scientific procedures are disavowed -not based on evidence -spontaneous improvement

What is organizaiton of development?

early patterns of adaptation (e.g infant eye contact) evolve with structure over time and transform into higher-order functions (e.g lip reading) -prior patterns of adaptation are incorporated into successive reorganizations at subsequent period of development (e.g toddlers know speech sounds before language)

What are disadvantages of prospective designs?

empirically-supported or evidence-based treatments -is there scientific evidence that the treatment -improve symptoms and functioning -reduces impairment and suffering?

Which types of research has ethical concerns?

ethical concerns are important when research involves invasive procedures, deception, the use of punishment, the use of participant payment or other incentives, or possible coercion

What is the effect of media violence?

exposure to media violence may reinforce pre-existing antisocial tendencies in some children -children with CD viewed large amounts of violent material, prefer aggressive characters and believe fictional content to be true -childhood exposure to media violence between 6-9, identified with aggressive TV characters, and perceived realism of TV violence predict serious aggressive and criminal behaviour 15 years later

What are externalizing and internalizing behaviours?

externalizing behaviour, aggressive/rule-breaking behaviours internalizing behaviours, anxious/withdrawn/depressed behaviors

How can family influence ADHD?

family influences may lead to ADHD symptoms or to a greater severity of symptoms -symptoms can be the result of interfering and insensitive caregiving practices, especially if the child has a genetic risk for ADHD -family conflict can raise the severity of hyperactive-impulsive symptoms

Why are unstructured interviews used in clinical practice?

feasibility -length, comprehensive coverage you need to ask a lot of questions -can take two hours or more to administer -patients might only have a few sessions, you might not want to waste two on assessment -training -->semi-structured interviews require intensive training to be able to administer, this costs money, clinics might not be able to afford to train their clinicians

Why are structured interviews not used in clinical practice?

feasibility -length, comprehensive coverage you need to ask a lot of questions -can take two hours or more to administer -patients might only have a few sessions, you might not want two waste two on assessment -training -->semi-structured interviews require intensive training to be able to administer, this costs money, clinics might not be able to afford to train their clinicians

Explain the family problems in children with CD.

general family disturbances: parental mental health problems, a family history of antisocial behaviour, marital discord, family instability, limited resources and antisocial family values specific disturbances in parenting practices and family functioning: excessive harsh discipline, lack of supervision, lack of emotional support, and involvement and parental disagreement about discipline

What is brain development?

genetic and constitutional factors, neuroanatomy, and rates of maturation

What is goodness of fit?

goodness of fit: match between the child's temperament and the parent's style of interaction -->bad match higher risk for ADHD -parents' ADHD symptoms may disrupt early parent-child interactions -mothers with variants in DAT1 were more likely to be negative and controlling when their children were disruptive

What were the conditions in the socal aggression study?

grade five girls randomly assigned to one of two conditions -SAPP -reading group -->identical to SAPP in length and number of sessions

What is the function of the brain stem

heartbeat and breathing

What is criterion-related validity?

how well a measure predicts behaviour in settings where we would expect it to do so at the same time (concurrent validity) or in the future (predictive validity) -->e.g a child's scores on social anxiety should predict that the child would display anxiety or avoidance in current social situations

What is the hypothalamus?

hypothalamus carries out commands it receives from the adjacent pituitary gland and other hormones (e.g regulating hunger and thirst) -the pituitary gland stimulates the adrenal gland to produce epinephrine and stress hormone: cortisol

What is idiographic case formulation?

idiographic case formulation: obtain a detailed understanding of the individual child or family as an unique entity

What do you need to consider about the environment?

in a controlled environment: this additional specifier is used if the individual is in an environment where access to substance is restricted

What is the prevalence of SUDS?

in community based samples, 12% of adolescents (aged 12 to 17 years) meet criteria for a substance use disorder -prevalence rates increases across adolescence -rates are more higher among youth experiencing other mental health problems -experimentation is very common: most will not develop substance use disorders

Specify which type of remission the person is at.

in early remission: none of the criteria have been met for at least 3 months but for less than 12 months (with the exception of 'craving') in sustained remission: none of the criteria have been met at any time during a period of 12 months or longer (with the exception of 'craving')

Is parent management training effective?

in general, studies have shown that parent management training results in a significant reduction in problem behaviours, relative to no-treatment control groups and wait-list control groups -stronger effects for preschoolers and elementary-school aged children than adolescents -adolescents tend to be showing more significant impairment -people besides parents may be reinforcing behaviours

What does internal validity control for?

internal validity reflects how a particular variable, rather than extraneous influences, accounts for the results, changes, or group differences

What are internalizing problems?

internalizing problems: anxiety, depression, somatic symptoms and withdrawn behaviou

What was the relationship between physical abuse and social relations?

kids who were physically abused were more disliked, less popular and socially withdrawn, as they aged they were disliked more -maltreatment disrupts relationships with adults which impairs the child's social abilities

What are two critical components of a disorder?

knowing the risk and expression of a disorder in an individual helps us determine the nature of the disorder and ultimately to prevent and treat it

What is life skills training?

life skills training, program that emphasizes building drug-resistance skills, personal and social competence and altering cognitive expectancies around substance use

What is lifetime prevalence?

lifetime prevalence: if a person has had the disorder at any time in their lives

What are mediator variables?

mediator variables: refer to the process, mechanism, or means through which a variable produces a particular outcomes -describe what happens at the psychological or neurobiological level to explain one variable results from another -->when mothers experienced negative or frequent hassles, they responded negatively to their children's misbehaviour and to reinforce their children's coercive tactics during mother-child conflicts and it resulted in an increase in child behaviour problems -mothers' disciplinary strategies help explain the relationship between maternal distress and child conduct problems

What are mediators?

mediators account for some or all of the apparent relationship between two variables

Specify which type of severity.

mild: two to three symptoms moderate: four to five symptoms severe: six or more symptoms

What is the cerebellum

motor skills

What is problem solving analysis?

much broader meaning of diagnosis is similar to clinical assessment and views diagnosis as a process of gathering information to understand the nature of an individual's problem, its possible causes, treatment options, and outcomes

What is multifinality?

multifinality, the concept that various outcomes may stem from similar beginnings -maltreatment can alter the child's initial course of development resulting in unpredictable outcomes

What is multisystemic therapy?

multisystemic therapy, involves intensive intervention that targets family, peer, school and community systems -effective treatment of SUDs among delinquent adolescents -parents are provided step by step guidelines for implementing contingency management to control adolescent substance abuse -familiar cognitive-behavioural interventions such as behavioural contacts and contingencies to reinforce abstinence and overcome roadblocks

What are natural experiments?

natural experiments, comparisons are made between conditions or treatments that already exist

Explain how nature and nurture affect neural plasticity.

neural plasticity: the brain's anatomical differentiation is use-dependent -nature provides the basic processes -nurture provides the experiences to select adaptive network connections -environment influences brain structural differentiations -child's brain remains malleable for months and even years after birth

What is incidence?

new cases over a time period

Explain the norm drinking experiment.

norm-based interventions for college students norms about drinking injunctive norms: how much others approve or disapprove of drinking descriptive norms: how much others actually drink -norms share a stronger association with college student drinking behaviour than

What is the modern thinking of child rearing?

part skill, part wisdom, and part luck

What is partial remission?

partial remission: when full criteria were previously met, fewer than the full criteria have been met for the past six months, and the symptoms still result in impairment in social, academic or occupational functioning

What is abnormal behaviour in youth?

patterN: is it just a one time event? distress: is anyone upset about it? often the person who is doing the action disability: does it get in the way? interfere with children's ability to go to school, make friends risk: could it lead to problems in the future?

What are prevalence rates?

prevalence rates: refer to all cases, whether new or previously existing, observed during a specified period of time (e.g the number of teens with conduct disorder in the general population during 2012 and 2013)

What are developmental cascades?

process where a child's previous interactions and experiences spread across other systems and alter his/her course of development like a chain reaction

What is prognosis?

prognosis: formulation of predictions about future behaviour under specified conditions clinicians must consider: if the circumstances will remain the same, improve or deteriorate with or without treatment

Why is random assignment protective?

random assignment of participants to treatment conditions protects against individual characteristics being the reason for the results

What are real-time prospective designs?

real-time prospective designs: research sample is identified and then followed over time, data is collected at specific time intervals -detect who develops and doesn't develop a disorder

What is reliability?

reliability: consistency or repeatability of results obtained using a specific method of measurement

What is tolerance?

requiring more of the substance to experience an effect once obtained at a lower dose

What is resilience?

resilience is not a universal, categorical, or fixed attribute of the child -it varies according to the type of stress, its context, and similar factors -may be resilient to some specific stressors but not others and resilience may vary -resilience is seen across cultures

What is selective attention?

selective attention: ability to concentrate on relevant stimuli and ignore task-irrelevant stimuli in the environment -->e.g voices distract you when you are studying for a test

What does sensation seeking predict?

sensation seeking had a strong predictive value for both current and future marijuana and alcohol use -->stronger for marijuana than alcohol -males are more likely to be sensation seekers as well as whites -sensation seeking is not stable over time, suggests there is a window of opportunity

What is sensation seeking?

sensation seeking: preference for novel, complex and ambiguous stimuli, it has been linked to high-risk behaviors including substance use

What is the function of the cerebellum?

sensorimotor integration

How can social settings be indirect?

social settings affect the child even when they do not directly experience them -e.g parent's friends and jobs, availability of family support -culture affects how children are affected (e.g gender differences)

What is stress?

stress: situation or challenge that class on resources, typically thought of as external, negative events

What is sustained attention?

sustained attention: ability to maintain a persistent focus over time on unchallenging, uninteresting tasks or activities or when fatigued -->children with ADHD struggle with uninteresting or repetitive task, they do poorer than other children -->even if they want to persist they often can't

What is Science?

systematic method for investigating questions

What is taxonomic diagnosis?

taxonomic diagnosis: focuses on the formal assignment of cases to specific categories drawn from a system of classification such as the DSM-5 or from empirically derived traits or dimensions

What is temperament?

the child's organized style of behaviour that appears early in development -->e.g fussiness or fearfulness -->shapes the child's approach to his or her environment

What is face validity?

the extent to which it appears to assess the construct of interest -->e.g a questionnaire (do you get nervous before a test, measure of test anxiety)

What is psychological dependence?

the subjective feeling of needing the substance to adequately function

What is treatment efficacy?

the treatment can produce changes under well-controlled conditions -careful control is exercised over the selection of cases, therapists, and delivery and monitoring of treatment

Explain the kool Aid experiment

they gave kids kool-aid with aspartame and they told have the moms it had sugar -the moms who were told their kids had sugar rated their behaviours more hyperactive -moms who thought their kids had sugar were more critical of them, hovered more, and talked to them more

What is the cortex

thought and perception originate

What is treatment effectiveness?

treatment effectiveness: the treatment can be shown to work in clinical practice not just in well-controlled research settings -treatment is evaluated in clinical settings, clients are referred rather than selected and therapists provide services without many of the rigorous controls use in research -benefits of treatment for children tend to be lower in clinical practice settings (effectiveness trials) than in controlled research settings (efficacy trials)

What is a true experiment?

true experiment: researcher has maximum control over the independent variable or conditions of interest and can use random assignment of subjects to groups, control conditions and control bias

What is hyperactivity-impulsivity?

under control of motor behaviour, poor sustained inhibition of behaviour, the inability to delay a response or defer gratification, or an inability to inhibit dominant responses in relation to ongoing situational demands

What is the eclectic approach?

use different approaches is valuable

What is treatment planning and evaluation?

using assessment information to generate a plan to address the child's problem and to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment

What is validity?

validity: the extent to which the test actually measures the dimension or construct that the researchers sets out to measure -not all or none, but rather a matter of degree

What is an issue with children being referred to seek health services?

when adults seek services for children, it often is not clear whose 'problem' it is -children enter health systems because the adult is concerned (e.g parent, teacher) -effects how we detect children's problems and how we respond to them

What is biculturalism?

where the child strive to adapt to both their heritage and their receiving cultures, is the most adaptive approach to acculturation

What are youths who have sold drugs more likley to do?

youths who have used or sold drugs are more likely than nonusers to carry a handgun, belong to a gang, use alcohol, or engage in antisocial behaviours

What is the limbic system?

-limbic system regulate basic drives of sex, aggression, hunger and thirst

What do they teach parents about communication?

-"say what you mean" -be direct -give directions in manageable chunks (start with turn off the wii, get your coat) -tell child what to do, rather than what not to do (e.g stop jumping on the couch, sit quitely) -->when you say no, it leaves wide amount of opportunities for things they can do, you need to tell them what to do -mean what you say -let children know what will happen if they continue their behaviour

Who is negative affect or irritability?

-'difficult child', is negative or intense in mood, not adaptable and arrhythmic -show distress when faced with novel or challenging situations, and others are prone to general distress or irritability, including when limitations are placed on them -is related to maternal withdrawal and results in insecure attachment

How are data from multiple informants used to make a diagnosis? - midterm question

-'or' rule -->symptom is present if any informant (e.g teacher or parent) says it is -'and' rule -->symptom is present only if all informants agree -two different approaches, there will be a different answer, the 'and' rule is more restrictive and you will get fewer cases

Who is fearful or inhibited?

-'slow-to-warm-up' child who is cautious in his or her approach to novel or challenging situations -these children are more variable in self-regulation and adaptability and may show distress or negativity toward some situations

Why do we do assessments in clinical practices?

-->in order to arrive at a diagnosis -->to plan a treatment, when does this child struggle, when are these symptoms coming out -->treatment monitoring and progress, do we need to start with medication right away or could we start with therapy. You want to work on the problem and make them independent you don't want to have to be there forever.

What are semi-structured interviews?

-->interviewer has a lot of latitude in asking the questions -->clinical judgment involved in determining when a symptom is present

Explain the 3 examiners and child experiment.

-->with an interactive examiner -->with a busy examiner, they can't interact with the child tell the child they have to play by themselves -->with their parent -are we only seeing this with mom? -'presses' for disruptive behaviour, present the child with challenges -compliance, difficult from them to do what you ask and they don't want to -->some kids will refuse and others won't -frustration, the examiner's water gun works and the child's doesn't and they can't have the examiner's -->some kids get really upset -->receive a puzzle, and a piece is missing -rule breaking, place them with a remote control care, they can't touch the car but they can colour, examiner leaves, and then ask them if they touched the car, see if they lie, confront them: some feel bad and others don't

Explain what happened to the Canadian census.

-20% of Canadians required to fill out a long form of the census (50 questions) -government wanted to make it optional

Explain how kids with ADHD are accident prone.

-3x more likely to experience serious accidental injuries (e.g broken bones, bruises, burns) -risk factor of cigarette smoking, substance-use disorders, video and internet game use problems, and addictions, and risky sexual behaviours such as multiple partners and unprotected sex -substance use may be due to co-occurring conduct problems -irresponsible and risky adolescent and adult behaviour

What is the genetic influence?

-50% of variance of antisocial behaviour is attributable to heredity for both males and females -higher for aggressive versus nonaggressive CD in childhood versus adolescence -genetic increase the likelihood that a child will be exposed to environmental risk (e.g divorce) -children's genotype and neurobiology may moderate their susceptibility to these environmental insult

What are the difference between CD and ADHD?

-ADHD is less associated with cognitive impairments, neurodevelopmental abnormalities, inattentiveness in the classroom, and higher rates of accidental injuries

What are cognitive treatments?

-abnormal child behaviour as the result of deficits and/or distortions in the child's thinking -perceptual biases, irrational beliefs and faulty interpretations (e.g thinking you are ugly)

What do symptoms of ADHD look like in preschoolers?

-ADHD is now visible and a problem -act suddenly and without thinking, dashing from activity to activity, grabbing at immediate rewards, bored easily and react negatively to routine activities -talk excessively and disrupt other children's activities -if the child displays hyperactive-impulsive and oppositional behaviour for at least 1 year continue on to having difficulties, predicts ADHD -->if they have issues with parent-child relationship it is more predictive

Why is ADHD diagnosis baised?

-ADHD might go unrecognized if teachers fail to report inattentive behaviour unless it is accompanied by the disruptive symptoms demonstrated by boys -DSM criteria were developed and tested with boys, and the criteria is more common in boys

What is IPA?

-IPA, qualitative research approach that captures the richness and diversity of participants accounts by uncovering central themes that emerge from their talk

Why do kids with CD also have ADHD?

-a shared predisposing vulnerability such as impulsivity, poor self-regulation, or temperament may lead to both ADHD and CD -ADHD may be a catalyst for CD by contributing to its persistence and escalation to more severe forms, particularly when shaped by ineffective parenting emotional reactions and behaviours -ADHD may lead to childhood onset of Cd, which is a strong predictor of continuing problem

Is there a connection between media violence and CD?

-a short term precipitating factor for aggressive and violent behaviour that results from priming excitation, or imitation of specific behaviours -a long term predisposing factor for aggressive behaviour acquired via desensitization to violence and observational learning of an aggression-supporting belief system (e.g the world is a hostile place)

What is psychological testing?

-a test is a task or set of tasks given under standard conditions with the purpose of assessing some aspect of the child's knowledge, skill or personality -tests are standardized on a defined referenced group (e.g SES, sex) referred to as a norm group -an individual child's scores can be compared with the scores of a comparable group of children to determine how much the child's scores deviate -tests are important in the assessment but they are only one part not the entire decision making process

What is the affect of MAOA?

-a variant of the gene that encodes the neurotransmitter metabolizing enzyme monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) is related to neural systems involved in aggression -activation of the MAOA enzyme helps us inhibit an aggressive response, regulates behaviour -maltreated children with low-active MAOA genotype are more likely to develop antisocial behaviour than maltreated children who do not have this genotype -brain imaging studies have found low-active MAOA genotype show patterns of arousal in areas of the brain that are associated with aggression in response to emotion-provoking stimuli

What are behavioural treatments?

-abnormal child behaviours are learned -re-educating the child: positive reinforcement, time-out, modeling and systematic desensitization -change the child's environment by working with parents and teachers

What are friendships between antisocial boys like?

-abrasive, unstable, short duration and not productive -positive exchanges are extinguished by bossy and coercive behaviours -deviant talk: reward each other about talking about rule breaking -don't talk about prosocial items -predictor of substance use

Is psychopathology linked to abuse?

-abuse is more likely to occur in lower income families, psychopathology might be linked to SES and not abuse

What is dopamine?

-act as a switch that turns on various brain circuits, allowing other neurotransmitters to inhibit or facilitate emotions or behaviour -is involved in exploratory, extroverted, and pleasure-seeking activity

What is behavioural observation?

-actually see the behaviour of interest -->ask the kids to talk about a disagreement they had together, watch family dinner

What is the critical neurocognitive abilities?

-adjustments in the sleep-wake cycle that occur during adolescence can lead to a misalignment between teens' sleep-wake schedules and their internal circadian timing -alters the adolescent's reward-related brain functions -critical neurocognitive abilities: executive functioning and inhibitory control are impaired by sleep problems, which lead to an imbalance in the reward circuit -may explain the increased risk-taking and sensation-seeking during adolescence, accelerates the transition from alcohol and drug experimentation to alcohol-use disorders

What is adolescent-limited path?

-adolescent-limited path: majority display antisocial behaviour that occurs during adolescence -doesn't continue into adulthood -less severe antisocial behaviours -less likely to drop out of school -stronger family ties -related to situational factors (e.g peer influences) -not consistent across situations -greater social adversity and personal risk during childhood relative to other youths

How do adolescents show APD?

-adolescents with APD display psychopathic features, which are defined as a pattern of callous, manipulative, deceitful and remorseless behaviour youths who display psychopathic features are aware of their aggressive behaviour causes others to suffer, but they don't care -goals in conflict situations involve revenge, dominance and forced respect -signs of lack of conscience occur in children as young as 3-5 -aggressive behaviour and CD in childhood may be a precursor of adult antisocial personality disorder

What are the gender differences based on age?

-after the age of three you start to see the differentiation between the genders -boys show higher rates of early=onset disorders that involve neurodevelopmental impairment -girls show emotional disorders with a peak age of onset in adolescence -boys have reading disorders, autism, ADHD, and conduct problem

What do they look at in family characteristics and history?

-age, occupation, cultural background and marital status of family members and the medical educational and mental health history of parents and siblings

Explain the effectiveness experiment of anger coping.

-aggressive boys randomly assigned to one of four groups: -anger ocping -anger coping + goal setting -goal setting -no treatment

What are the problems with longitudinal effects?

-aging effects are general changes that occur because as participants age there are increases in physical prowess, impulse control or social opportunity -cohort effects are influences related to being a member of a specific cohort -being repeatedly studied threatens the validity of the study, participants can become sensitized to the thoughts, feelings and behaviours under investigation -->could improve due to practice effects including greater familiarity with the test and better test-taking skills

What is the prevalence of SUDS?

-alcohol is most prevalent substance used and abused by adolescents -cigarette smoking has decreased -marijuana use is increasing

How does the age of onset affect the course?

-alcohol use before age 14 is a strong predictor of subsequent alcohol abuse or dependence -age at first use is a widely used risk factor

Are they effective?

-all found that syringe-exchange programs were associated with reductions in rates of HIV infections -note that none of these studies were randomized clinical trials -->case control designs, pre- and post-comparisons

What is random assignment?

-all participants have an equal probability of being in either the experimental or control group

What is random assignment (midterm question)

-all participants have an equal probability of being in either the experimental or control group -internal validity: random assignment, assures other factors are not influencing the results -want to ensure that groups do not differ in any way other than the experimental manipulation -if people are allocated randomly, other characteristics should be balanced -->gender, age -->motivation for treatment

What are the advantage of case-control designs?

-allows us to answer important questions -often the only ethical way to address a question (can't assign children to an abuse and non-abuse group) -helps us to establish internal validity -making groups equivalent on other factors helps to establish that differences are due to the variable of interest

What are the advantages of dimensional measurement?

-allows us to retain valuable information -provides a measure of severity

How is limited prosocial emotions assessed?

-assessments in development -clinical assessment of prosocial emotions -semi-structured interview

Which brain regions are involved in CD?

-amygdala, prefrontal cortex, posterior and anterior cingulate and insula, and interconnected regions -->psychopathic features, seen in CD -reduced activation in some of these areas when viewing emotional stimuli (e.g angry faces) or during tasks that require learning -brain regions are involved in processing social and emotional information -brain abnormalities are seen in both adolescent onset and childhood onset -amygdala was smaller in teens with CD: no difference between early onset or childhood onset -->involved in emotions

Why do we need to view an individual in their family and peer context?

-an individual's problem needs to be seen in perspective to their social situation -stress the is positive or tolerable, often bring about change, growth and reorganization of families and it is not usually harmful to children's development -some stress is 'toxic, causes strong, frequent or prolonged activation of the child's stress response without adult protection

What is alerting?

-an initial reaction to a stimulus -the ability to prepare for what for what is about to happen -helps the child achieve and maintain an optimally alert attentional state -respond too quickly in situations requiring a slow and careful approach and too slowly in situations requiring a quick response -often this is seen in children who have ADHD

What is multisystemic therapy?

-an intensive approach that draws on other techniques such as PMT, PSST, and marital therapy -specialized interventions such as special education, and referral to substance abuse treatment programs or legal services -good for severe cases -often youths you are incarcerated commit more crimes than youths kept at home and given treatment

What is another effective treatment?

-another,effective treatment, if we have a treatment we want to know our treatment does better than the previous one. The bar is higher for this one because they are comparing it to evidence based therapy

What is the BIS and BAS connection to CD?

-antisocial patterns of behaviour may be a result of an overactive BAS and an underactive BIS -CD children fail to respond to punishment and continue to respond under conditions of no reward, consistant with underactive BIS

What is the affect of neighbourhood and on CD?

-antisocial people tend to select neighbourhoods populated by other people who are like them -social selection hypothesis: the people who move into different neighbourhoods differ from one another before they arrive, and those who remain differ from those who leave -crim and delinquency are reinforced by neighbourhood social disorganization (e.g few local friendships, low participation in local organizations, and inability to supervise and control teenage peer groups) -main influence of effective parents in high-risk neighbourhoods is countering gang membership

What are typical characteristics of victims?

-anxious and submissive behaviour -low self-esteem -physical weakness (boys) -signal to others that they are attacked or insulted, they won't retaliate

What is internal consistency?

-are reports of the symptoms consistent, both verbal and questionnaires

What is discriminant validity?

-are scores on the measure different from scores of other constructs -mu new scale of depression should now incredibly high correlations with a scale of anxiety

What is convergent validity?

-are scores on the measure related to other measures or indicators of the same construct -my new scale of depression should be correlated with other scales of depression

What are rating scales and interviews?

-ask people knowledgeable about the child to answer questions about their behaviour and emotions -interviews are longer and administered to the person -rating scales are briefer and are (typically) completed by the person on their own

What are interviews?

-ask person knowledgeable about child's behaviour (e.g parent, child) to answer questions

What is an interview?

-ask person knowledgeable about child's behaviour (e.g parent, child) to answer questions -Three types: unstructured, semi-structued, structured

What are psychophysiological methods?

-assess the relationship between physiological processes and behaviour to identify which nervous system structures and processes contribute to children's atypical development and behaviour -measure autonomic nervous system: blood pressure, breathing -->very inconsistent with children, since they are influenced by many factors

What do they look at in the child's parent's expectations?

-assessment and treatment of their child and themselves

Why does the DSM-5 include culture criteria?

-assessment, diagnosis and treatment of children with emotional and behavioural problems needs to be culturally sensitive -information about the impact of culture on the child's presenting problems and implications for treatment -cultural patterns reflect learned behaviors and values that are shared among members, are transmitted a group members over time, and distinguish the members of the one group from those of another -children who are ethnic minorities may be at greater risk of being misdiagnosed or underdiagnosed

What is the effect of deviant peers?

-associating with deviant and substance-using peers causes youths to adopt beliefs supporting drug use -affiliation with these peers also increases access to substances

What are case-control designs?

-association between depression and social skills -children on an inpatient unit for depression and children attending school -->these two groups differ in a lot of ways than depression -->inpatients are not going to school, school fosters social skills -->compare these children to other children who are inpatients for medical condition -children referred to an outpatient clinic for depression and children referred to an outpatient clinic for oppositional defiant disorder

What is molecular genetics?

-association between variations in DNA sequences and variations in a particular trait or traits -variation in genetic sequences are thought to cause the variations in the trait(s) -search for specific genes -determine how genetic mutations alter how the genes function in the development of the brain and behaviour for different psychopathologies

Are rating scales reliable?

-assumption has been that they are less good than interviews -trade-off between higher validity/reliability of interviews and feasibility of checklists -data are not consistent with this -->some evidence suggests that rating scales/checklists yield comparable diagnoses -->perform just as well for researchers who are measuring symptoms -raises the possibility that clinicians could use shorter assessments -increases the likelihood that they may incorporate standardized assessments

What are the results of the alcohol study?

-at both 3 and 6 months, amount of drinking in the intervention groups was reduced, relative to the control group -at both 3 and 6 months perceived norms were reduced (intervention group was reporting that peers drink less than control group) -changes in perceived norms mediated the association between the intervention and reduced drinking -intervention predicted decrease in perceived norms at three months, which predicted norms mediated the association between the intervention and reduced drinking

What are people with ODD at risk for?

-at risk for developing impulse-control, substance use, and mood and anxiety disorder

What is attention-only control group?

-attention-only control group, attention from the person administering it, seeing someone every week who is empathetic might be enough, it might not be be the therapy they use. The control group would meet with a therapist but he would not use a specific therapy (e.g CBT)

What is the affect of adult privileges?

-attraction of forbidden adult privileges may motivate youths with previous risk signs to engage in antisocial behaviours as they enter adolescence -they see their LCP peers obtaining adult privileges, they may mimic them -when adult privileges become available, Al youths cease breaking laws

What is the attributional bias?

-attributional bias about their ability or the intentions of others leads them to reinterpret the event in a way that fits their preexisting belief

How do kids with ADHD have intellectual deficits?

-average intelligence -difficulty in applying their intelligence to everyday life situations -they don't live up to their potential -lower IQ scores, might be due to lack of test-taking abilities

What occurs at the fifth month of prenatal development?

-axons reached their general destination, more axons than the target cells can accommodate -during childhood synapses multiply; then selective pruning reduces the connected -fosters healthy growth of different areas -eliminates connections that serve to restrict healthy growth

What is the forebrain?

-base has the limbic system, contains areas that cause psychopathology -->hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum, and amygdala -->regulate emotional experiences and expressions and play a role in learning and impulse control

What is the process of brain development?

-begins with neuronal growth and differentiation -fetal brain develops from a few all-purpose cells into interconnected neurons -the speed and distance of emerging neurons is fast

What are the positive aspects of the diathesis stress model?

-behaviour and emotions are complicated -almost no disorders caused by 'just' genes -almost no disorders caused by 'just' stress -brain changes (neural plasticity) in response to environment -->neural connections are strengthened or eliminated based on environmental experience

What are distorted self-perceptions of ADHD kids?

-belief that these children must suffer low self-esteem -they report higher self-esteem than warranted by their behaviour -perceive strong relationships with their parents, teachers and peers (even when the peers see things in a negative light) -kids with hyperactive tend to show a higher self-esteem, diminished self-awareness, self-protective, don't know what successful or unsuccessful performance is

What are the advantages of observation?

-beneficial for decision making process -families understand what may be required to conduct a thorough assessment and treatment plan -helpful in assessing less motivated families

What are the advantages and disadvantages for qualitative research?

-biased by the researcher's values and preferences -findings cannot be generalized -identify important dimensions and theories that can be tested -illuminate the meaning of quantitative studies

Why do we need to use an integrative approach?

-biological, psychological models are not enough to see the whole picture -need to use both to understand the causes -explanation is limited if you use one

What does the and and or rule leave out?

-both of the and and the or rules do not capture the fact that differences between informants are valuable -diagnosis identified by teacher is likely different than one identified by a parent -think about maintaining ratings separately -->parent-reported, teacher-reported, combined (reported by both parents and teachers)

What are the gender differences in ODD and CD?

-boys use more physical aggression than girls -girls can behave aggressively but they are less likely to -early symptoms for girls are sexual misbehaviours -early symptoms for bossy is aggression and theft -antisocial girls develop relationships with antisocial boys, then become pregnant -gender differences in behaviour decline in adolescents -boys remain more violent than girls and engage in repeated acts of physical violence -physical aggression in females at a young age is not predictive of anything -females appear to be more susceptible to risk factors (e.g marital discord)

What is unique about boys with CD and anxiety disorder?

-boys with CD and anxiety disorder show higher cortisol associated with a greater degree of behavioural inhibition, anxiety is a protective factor boys with CD, lower cortisol and is associated with aggressive and disruptive behaviour

What are the outcomes of CD for girls and boys?

-boys with CD and internalizing problems have poor outcomes in early adulthood -highest risk of psychiatric disorders and criminal offenses -girls with CD develop depression or anxiety by early adulthood -both sexes, increasing severity of antisocial behaviour is associated with increasing severity of depression and anxiety -risk factor for suicide

What happens to the brain during puberty?

-brain develops new brain cells and neural connections -reorganizes and consolidates, further matures the lobes of the brain

How is the brain influenced?

-brain regions are influenced by biochemicals and neurohormones -environmental factors direct or route ongoing brain processes

What is the brain stem?

-brain stem, base of the brain handles automatic functions necessary to stay alive -lowest part is known as the hindbrain and it contains the medulla the pons and cerebellum

What is developmental psychopathology framework?

-broad approach to disorders of youth -stresses importance of developmental processes and tasks -to understand maladaptive behaviour, one must view it in relation to what is considered normative

What are treatment goals?

-building on children's adaptation skills to facilitate long-term adjustment, rather than eliminating problem behaviours or briefly reducing subjective distress

Why do informants not agree?

-but, different informants provide reliable and valid reports -->one informant is not giving bad reports -some exceptions e.g children's report of ADHD -teachers and parents show limited agreement, but both are providing good reports different perspectives of informants situation specificity of children's behaviour: higher ADHD behaviour at scho

What are the advantages of child behaviour checklist?

-can assess children in 80 or more cultural groups, able to evaluate immigrants, refugee and minority children -assess progress in treatment and consider modifying treatment -assess problem behaviours not specific disorders

Can we use harmful procedures?

-can't use harmful procedures but occasionally mildly stressful conditions and anxiety-producing stimuli are used

What do control groups allow you to do?

-careful choice, allows you to establish construct validity

What is a control group?

-careful choice, allows you to establish construct validity

How is development hierarchical?

-child's current abilities or limitations are influenced by prior accomplishments

What are childhood disorder consisted of?

-childhood disorders are accompanied by various layers of abnormal behaviour or development -->range from visible and alarming to more subtle yet critical (e.g teasing, peer rejection), to more hidden and systemic (e.g depression, or parental rejection)

Explain the experiment by Caspi and maltreatment.

-childhood maltreatment is universal risk factor antisocial behaviour -50% increased risk for boys to develop CD, antisocial personality, and to become violent offenders (esp early life abuse) -most boys who are maltreated do not develop severe anti-social behaviour -it may be that vulnerability to adversities is conditional, depending on genetic factors

What is the ontario child health study?

-childhood psychiatric disorders and how common they were -population of interest is all children in Ontario -need a sample that allows for generalization to all children in Ontario -->random sampling approach -->percentage of people who are contacted who participated -->after you select your sample you need them to participate, less people who participate, reduce the randomization and representation -->people do not participate are likely to differ in important ways for those who do -->e.g people who move a lot

What are the two types of CD?

-childhood-onset type: individual show at least one symptom characteristic of conduct disorder prior to age 10 years -adolescent-onset type: individuals show no symptom characteristic of CD prior to age 10 years -unspecified onset: criteria for a diagnosis of CD are met, but there is not enough available information to determine whether the onset of the first symptom was before or after age 10

What does MST target?

-children -parent -neighbourhood -school -probation, work with probation officer -very intensive -->therapist available 24/7, services in home and directly other setting -->typically 4 months of treatment

What type of parenting do children need?

-children require a parenting style that is sensitive to their unique needs and abilities and that places appropriate limits on them to help them develop self-control

What are the paths of CD?

-children who display antisocial behaviours and then desist at a young age -problems may emerge in young adulthood -children may display a chronic low level of persistent antisocial behaviour from childhood or adolescence through adulthood

Which traits to overt children display?

-children who display overt antisocial behaviour tend to be negative, irritable, and resentful in their reactions to hostile situations and higher levels of family conflict

How is aggression gendered?

-children who engage in forms of social aggression that are not typical of their sex (e.g girls punching) are more maladjusted than are children who engage in gender-normative forms of aggression

What are anxiety disorders?

-children who have ADHD are more likely to experience anxiety -worry about being separated from their parents, trying something new, taking tests, making social contacts, or visiting the doctor -they feel tense and constantly seek reassurance that they are are safe and protected -the anxiety has a negative impact on the child's thinking and behaviour

Explain the effect of alcoholic parents.

-children who have alcoholics as parents , these parents are less involved, less affectionate, inconsistent parenting, poor monitoring, and negative parent-child and interparent interactions which increase the risk of substance use

How is the poverty disadvantage expressed in children?

-children who live in poverty suffer from more conduct disorders, chronic illness, school problems, emotional disorders, and cognitive/learning problems -effect on prefrontal cortex development stemming from the social inequalities -the greater the degree of inequality, powerlessness, and lack of control, the more children's physical and mental health are undermined

How can interacting with a child who is impulsive lead to family problems?

-children with ADHD received stimulant medications showed a decrease in their symptoms -produced a reduction in the negative and controlling behaviours that parents previously displayed when their children were not medicated

What is relation between instable families and CD?

-children with CD are often in unstable families with frequent transitions (e.g residence and parents) -risk for antisocial behaviour, academic problems, anxiety and depression, association with deviant peers and criminal conviction

Explain the school and learning problem in children with CD.

-children with CD display school difficulties: underachievement, grade retention, special education placement, dropout, suspension and expulsion -demoralization and frustration from school can lead to antisocial behaviour -early language deficits may lead to reading and communication difficulties, which could heighten conduct problems -lose interest in school, delinquent peers become friends, -underachievement may lead to anxiety or depression

What are the attachment theories for kids with CD?

-children with CD show little internalization of parental and societal standards -even when they comply with parental requests; they may do so because of perceived threats to their freedom or physical safety -when the threats are not present (when the child is unsupervised, antisocial behaviours occur -weak bonds with parents may lead the child to associate with deviant peers, which in turn may lead to delinquency and substance abuse -disorganized attachments and the development of antisocial behaviour during childhood and adolescence

What happens when a child has co morbidity with ADHD and anxiety?

-children with co-occurring ADHD and anxiety display social and academic difficulties and experience greater long-term impairment and mental health problems than those with either condition alone

What can children with CD not think of?

-children with conduct problems don't consider future consequences of their behaviour -fail to inhibit impulsive behaviour, keep social values or future rewards in mind or adapt their actions to changing circumstances -suggests deficits in executive functioning

Why might verbal deficits be present?

-children with verbal deficits and family adversity display more aggressive behaviour -->verbal deficits may make it more difficult for parents to understand their child's needs which leads to parents' frustration, fewer positive interactions, more punishment, and greater difficulties in teaching social skills

What is the connection between parent's criminality and psychopathology and CD?

-children's aggression is correlated with their parents' childhood aggression is correlated with their parents' childhood aggression at the same age -parents of antisocial children have higher rates of arrests, violations, license suspensions, and substance abuse -antisocial individuals have ineffective parents especially during disciplinary confrontations during which they display an irritable, explosive style of interaction -paternal APD is strongly related to CD in their children, doesn't matter whether the father lives with the child or not -maternal depression is related to children's antisocial behaviour

Explain how children's behaviour can be specific to a situation.

-children's behaviour varies markedly across different situations and settings -different demands: some people struggle in large lecture classes, but they do well in conferences where it is smaller. Some people do better in large lectures and not small conferences -e.g school requires very high level of peer interaction,child who is very shy may show more withdrawn behaviour in this setting than at home (the parent may not see that they are shy -inter-rater differences may be capturing legitimate differences in children's behaviour across settings -parents and teachers may be seeing different behaviours

What are preventive interventions?

-conduct problems can be treated more easily and effectively in younger children -by counteracting risk factors and strengthening promotive factors, it is possible to limit or prevent the developmental trajectory -preventive interventions will reduce the substantial costs to the educational criminal justice health and mental health systems that are associated with conduct problems

Explain how situation specificity of children's behaviour.

-children's behaviour varies markedly across different situations and settings -different demands: some people struggle in large lecture classes, but they do well in conferences where it is smaller. Some people do better in large lectures and not small conferences -e.g school requires very high level of peer interaction,child who is very shy may show more withdrawn behaviour in this setting than at home (the parent may not see that they are shy) -inter-rater differences may be capturing legitimate differences in children's behaviour across settings -parents

How do emotions influence children?

-children's emotional experiences, expressions, and regulation affect the quality of their social interactions and relationships -->foundation of personality development -emotions are internal monitoring and guidance systems that appraise events as beneficial or dangerous, they motivate our actions

What is classification?

-classification: system for representing the major categories or dimensions of child psychopathology, and the boundaries and relations among them -idiographic strategy to highlight a child's unique circumstances, personality, cultural background and other features

How does epidemiological research classify disorders?

-classify disorders as single symptoms, multiple symptoms, or patterns of symptoms

Why do we do it?

-clinical -->in order to arrive at a diagnosis -->to plan a treatment, when does this child struggle, when are these symptoms coming out -->treatment monitoring and progress, do we need to start with medication right away or could we start with therapy. You want to work on the problem and make them independent you don't want to have to be there forever. Research -epidemiology -determining correlates -assessing predictors and outcomes -examining interventions

What are unstructured interviews?

-clinician asks questions and arrives at diagnosis -most clinicians use this approach, and many rely on it entirely

What is an unstructured interview?

-clinician asks questions and arrives at diagnosis -most clinicians use this approach, and many rely on it entirely

Explain role-play and parents who have abused their children.

-clinician could set up a role-play simulation in the clinic to see how the child and family might behave in daily situations encountered at home or school or in a problem-solving situation (e.g figuring out a game) -when observing families who have physically abused preschool-age child, they choose activities the elicit both parent-child cooperation and conflict -->observe the parents playing with their child (observe their teaching style), then ask them to have the child put away her/his favourite toys, which results in noncompliance and conflict) -clinician must take into account the informant, the child, the nature of the problem, and the family and cultural context because any of these issues can distort the findings

Why are unstructured interview less comprehensive?

-clinicians tend to make diagnostic decisions before they have collected all of the relevant information -biases

How does the DSM not consider executive functions?

-cognitive processes in the brain that activate, integrate and manage other brain functions -underlie the child's capacity for self-regulation functions such as self-awareness, planning, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation -help us focus on multiple streams of information at the same time, filter distractions, and revise plans as necessary

What are cognitive interventions?

-cognitive techniques that children can use to control their attention and behaviour -e.g verbal self-instruction, problem solving -not supported, they are not beneficial

What is a cohort?

-cohort: a group of individuals who are followed during the same time and experience the same cultural or historical events -->teens you live in a worn torn country differ from north american teenagers

How do they use availability heuristic in interviews?

-combine information in idiosyncratic ways -use an availability heuristic where they base decisions on examples that come to mind easily -->e.g if they just diagnosed a child with depression, may be more likely to do it again

What was interesting about the medication and the TAU group?

-combined treatment and meds outperformed TAU for most ADHD outcomes -many children in TAU, were on medication -there is a difference between the group that got medication in a systematic way -behavioural treatment did not outperform TAU -note that behavioural treatment and combined treatment both outperformed TAu when outcome was reducing parent-child (meds did not)

What are natural experiments or case-control designs?

-compare children with disorder or experience to children without -common approach -rates of psychopathology in children who have or have not experienced abuse -school attendance in depressed versus non-depressed teens -health in homeless families versus non-homeless families

What were the objectives of MTA?

-compare long-term medication and behavioural treatments for ADHD -determine if there are additional benefits if meds and behavioural treatment are combined -compare systemic administration of treatment to treatment as delivered in community settings

What is competence?

-competence: the ability to successfully adapt in the environment

Why do boys show overt aggression?

-conduct problems have more emphasis on physical aggression and minimal emphasis on less physically aggressive forms of antisocial behaviours shown by girls -girls show relational aggression, e.g gossip -girls become more upset than boys by aggressive social exchanges -adolescent girls aggressive behaviour revolves around group acceptance and affiliation, whereas boys, aggression remains confrontational

What are sibling relations like between siblings and CD siblings?

-conflict is high among siblings -non-referred siblings sometimes display as much negative behaviour as their referred siblings, even when the sibling with conduct problems is not present -not immediate reactions to the annoying behaviours of their antisocial brother or sister -risk for later conduct problems and may contribute to later aggression

What are support groups?

-connecting adults with other parents of children with ADHD -sharing information and experiences about common concerns -and providing emotional support

What is parent management training?

-contingency management -clear rules, rewards for behaviours you want to see, consequences for behaviours you do not want to see -setting up situations to minimize problems -a number of studies have demonstrated that this treatment results in improved behaviour -may not show effects as large as medication -important intervention for conduct problems (e.g arguing with mom and dad)

What is behavioural classroom management?

-contingency management in the classroom -studies have demonstrated effectiveness -studies have demonstrated effectiveness

When do continuity and discontinuity vary?

-continuity and discontinuity vary as a function of changing environmental circumstances and transactions between the child and environment

What are advantages and disadvantages of observation?

-cost-effective, focus on the phenomena of interest: ideal for infrequent behaviour in everyday life -might not be representative of the real-world: knowing they are being observed -should be as 'behaviour in the presence of an observer", the observer influences the behaviour of the children and parents who are being observed

Which traits do covert children display?

-covert antisocial behaviour, less social, more anxious, and more suspicious of others and come from homes that provide little family support

What are adult outcomes of CD?

-crimes decreases as ages increases -adult outcomes depend on the type of CD and other risk and promotive factors -some go on to display criminal behaviour, psychiatric problems, social maladjustment, health problems, lost productivity and poor parenting of their own children -more violent marriages and higher rates of divorce -males are at risk for criminal behaviour, work problems and substance abuse -women are at risk for depression, suicidal behaviour, and health problems

Why do parent often lash out on their kids with CD?

-cruel and aggressive child behaviours can evoke strong reactions (e.g anger, harsh punishment) -negative parenting practices may lead to antisocial behaviour, but they may be the reaction to the aggressive behaviours of their children

What is cultural compatibility hypothesis?

-cultural compatibility hypothesis: treatment is likely to be more effective when it is compatible with the cultural patterns of the child and family -certain treatments are better for certain ethnic groups -might be good to match the clinician's ethnicity with the patients

What is coercion theory?

-cycle of increasingly negative interactions -delay and escape strategies by child -->using really obnoxious behaviour to get out of doing things he/she doesn't want to do (e.g chores, homework) -inconsistency and explosions from -parent ends up being punished for trying to set up limits (because the child responds very negatively) and often ends up not trying anymore or giving in which negatively reinforces the child, cycle repeats because the child escalates -manages to be reinforcing to all

What is prevention?

-decreasing the chances that undesired future outcomes will occur -better to promote health and prevent future problems

What do research studies focus on?

-defining what constitutes normal and abnormal behaviour for children of different ages, sexes, and ethnic and cultural backgrounds -identifying the causes and correlates of abnormal child behaviour -making predictions about long-term outcomes -developing and evaluating method for treatment and/or prevention

What you need to make a diagnosis?

-developmental history -parent and teacher reports -normed assessment instruments -behavioural observations

How can deviancy be judged?

-deviancy judgments require knowledge of a child's performance relative to their peers, and knowledge of a child's development and cultural context -normal developmental milestones -deviancy, defining competence can be specific and narrow or plentiful and broad

How is the DSM organized?

-diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM 5 -outlines diagnoses and associated criteria -categorical system -disorders are viewed to be discrete categories -->depression, social anxiety, oppositional defiant disorder -professional consensus -medical model -->discrete disorders with separate causes

What are the general rules of the diathesis model?

-diathesis doens't equal disorder -stress doesn't equal disorder -interaction: makes disorder more probable -could have multiple interacting diatheses and stressors

How does gender affect the expression of mental disorders?

-differences in timing -males show higher rates of disorders in childhood, females show higher rates of disorders in adolescence -differences in form -males show higher levels of externalizing problems -females show higher levels of internalizing problems

What neurobiological factors are altered in ADHD children?

-differences on psychophysiological measures (e.g galvanic skin response, heart rate), diminished arousal or arousability -difference on brain activity during vigilance tests, under responsiveness to stimuli and deficits in response inhibition -differences in blood flow to the prefrontal regions of the brain and the pathways connecting these regions to the limbic system and cerebellum suggesting decreased blood flow to these regions

What do we need to consider about cultural views and practices?

-different ethnic groups have different parental values and use different child-rearing practices -different beliefs in childhood problem, how mental health services are provided, how to describe their children' problems, and preferred interventions

Why is it difficult to determine whether a behaviour is normative?

-difficult for parents to determine if their child's behaviour is normal, especially if it is immigrant parents -age inappropriateness, severity, and pattern of symptoms rather than individual symptoms define abnormal childhood disorders -->impair functioning -some symptoms are more frequent or extreme in children

What are signs of ODD in infants?

-difficult temperament: fussy, irritable -not limited to CD/ODD and no reliable/valid way to test conduct problems in infants

When are mental health issues difficult to treat?

-difficult to engage parents from cultures if mental health issues are taboo, interventions into personal family matters by strangers is viewed negatively or if the causes of the illness in the culture are seen as physical or spiritual

What are dimensions?

-dimensions provide a useful estimate of the degree to which a child displays certain traits and not others, yet they often have to be tailored to the child's unique circumstances and developmental opportunities

What are direct causal pathways?

-direct causal pathway rarely lead to a particular outcome

Explain the twin study for brain abnormalities.

-discordant twins, only the twin with ADHD shows abnormalities in these brain structures

Who is Hollingsworth?

-discovered that children who were suffering, it was due to adults treating them poorly -this showed that there was a difference between psychiatric disorders and intellectual disorders -->mental disorders do not correlate with lower IQ

Explain how CD behaviours change with age.

-disposition remains constant, expression changes due to new opportunities -psychological deficits that may interfere with their development of language, memory, and self-control resulting in cognitive deficits and a difficult temperament by age 3 or younger -these deficits heighten the child's vulnerability to antisocial elements in the social environment, such as abuse or poor parenting which lead to oppositional and conduct problems -children experience greater social adversity (e.g low income) -young adults have difficulty forming lasting relationships

What is diversification?

-diversification: they add new forms of antisocial behaviour over time rather than replacing old behaviours

What is test-retest reliability?

-do we get the same answer on different measurement occasions? -be careful, some constructs should change over time, even over very short intervals. e.g mood should stay the same ADHD without treatment should be consistent

What weaknesses are associated with case-control desgins?

-does not establish temporal order (does depression cause poor social skills, do poor social skills cause depression) -does not establish that A changes B (responsiveness)

What role does dopamine play in ADHD?

-dopamine is involved in psychomotor activity and reward seeking -brain structures implicated in ADHD are rich with dopamine innervation: there is dopamine dysregulation in these brain structures -primary medications reduce ADHD symptoms act by blocking the dopamine transporter

What is the issue of dropping out?

-drop out, participants often don't like to be randomly assigned, it is difficult to make a control in psychology an illusion, the participants know if they are getting therapy or not -may drop out of the control group -threaten internal validity (groups no longer comparable) -->more people drop out in the control group, people don't drop out randomly -->e.g people who are under more stress, and know they are not getting help they will drop out

What is the issue with people dropping out?

-drop out, participants often don't like to be randomly assigned, it is difficult to make a control in psychology an illusion, the participants know if they are getting therapy or not -may drop out of the control group -threaten internal validity (groups no longer comparable) -->more people drop out in the control group, people don't drop out randomly -->e.g people who are under more stress, and know they are not getting help they will drop out

What is D.A.R.E?

-drug abuse resistance education -developed in the 1980s during Reagan's 'war on drugs' -zero tolerance approach to drug use -happens in schools -police officers deliver substance-use prevention curriculum to students -->teachings students skills needed to recognize and resist pressure to use drugs -decision making skills -building self-esteem -also includes parent education and summer and afterschool programs

How can measures very?

-e.g prevalence rates shift depending upon who the informant is (e.g parent, teacher talking on behalf of the kid)

What are the first signs of CD?

-earliest indication of conduct problems is a difficult temperament, not strong -fussiness was a stronger predictor for boys -fearfulness was a stronger predictor for girls

What is a risk of early maturing boys and girls?

-early maturing boys and girls are more at risk of being exposed to peers who may draw them into delinquent behaviour -early maturing children who had been maltreated, exposure to abuse had a greater effect on the development of delinquency than did exposure to delinquent peers

How does menarche affect oDD and CD?

-early onset of menarche predicts increased delinquency particularly girls in mixed-gender schools -boys model antisocial behaviour and pressure girls for early sexual relations may interact with the early physical maturation of girls -girls reaching menarche at an early age had a greater risk of early pregnancy, and STIs

What are emotions?

-emotions and affective expression are core elements of human psychological experience -central features of infant activity and regulation -emotions tell us what to pay attention to and what to ignore -emotions are critical to healthy adaptation

What are behavioural and cognitive influences?

-emphasize learning and cognition shape children's behaviour and their interpretation -applied behaviour analysis, observable behaviour and rejects cognition effects -social learning theory, focuses on cognitive processes and explanations

What is the Summer Treatment Program?

-engage in classroom and recreational activities with other children -advantages: maximizes opportunities to build effective peer relations in normal settings and provides continuity to academic work to ensure that gains made during the school year are not lost -behaviours improve, decreases problem severity and improves social skills and academic performance

What is emotion regulation?

-enhancing, maintaining, or inhibiting emotional arousal which is done for a specific purpose or goal -some emotion dysregulation may be adaptive in on environment and maladaptive in another

What is a non=shared environment?

-environmental factors that produce behavioural differences among siblings -calculated by subtracting the MZ twin correlation from 1.0 -creates differences among siblings -includes: differential treatment by parents, peer influences, and school environment

What is a shared environment?

-environmental factors that produce similarities in developmental outcomes among siblings in the same family -if siblings are more similar than expected from only their shared genetics, implies an effect of the environment -identical twins, shared environmental influence is estimated indirectly from correlations between twins by subtracting the heritability estimate

Why do we do assessments in research?

-epidemiology -determining correlates -assessing predictors and outcomes -examining interventions

What are advantages of prospective designs?

-establishes temporal order -not relying on retrospective report

What is response decision?

-evaluate response on a number of different dimensions -outcome expectancies - what will happen if I do this? -children who are aggressive are more likely to think that good things will happen if they use aggressive strategies -they are less likely to think that good things will happen if they use prosocial strategies -self-efficacy - how well can I carry out this response? -children who are aggressive perceive themselves as being very able to carry out those behaviours -->if you ask them if they think they can hit this person? they think they can -children who are aggressive pick aggressive strategies

What are intelligence tests?

-evaluating a child's intellectual and educational functioning is key for many disorders -some impairments in earning may result from their behavioural or emotional problems -->e.g doing poorly in school because you don't want to go and you don't go

What is random selection?

-everyone in the population of interest has an equal chance of being chosen -e.g census, until harper let it be optional because everyone had a shot of getting the long form of the census -e.g ontario child health study

What is treatment effectiveness?

-evidence-based treatment, shown to be effective in controlled research with specific populations -expert-consensus approach, uses the opinions of experts to fill in the gaps in the scientific literature

What is a single-case experimental design?

-examine the effect of a treatment on a single child's behaviour -->repeated measure of behaviour, remove the treatment and see the progression of treatment. However, when you pull out it could be due to your intervention was really good and it solved the problem -->replication of treatments effects

What are neuroimaging methods?

-examine the structure and/or function of the living brain -identify abnormalities in the structure or functioning of specific brain regions or in how regions of the brain communicate with one another -magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomographic (CT) scans -MRI uses radio signals which create a magnetic field and passed through brain tissue to produce fine-grained analyses of brain structures

Explain Costello et al experiment of mediators.

-examined possible mediators of the association between increase in income and decrease in behavioural symptoms -found that it was increased parental supervision -increase in income led to improved parental supervision, which in turn led to decreased behaviour problems

Explain the experiment of psychological symptoms and SES functioning.

-examples: Association between psychological symptoms in childhood and SES functioning in adulthood (would you make less money, less educated) -measured psychological symptoms in 1983 -->ADHD, CD, anxiety and depression -in 2001, re-interviewed the children who are now adults -->assessed their incomes, years of education, employment -found that ADHD, CD and depression were associated negatively with SES functioning

What is a between-group comparison designs?

-experimental group and control group -use this when we want to know whether it is better than the best available alternative treatment

What is expert-consensus approach?

-experts fill in the gaps in the research literature -we don't know a lot, so we have to do the best we can -little research in treatment for depressed preschoolers

What are criticisms of DSM-5?

-fails to capture the complex adaptations, transactions, and setting influences that are crucial to treating psychopathology in children -less attention to disorders of infancy and childhood than adulthood -fails to capture the interrelationships and overlap known to exist among childhood disorders -lack of emphasis on situational and contextual factors -sees an individual psychopathology rather than problems in psychosocial adjustment or adaptation -children may not have met the criteria and not qualify for services that could benefit from them -->may be difficult to access programs to prevent a problem

What is false consensus?

-false consensus (e.g the belief that everyone is doing it) exerts pressure on youths to engage in substance use -the extent to which youths believe their group is using substances is related to the individual's decision to use or not use substances -peer culture glamorizes substance use encouraging teens to use drugs to fit in

What is voluntary participation? WHy do we have to be careful with it?

-families can feel that their treatment or quality of care will be threatened if they do not participate in the research -parents who mistreat their children may feel that their failure to participate in research could result in the loss of their child, a jail sentence or failure to receive services -pressure should not be placed on participants -volunteerism biases findings because they differ from those who do not participate

What is social selection?

-families with genetic predisposition drift down towards poverty -with certain genes that result in psychopathology it results in you drifting down to poverty -removing poverty condition may not help psychopathology because it was already there

What is qualitative research?

-focuses on narrative accounts, descriptions, interpretation, context and meaning -describes, interpret, and understand the phenomenon of interest in the context where it is experienced -intensive and intimate understanding of the situation

What did the long term follow up of MTA show?

-followed participants up 6 years later -there were no differences between any of the treatment groups on any of the outcomes assessed -on average, children in MTA showed gains relative to baseline -functioning worse than a community control group without ADHD -children with better clinical presentation at start of study and better initial treatment response had the best prognosis

Why Bother?

-fraud is not common. It receives a lot of attention but doesn't happen that often -sometimes common sense is wrong -->babies should sleep on their stomachs....they wouldn't vomit on themselves. But when they sleep on the back less cases of SIDS -findings should change, technology changes, new ways to answer questions, -behaviour and emotions are complicated, hard to get straightforward answers -anecdote is not data, one experience does not create a trend

What peer problems are linked to ADHD?

-in boys and girls with ADHD show social interaction impairments -bothersome, stubborn, socially awkward, and socially insensitive -socially conspicuous, loud intense and quick to react -socially active, usually 'off the mark': poor style, content, or timing of their behaviour -->often is seen as annoying -always get into trouble, even when they try to help -they often think they are being helpful, and are confused by the negative reactions

Why are people skeptical of research?

-fraud: people make false data and draw 'common sense' interpretations -common sense, -findings change, one recommendation in 2000, ten years later another recommendation -conclusions are often complicated -->different parenting styles effective depending upon the type of neighbourhood. Low income, authoritarian and strict is better. Warm and somewhat strict in affluent neighbourhood -exceptions to the rule: as family income increases children are less defiant. However there will be defiant children from wealthy families. There will always be people who do not fit the trends

What is Psychoanalytic theory?

-freud brought back optimism by tracing mental disorders roots to early childhood -experiences play a role in psychopathology, children could be cured or illness could be prevented if the child was raise in a proper environment psychoanalytic theory advanced the ways of thinking about the cause and treatment of mental disorders -psychologists continued to expand Freud's ideas

What brain abnormalities are seen in children with ADHD?

-frontostriatal circuitry of the brain: prefrontal cortex and interconnected areas of gray matter located below the cerebral cortex -associated with attention, executive functions, delayed responding and response organizations -->impaired function in this area -lesions in this area result in symptoms similar to those of ADHD -smaller right prefrontal cortex -abnormalities in basal ganglia

What is the role of genes and development?

-genes contain genetic infor from each parent -distributed on 22 matched pairs of chromosomes and a single pair of sex chromosomes -male (XY) female (XX) -genetic influences is malleable and responsive to the social environment -positive environmental circumstances help the child 'beat the odds' of developing a disorder

What are the differences in symtpoms between girls and boys?

-girls and boys are quite similar with respect to their expression and severity of symptoms, brain abnormalities, deficits in response inhibition and executive functions, level of impairment, family correlates, response to treatment and outcomes -female adolescent problems: anxiety, depression, romance relationships difficulties -girls with ADHD who display hyperactive-impulsive behaviours are more likely to develop symptoms of eating disorders (e.g bingeing and purging)

How do boys and girls suffer differently?

-girls suffer silently whereas boys express hyperactive behaviour and are more likely to be brought in to a psychologist with their parent

What is the prevalence across genders and ethnicity?

-girls use fewer types of drugs and less often -rates of diagnoses for SUDs is equal across genders -african american youths lower illicit drug use

Which type of girl is likely to display resilience?

-girls who display resilience come from households that combine risk taking and independence with support from a female caregiver

Why is poverty a disadvantage?

-growing up with poverty has an effect on the well-being of children and adolescents, especially with learning ability and school achievement -low income is tied to disadvantages: less education, low-paying jobs, inadequate health care, single-parent status, limited resources, poor nutrition, and greater violence -any one disadvantage can impair a child's development

What is the relation between family stress and CD?

-high family stress is associated with negative child behavior in the home, may be a cause and an outcome of antisocial behaviour -poverty is a strong predictor of childhood CD and high rates of criminal activities

What were the results?

-higher levels of disruptive behaviour for people who were living in poverty -after the casino group, persistently poor still have disruptive behaviour -ex-poor group decreased their disruptive behaviour symptoms -the people who were never poor consistently showed less disruptive behaviour -consistent with social causation hypothesis

What are health related problems linked to kids with ADHD?

-higher rates of enuresis and encopresis, and asthma -asthma early in life increased the risk of developing ADHD -dental health problems, poor fitness, obesity and eating problems and disorders (in females) -sleep disturbances: resistance going to bed, difficulty in falling asleep, fewer total hours asleep and involuntary sleep movements (e.g teeth grinding) -->might be due to stimulant medications, or co-occurring conduct or anxiety disorder

What do symptoms of ADHD look like in adolescence?

-hyperactivity-impulsive declines, they still occur -impairments in their emotional, behavioural, and social functioning -symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity relate to poor adolescent outcomes

What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal?

-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA): hypothalamus control center and the pituitary and adrenal glands -->related to disorders related to stress response, emotion regulation (e.g anxiety and mood disorders)

What is an RCT?

-if designed carefully, it allows us to establish cause -the intervention -randomly assigning participants to treatment and control groups -internal validity (can conclude your intervention caused the change) -construct validity -what about my intervention is causing improvement? -->the intervention may consist of a dairy, and a psychologist is meeting with them every week

What are typical characteristics of bullys?

-impulsive, need to dominate other people -stronger than other boys -little empathy for their victims -derive satisfaction and material gain from inflicting injury on their victims -later convicted of criminal offenses

What is treatment for SUDS?

-in-patient treatment -short duration (4 to 6 weeks) -range of treatment programs -individual counselling, family therapy, treatment for comorbid disorders -often followed by outpatient outpatient programs -less intensive than inpatient but longer -group therapy -individual therapy -family therapy -MST

What do symptoms of ADHD look like in elementary schoolers?

-inattention becomes evident -->classroom demands sustained attention and persistence -often referred for special assistance -results in low academic productivity, distractibility, poor organization, trouble meeting deadlines, and an inability to follow through on social promises -hyperactivity continues but is not as extreme as it use to be -defiant behaviors increase or develop: lying, aggression

What do the different dimensions predict?

-inattention leads to academic problems and peer neglect -hyperactivity-impulsivity tend to predict aggressive behaviour and peer rejection, among other problems

What is the basal ganglia?

-includes the caudate nucleus -regulates, organizes, and filters information related to cognition, emotions, mood, and motor function -could contribute to ADHD, disorders affecting motor behaviour (tics and tremors) and OCD

How does the media try to prevent poor outcomes?

-inconsistent results about effectiveness -hard to study, hard to randomly assign people to get access to media -Information and fear

What is maintenance?

-increase adherence to treatment over time to prevent relapse or recurrence

What are syringe-exchange programs?

-increase in rates of HIV infection among intravenous drug users -harm-reduction approach -no expectation that use will stop completely -trying to limit the negative effects on the individual and society that are associated with using

What is dimensional Measurement?

-independent traits or dimensions of behavior exist -people are higher and lower on these dimensions and they are present in everyone

What is disorganized attachment?

-infant lacks a coherent strategy of attachment -appears disorganized when faced with a novel situation and has no consistent pattern of regulating emotions -inability to form close attachment to others; may show indiscriminate friendliness -disorders: personality disorders

What is secure attachment?

-infant readily separates from caregiver and likes to explore -wary of a stranger or distressed by separation, the infant seeks contact and proximity with caregiver and will return to exploration and play after contact -seek out and make effective use of supportive relationships -disorders: psychological distress can occur, but their relationships strategy serves a protective function against disorders

What are causes?

-influence either directly or indirectly through other variables -the occurrence of a behaviour or disorder of interest

What is inter-rater reliability?

-inter-rater reliability -agreement between two people judging whether something is present or occurring -diagnosis-->can two clinicians agree that a child has ADHD? -behaviour-->e.g children's responses to peer provocation (e.g pretend a person spread a rumor about you what would do), categorize the behaviour but both people need to agree with the sorting of the behaviours

What is an interactive interview?

-interactive interview (e.g using hand puppets) provides information about the child's emotional, behavioural, and peer problems

How is the child and the environment interdependent?

-interdependent, they influence each other -children influence their own environment and the environment influences the child -nature and nurture are interconnected -different children elicit different reactions from the same environment -different environments (e.g home and school) elicit different reactions from the same child

What is internal consistency?

-internal consistency: all parts of a method of measurement contribute in a meaningful way to

What should you consider when reading research?

-internal validity -->allows you to attribute differences to the variable of primary interest -->e.g differences in outcome are due to depression -->e.g differences in symptoms are due to my treatment -external validity -->do the findings generalize -->would it work with other people or other measures or other situations (e.g real world clinicians administering their therapy instead of their graduate students)

What should you consider when you read research?

-internal validity -->allows you to attribute differences to the variable of primary interest -->e.g differences in outcome are due to depression -->e.g differences in symptoms are due to my treatment -external validity -->do the findings generalize -->would it work with other people or other measures or other situations (e.g real world clinicians administering their therapy instead of their graduate students)

What is attrition?

-internal validity -are groups comparable -RCTs -external validity, might not generalize to the greater population when people drop out -is sample representative? -attrition can compromise your internal and external validity

What are the advantages of RCT?

-internal validity -construct validity - with a carefully chosen control group

What are the advantages of RCTs?

-internal validity -construct validity - with a carefully chosen control group

What is interrater reliability?

-interrater reliability: the information obtained not on a single observer or, various people must agree on what they see

What is a semi-structured or structured interview characterized by?

-interviewer has a set of questions that are presented to the respondent -->they use them for every patient -improves comprehensiveness -reduce bias

What is observation?

-interviews and rating scales rely on someone's report of behaviour -may want to observe behaviour directly -in some cases, may be difficult for someone without clinical training to tell when a behaviour is normative or clinically concerning -->tantrums in preschoolers, occur frequently. For parents it feels like neverending even though it is normal. Sometimes it is extreme, level of violence -->moodiness in adolescents, it is a difficult period of life, shifts in moods -observation provides access to the circumstances in which behaviour occurs -->certain circumstances that trigger tantrums, helpful in planning treatment by providing more information

What are educational interventions?

-it is good to keep kids with ADHD with their peers when possible -reward systems are ideal, for disruptive behaviour the behaviours can be punished with response-cost procedures that involve the loss of privileges, activities, points, or tokens -posting rules can cue a child to behave properly -repeating instructions, providing extra time, writing assignments on the board, and listing all of the books and materials needed for a task -focus on managing inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive behaviours that interfere with learning and providing a classroom environment that capitalizes on the child's strengths

What is juvenile delinquency?

-juvenile delinquency: children who broke a law, ranging from sneaking into a movie without paying to homicide

What is the effect of witnessing community violence?

-kids who witness community violence are more likely to develop PTSD and cognitive delays and impairments that affect learning and mental healt

What is relation between CD and self-esteem?

-kids with CD have low self-esteem -low self-esteem does not cause CD -CD is related to an inflated, unstable view of self -overestimate their social competence and acceptance by other children -threat to their biased view, may lead to aggressive behaviour

What are pros and cons of diagnostic labels?

-labels help clinicians summarize and order observation, which enhances communication between clinicians -descriptive terms, clinician can locate relevant research on the causes, epidemiology and treatment -public stigma and media messages allow negative attitudes to grow around children who are labled -->others can react differently to the child -->teasing and bullying

What is structured observation?

-laboratory or clinic based -designed to see children's response to a task or situation -->e.g provocation by another peer (e.g mess up their drawing)

What are households like with kids who have CD?

-lack of family cohesion, reflected in emotional detachment, poor communication and problem solving, low support and family disorganization -household chaos, high noise levels, crowding, people coming and going all the time, lack of predictability and family routines in association with child conduct problems

Explain how the DSM considers the visible not the invisible.

-large numbers of diagnostic categories of limited validity particularly with improving outcomes -disorders are defined on observable signs and symptoms that fail to map closely onto the underlying causes for these disorders

What element could be a risk factor for ADHD?

-lead exposure could be a risk factor (unlikely)

What is a concern for homosexuals and transgender?

-lesbians, gays, bisexuals and transsexuals youths are more likely to be victimized -more bullying, harassment and physical assault -higher rates of mental health: depression, suicidal behaviour, substance abuse, and risky sexual behaviour

What are typical traits of parents with kids with ADHD?

-less parenting competence, fewer contacts with extended family, greater caregiver strain, less instrumental support, and higher rates of marital conflict, separation and divorce -higher levels of parenting stress: fluctuations in the day as the child's behaviour fluctuates -increased alcohol consumption: due to stress -stigmatizing experiences, how society will label their child, social isolation and rejection -school personnel and health care are dismissive

What is the life-course persistent path?

-life-course-persistent path : small group that shows them their whole life -children who engage in aggression and antisocial behaviour at an early age and continue to do so into adulthood

What is a neuropsychological assessment?

-links brain functioning with objective measures of behaviour known to depend on an intact central nervous system -behavioural measures can be used to make inferences about central nervous system dysfunction and the consequences of this dysfunction -use this information to determine a diagnosis, planning treatment, documenting the course of recovery, measuring improvements

What is treatment efficacy?

-little research on effectiveness of treatments for substance use in adolescents -historically have been methodological problems in these studies -lack of randomized controlled trials -analyzing only people who complete the treatment -difficulty getting people to follow up -reliance on adolescent self report, they might not want to tell you they are drinking, smoking marijuana -well-designed studies suggest that family therapy may work better than other types of outpatient treatment (e.g individual counseling adolescent group therapy, family drug education)

Explain the experiment of determing the temporal order of CD and poverty.

-longitudinal study of epidemiology of childhood psychiatric disorder -sample included a significant number of Aboriginal People -significant positive association between poverty and disruptive behaviour -partway through the study, a casino opened on the reservation -everyone got a stipend who lived on the reservation -everyone's income increased -led to four groups: persistently poor (they got stipend, still below poverty line), ex-poor (they were below the poverty line), never poor (they weren't below the poverty, and they increased), newly poor (excluded because of small number)

How can abnormal development by multiply determined?

-look beyond the child's symptoms and consider developmental pathways and interacting events that could contribute to the expression of the disorder -similar risk factors lead to different outcomes and a disorder can be caused by multiple causes -consider a range of characteristics beside the ones that were initially believed to be signs of the problem

What are the advantages and disadvantages to prospective design?

-loss of participants over time and long time to collect data -less susceptible to bias and distortions

What are issues in determining causality?

-low SES is associated with child psychopathology -does that mean SES causes child psychopathology? no -factors associated with poverty (e.g high crime) may lead to disorder -it may be the parents with psychological problems that are more likely to be poor

What is the connection between low arousal and autonomic reactivity and CD?

-low arousal and autonomic reactivity leads to diminished avoidance learning in response to warnings or reprimands, a poor response to punishment, and a fearless, stimulus-seeking temperament -could lead to antisocial behaviour, failure to develop the anticipatory fear needed to avoid behaviour and lack of conscience -when CD children are disciplined or punished they may increase their antisocial behaviour and become more defiant

What are prentaal and birth complications?

-low birth weight are related to CD -malnutrition during pregnancy, might be due to protein deficiency -exposure to lead before and after birth -nicotine, marijuana or other substances during pregnancy -alcohol use -these are correlations, good parents would not be doing these behaviours

Why don't ADHD kids not have many friends?

-low social support from peer and have few friends -can't recognize emotions in others and regulating their own emotions and behaviour and the aggressiveness that frequently accompanies ADHD often leads to social conflict and a negative reputation -girls with ADHD-PI, internalizing symptoms play a role in their rejection -once they are labeled ADHD by their peers, a negative process begins whereby the child suffers more negative treatment and rejection by peers, leading to a cascading of negative effects over time

What are the advantages of single case?

-lower the amount of other possible alternative explanations such as maturation and reactivity

What is dMRI?

-magnetic imaging that produces images showing connections between brain regions -->key to the human connectome, which is the structure that organizes connections through the central nervous system

What main effects were seen in this study?

-main effect of maltreatment on antisocial behaviour, if they experience maltreatment they are more likely to show antisocial behaviour -no main effect of MAOA on antisocial behaviour -there is an interaction between MAOA and maltreatment, the association between the one variable and other depend on each other

What are neurotransmitters?

-make meaningful connections that serve larger functions such as thinking and feeling -brain circuits are paths from one part of brain to another -brain circuits are created when neurons are more sensitive to one type of neurotransmitter than another and cluster together -brain circuits and neurotransmitters relate to particular psychological disorders, permitting more targeted treatments

What is education intervention?

-managing disruptive classroom behaviour -improving academic performance -teaching prosocial and self-regulating behaviours Summer Treatment Programs -enhancing present adjustment at home and future success at school by combining many of the primary and additional treatments in an intensive summer treatment program

What other disorder is common with kids with ADHD?

-many children with ADHD have a specific learning disorder, trouble with certain academic skills: reading, spelling, and math

What are accompanying psychological disorders and symptoms with ADHD?

-many people with ADHD have more than one psychological disorder -->conduct disorders, anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and motor coordination and tic disorders, substance use disorders, -many children with ADHD meet criteria for ODD, occurs more often in boys

What is intervention?

-many theories and practices that help children and families adapt to their current and future circumstances -->not one clear intervention, different problems require different approaches

What is the realtion of maternal depression and CD?

-maternal depression leads to poor parenting practices that can lead to antisocial behaviour and feelings of parental incompetence that may lead to increased maternal depression

What is maternal hostile attribution bias?

-maternal hostile attributions were related to psychosocial adversity, poor parenting, hostile attributions of the child and child aggression at five years of age

What prenatal teterogens influence ADHD?

-maternal use of tobacco and more psychosocial stress, higher rates of ADHD -->especially if they carry a genetic risk and female offspring -mothers of children with ADHD use more alcohol, tobacco and drugs than do control parents -cocaine use during pregnancy leads to higher rates of ADHD

Why can abnormal child behaviour not be generalized across cultures?

-meaning of children's social behaviour is influenced by cultural beliefs and values, express their problems differently across cultures -shyness is linked to social rejection in western cultures -shyness is linked to leadership and academic achievement in Chinese children -abnormal child behaviour cannot be generalized across cultures -some things will be similar especially if they have a neurobiological basis (e.g ADHD

What are mediating variables?

-mediating variables have an independent effect on the existing relationship between two variables,

What is one pitfall of treatment?

-might reduce symptoms but not improve overall functioning

Who was CD highest in?

-migration status affects CD risk -CD was highest among Mexican American children of U.S born parents compared to children of Mexican-born immigrants raised in the united states or the general population of Mexico

What is marginalization?

-minority children face poverty and exclusion from society's benefits (marginalization) -->result of alienation, loss of social cohesion, and rejection of the norms of the larger society

What social problems are linked to ADHD?

-most severe social disability are at greatest risk for poor adolescent outcomes and other disorders such as depression and conduct disorder -they don't listen, hostile, argument, often in conflict with adults and children -don't follow social rules, don't learn from their mistakes, aware of expected social behaviors and a desire to conform to them: they still cannot

Explain the experiment of mothers with and without CD kids.

-mothers with or without a child with CD interacted with three boy -a son, a boy with CD and a boy without CD -all mothers were more demanding and negative when interacting with a child with CD -->child to parent effect -mothers of boys with CD responded most negatively to their own sons: previous negative interactions with their child had an effect

Why do many people with ADHD have developmental coordination?

-motor coordination difficulties (e.g poor handwriting, clumsy) -impairments in motor skills domain of strength, visual motor coordination, adjusting speed, and dexterity -many children with ADHD have developmental coordination disorder (DCD) -DCD): motor incoordination and delays in achieving motor milestones

What is the process of research?

-multistage process involving key decisions at various points -research questions are often based on atypical development and behaviour -studies can use one theory, multiple theories, or no theory if there isn't one -if you don't use a theory, you often don't have a firm prediction, you are looking for a difference

What are you interested in studying?

-need to define construct -depression, disorder versus symptoms -friendship, reciprocal or not -social competence perceived by self or someone else --> are you asking them who they like versus who likes them -different definitions = different results?

Who are you interested in studying?

-need to define sample -inclusion criteria -->who can be in a study? -exclusion criteria -->who should not be in a study?

What does one consider with developmental pathways?

-need to determine when a child's behaviour starts to become a problem -->will these concerns, lead to problems later on

How will you measure this construct?

-need to find or develop method

What is neural plasticity?

-neural connections often are not stable and regress or disappear -some are strengthened and become established -this occurs throught experience

What Affects Rates and Expression of Mental Disorders?

-new pressures and social changes may place children at risk for the development of disorders at younger ages -->chronic stressors: poverty, inequality, family breakup -->new stressors: homelessness, immigrant families, inadequate child care availability, alcohol abuse -medical advances could have a negative effect -->higher rates of fetal survival have contributed to more behavioural problems

What are the four types of control groups?

-no treatment control group (something in the intervention was better than nothing) -->good starting point -wait-list control group, a control group that will not initially get it but they will later on -->usually due to ethical reasons -attention-only control group, attention from the person administering it, seeing someone every week who is empathetic might be enough, it might not be be the therapy they use. The control group would meet with a therapist but he would not use a specific therapy (e.g CBT) -treatment as usual, randomly assigned to get a new treatment or a treatment that they would have typically received (e.g cancer, chemotherapy was the control group) -->often due to ethical reasons, but we want to know that the new intervention does better than the conventional therapy. Often people in the community do not receive evidence based treatment. -another,effective treatment, if we have a treatment we want to know our treatment does better than the previous one. The bar is higher for this one because they are comparing it to evidence based therapy

What is nomothetic knowledge?

-nomothetic knowledge about principles of psychological assessment, normal and abnormal child and family development, and specific childhood disorders can result in better hypotheses to test at the idiographic level

How can you determine if a behaviour is normative?

-noncompliance, temper loss, and aggression are common -75% of children exhibit aggression and tantrums by 2 years of age -these are also symptoms of ODD -how do we distinguish typical misbehaviour from that representing a significant problem -->severity, how aggressive are they fighting -->flexibility, can you calm them, can you distract them, if you can't help them this is not normative -->expectability, was the older sibling teasing them before the toddler lashed out, is the child hitting the teacher -->pervasiveness, lots of different people, across many settings

Is D.A..R.E effective?

-none -meta-analysis -quantitative synthesis of different studies -do we see a significant difference between students who got the intervention and those who did not across studies -found no effect of D.A.R.E on extent to which participants report using drugs (small effect on tobacco use) -effects are smaller than those seen for other programs -in fact, some evidence suggests that programs like D.A.R.E may be iatrogenic (cause harm) -found 17 studies in which programs similar to D.A.R.E resulted in negative effects

What are the neurochemical findings in ADHD?

-norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine and serotonin are involved -selective deficiency in the availability of dopamine and norepinephrine

How many resources predict good outcomes?

-not all three resources are necessary -for some children a supportive teacher or grandparent can change their course of development and some children need more resources

What were the core outcomes?

-note that all four groups showed a reduction in ADHD symptoms over time -combination and medication were better than psychosocial and TAU -psychosocial = TAU

Explain clinic observation for ADHD.

-observations in clinics may have low external validity -when they have one on one attention from a novel clinicians they often do a lot better -testing, IQ test, lag in spatial skills, difficult time sitting for IQ tests (difficult, a lot of concentration)

What are risk and protective factors?

-occur before the disorder and either increase or decrease the likelihood of the disorder -child abuse is a risk factor for conduct disorder -high-quality intimate relationship protects them against depression

What is naturalistic observation?

-occur in child's natural environment -classroom, home -provides rich information about what happens prior and after behaviour -->often children are rewarded after doing a bad behaviour -->antecedent-behaviour consequence

Which gender is more at risk and why?

-occurs more frequently in boys -boys are most likely referred more due to their overt defiance and aggression or because parents and teachers think that learning assistance is less effective for girls

Why can you often not generalize your findings?

-often done in university clinics, manualized treatment, very well-trained therapists -->often these aren't how people practice psychology outside these settings -->they are highly trained, they are motivated because they want it to work, they have a lot of experience with these treatments. The more experience the better you are. However, psychologists do not have the luxury of only treating OCD -->the graduates students are trained, they have a manual and the head researcher is watching them --> in the real world often people don't come in

What is a clincal interview?

-often kids do not understand why they are seeing mental health, since they are not experiencing distress only those around them are -interviewer observes nonverbal communications by the child and parent (e.g facial expressions, body posture, voice mannerisms, and motor behaviour -->provides insights into the child-parent relation that present the problem and direction for treatment planning -interviews provide a lot more information than observing the parent and child's interactions -many clinicians use activities to help relax the child and use that as insights (e.g colouring) -elicit the child's self-perceptions and perceptions of others and how they respond in a social situation -some children are reluctant because they don't feel they have a problem

What are disadvantages of psychological tests?

-often the normed sample was a limited sample and it might not be able to generalize to the entire population -some standardization tests are culturally biased -test scores need to be interpreted in the context of other assessment information -observations of a child's behaviour during the test situation can tell us as much or more about the child as his/her test scores

What interaction affects the expression of mental disorder?

-ongoing interactions exist between protective and risk factors within the child, between the child and his or her environment, and among risk factors

Why does abnromal psychological research need a large sample size?

-only a small proportion of children at risk for a problem will develop the disorder -the areas of child functioning that will be affected and how they will be affected are not known in advance -the ages when a disorder may occur or re-occur are also not known in advance -->delayed or sleep effects can occur, where an adolescent will have a mental disorder due to a risk factor during infancy -->children need to be studied for a long time

What is Quantitative Research?

-operational definitions, careful control of subject matter, isolation of variables -quantification of dimensions of interest and statistical analysis

What is brain maturation?

-organized, hierarchical process that build on earlier function -restructuring and growing throughout the lifespan -primitive areas of the brain, mature first and undergo most dramatic restructuring during the first

What is overt and covert behaviour?

-overt-covert: overt visible acts (e.g fighting) to covert hidden acts such as lying or stealing -destructive and nondestructive categories

What rating scales and interviews are used in assessing ADHD?

-parent report -teacher report is critical for diagnosis of ADHD -->parent report of symptoms/impairment at school shows higher correlation with parent report of symptoms at home than with teacher report of symptoms at school and vice versa -->to know about functioning in both settings, we have to ask both informants -->other reason to obtain report from teachers: normative framework for placing children's behaviour. They see 30 8 year olds every year, so they know what is normal relative to other kids -->situations at school press for difficulty with attention/hyperactivity -usually do not ask youth -->in young children, report is not reliable -->children tend to underreport their own symptoms: less severe, better than what they are -->ADHD is implicated in prefrontal lobe functioning which may reduce self-awareness -strong focus on observable signs of IA and HI

What was the psychosocial treatment condition?

-parent training -27 group sessions and 8 individual sessions -educational interventions -16 to 20 sessions of teacher consultation -12 weeks of half-time classroom behavioural specialist -summer treatment program

What makes scientific finds murky?

-parents and professional interpret and relate information according to their own belief system -people believe a study more if it is accompanied with a photo of a brain -often studies in abnormal child psychology conflict with one another -->some studies say boys are more vulnerable to depression others say girls are -->usually due to how depression was recorded

Explain how there is legitimate differences in the meaning of behaviours across settings.

-parents and teachers interact with children in very different contexts, and these contexts may change the interpretation of behaviour -for the latter, behaviours often considered assertive (e.g appropriately questioning rules, why do I have to do this) may be seen as oppositional (if every child does this, it is overwhelming) -informant discrepancies may tell us something real about children's adaptation in various settings

How are the differences in meaning of behaviours across settings?

-parents and teachers interact with children in very different contexts, and these contexts may change the interpretation of behaviour -for the latter, behaviours often considered assertive (e.g appropriately questioning rules, why do I have to do this) may be seen as oppositional (if every child does this, it is overwhelming) -informant discrepancies may tell us something real about children's adaptation in various settings

What are parents encouraged to do?

-parents are encouraged to spend time with their child once a day -parents learn to reduce their levels of arousal or anger and respond calmly to their child's behaviour

Do Syringe Exchange Programs Increasing Use?

-participants randomly assigned to a) syringe-exchange programs and b) instructions about how to buy syringes at the pharmacy -they people who had access to syringe-exchange programs were not using more -1988, US government forbid any federal dollars being spent on these programs until they were shown a) not to be associated with increased rates of drug use b) to be associated with decreased rates of HIV infection -1995 a research summary by the National academy of sciences showed that these programs met these requirements -federal government is still not providing funds

What is prospective longitudinal design?

-patterns that are common to all children and tracks differences in developmental paths -causal interpretations can made be made the prior events caused later events

What is behaviourism?

-pavlov's experiment: classical conditioning -watson: conditioning and elimination of children's fears -watson's theory of emotions, talked about normal and abnormal behaviour

What was the baseline in the alcohol study?

-perceived drinking norms, how much you thought others were drinking -drinking behaviour, how much you drink

What are perceptual centres and instinctive centers affected by?

-perceptual centres and instinctive centers (e.g limbic system) are affected by early childhood experiences and set the foundation for further development -occurs at three years

What are personality tests?

-personality is an enduring trait that describes how a person interacts with the environment -child's early temperament is the foundation of personality

What are neurobiological treatments?

-pharmacological and other biological approaches for treatment

What is the relation between abuse and CD?

-physical abuse is a strong risk factor for later aggressive behaviour -deficits in the child's social information processing result from physical abuse -contact with an absent father after the divorce can be a risk or protective factor for antisocial behaviour depending on whether the father is antisocial

What do they teach parents about consequences?

-pick consequences that are: -doable: it has to be in your power to do what it is (e.g you can't make it rain), also it has to be something that you will actually do (e.g you are not going to take away the wonderland tickets because they were expensive) -important: pick things that are important, if the child doesn't care -immediate: you want the punishment to be quick or they won't get the connection, if you hit your brother you go to timeout immediately -not too lengthy or extreme: young children will break the rules a lot so you need to hand out many punishments, little children could run out of punishments, (e.g take away episodes not television all day), -if you are inconsistent and you let major things go and a minor thing leads to a major punishment it doesn't make sense to them -lengthy and extreme punishments are hard to enforce and follow threw -if you threaten it, you have to follow through, they learn you don't mean it

What is serotonin? Which disorder is it related to?

-plays a role in information and motor coordination -inhibits children's tendency to explore their surroundings -moderates and regulates a number of critical behaviours, such as eating, sleeping, and expressing wange -disorder: schizophrenia and mood disorders

What is the affect of schools on CD?

-poor quality school is associated with antisocial and delinquent behaviour -positive school experience can be a protective factor for the development of these behaviours -->can compensate for poor family circumstances -promoting positive school characteristics have resulted in reductions in CD

Explain how kids with ODD have bad social skills.

-poor social skills and social-cognitive deficits often accompany early oppositional and aggressive behaviours, predisposing the child to poor peer relationships, rejection by peers and social isolation and withdrawal -when the child enters school, impulsivity and attention problems may result in reading difficulties and academic failure -truancy or substance use occur in elementary school -criminal acts

What is an ideal sample?

-population is the group in which you are really interested -sample is the group you are studying -sample represents the population, no meaningful differences between the sample and population

Do positve or negative factor influence continuity or discontinuity?

-positive and negative factors influence the continuity or discontinuity of development over time -some behaviour problems show both continuities and discontinuities

What family background is predictive of substance use?

-positive family history for alcoholism may inherit certain brain structures and functional abilities -greater activation in the frontolimbic areas of the brain, as compared with teens without such family histories, this activation is associated with poor inhibition: reduces their ability to inhibit risk-taking behaviours

How is the expression of CD explained by parenting factors?

-positive parenting practices may reduce the influence of the child's genotype on later antisocial behaviour -negative parenting practices can have the opposite effect -a combination of individual child risk factors and extreme deficits in family management skills most likely accounts for the more persistent and severe forms of antisocial behaviour

When would a protective factor occur on a timeline?

-positive variable that precedes an outcome of interest and decreases the chances that a negative outcome will occur -->e.g positive relationships

What is poverty associated with?

-poverty is associated with negative influences-harsh parenting, exposure to acute and chronic stressors

What is a cause of many disorders?

-poverty linked with higher rates of many disorders

When would a risk factor appear on a timeline?

-precedes an outcome of interest and increases the chances of a negative outcome -->e.g divorce increases the likelihood of the child becoming depressed -doesn't mean it will occur, its occurrence depends on other factors

What are the major restructurings of the brain?

-prefrontal cortex and cerebellum are not rewired until 5-7 years -major restructuring occurs between 9 and 11 due to puberty -during adolescence the brain prunes -brain is always going through restructures

What do they consider in child's birth and related events?

-pregnancy and complications -maternal drug use during pregnancy

Which types of experiences can influence neural plasticity?

-prenatal environment -childhood illness and diet -maltreatment and inadequate stimulation -caregiving experiences: design parts of the brain involved in emotion, personality, and behaviour -child rearing (normal), increase child's ability to cope with stress -abuse and neglect can prime the brain for a lifetime of struggle with handling stress or forming healthy relationships

What are characteristics of ODD in preschoolers?

-preschoolers with ODD display stubbornness, temper tantrums, irritability, and spitefulness--remain stable from 2 to 5 years -discipline problems, poor self-control, and emotion regulation, especially when accompanied by harsh parenting and high levels of stress are strong predictors of negative outcomes

What are projective tests?

-present the child with ambiguous stimuli (e.g picture of people) and the child describes what they see -predicts personality -the person says their unconscious thoughts that a clinician could not discover wit direct questions -controversial with respect to validity, widely used

How can prevalence differ?

-prevalence varies depending on which way you classify it -single symptoms: high prevalence, patterns: low prevalence -prospective yields higher prevalence (e.g observing the sample and determining if they have the disorder) than retrospective recall due to recall failure -prevalence counts are lower if you only look at the clinics than in the community, kids can't refer themselves for treatment prevalence rates depend on whether they are defined in terms of patterns of symptoms, impairment in functioning, or both -->fewer cases are identified when both symptoms and impairment in functioning are used than when definitions are based on either one or the other

Who are proactive-aggressive children?

-proactive-aggressive children: aggressive behaviour deliberately to obtain a desired goal, view their aggressive actions as positive and value social goals of dominance and revenge rather than affiliation -->lack of concern for others, and their solutions to social problems are few, mostly aggressive and inappropriate -display reactive-aggression

What is the social aggression program?

-program designed by Elise Cappella to reduce socially/relationally aggressive behaviour -several key components -recognition of emotions that may lead to social aggression -social problem-solving -social skills

What is a protective factor?

-protective factor, a personal or situational variable that reduces the chances for a child to develop a disorder

What are protective and risk factors?

-protective factors are personal or situational variables that reduce the chances for a child to develop a disorder -risk factors do the opposite, they increase the child's likelihood of developing a problem -risk and protective factors are processes not absolute -the same event or condition can function as either type of factor, depending on the overall context in which it occurs -->e.g placing children with another family if they are severely mistreated -->in some children out-of-home placement can increase their vulnerability: more stress

What do psychoactive drugs do to neurotransmitters?

-psychoactive drugs increase or decrease the flow of neurotransmitters -changing neurotransmitter activity that make people more likely or less likely to exhibit certain kinds of behaviour

What do psychological and environmental models stress?

-psychological and environmental models stress environmental toxins, early experiences, learning opportunities, disciplinary practices, family systems and sociocultural contexts -->risk factors and correlates with certain disorders

What are family treatments?

-psychopathology does not only reside within the individual, psychopathology is determined by variables operating in the larger family system -manifestations of disturbances in family relations -therapists interacts with the entire family -adapt the family interventions to the cultural context of the family

What is a group-based design?

-randomized Control Trials (RCTs) -A therapy experiment -experimental and control conditions -experimental condition is your treatment

What does random assignment control for?

-randomly assigning participants to treatment and control groups -internal validity (can conclude your intervention caused the change)

How do different perspective influence reports?

-rater-specific factors that lead to systematic differences in reporting -some evidence for bias in reports of some informants -maternal depression associated with a tendency to overreport behavioural problems -may see difference between mother and teacher reports in these cases because moms are reporting levels that are too hig

Explain how different perspectives affect raters.

-rater-specific factors that lead to systematic differences in reporting -some evidence for bias in reports of some informants -maternal depression associated with a tendency to overreport behavioural problems -may see difference between mother and teacher reports in these cases because moms are reporting levels that are too high

What is a modern approach to mental illnesses?

-rather than using diagnostic categories, move towards assessing key dimensions -negative affect, difficulty with negative affect across different diseases -anger regulation

Do children answer the questions in interviews and rating scales?

-rating scales and interviews rely on someone's report of symptoms -parents, children, teachers

What is hostile attributional bias? Who displays this?

-reactive-aggressive children (show angry, defensive response to frustration or provocation) display a hostile attributional bias, -hostile attributional bias: attribute hostile and mean-spirited intent to other children, especially when the intentions of others are unclear (e.g when a mom accidentally bumps hime) -only display reactive aggression and are less aggressive overall

Explain the education portion of parent management training.

-reasonable expectations for child's behaviour -behaviour will get worse before it gets better (e.g throwing tantrums gets them what they want, so they will get louder and escalate)

What was the intervention in the alcohol study?

-received feedback immediately -presented on screen for a minute and given a print out to take home -no interpersonal interaction, they saw it on the screen and no one talked to them about their drinking -follow ups at three and six months -control group did not get the feedback

What outcomes do you want with regard to family functioning?

-reduction in family dysfunction, improved marital and sibling relationships -reduction in stress, improvement of quality of life -reduction in burden of care -enhanced family support

What outcomes do you want with regard to child functioning?

-reduction or elimination of symptoms, reduced degree of impairment in functioning, enhanced social competence, improved academic performance

What is the reinforcement trap?

-reinforcement trap: all family members become trapped by the consequences of their own behaviours

Are reinforcers general?

-reinforcers are personal and developmental -differ things are rewarding for different children -different things are going to be more or less rewarding in different periods

What is treatment for SUDS?

-relapse is common -most effective treatment involve the larger systems affecting the adolescent's behaviour (e.g peers, family, and school climate) -focus on personality factors linked to alcohol abuse (e.g hopelessness, anxiety sensitivity, impulsivity, and sensation seeking) -family-based approaches modify negative interactions between family members, improve communication between members, and develop effective problem-solving skills

What is social cognition?

-relates to how children think about themselves and others, results in the formation of mental representations of themselves, their relationships and their social world -representations are continually updated based on maturation and social interaction -children's ongoing cognitive development helps them make sense of who they are and how they relate to their surroundings -social learning and social-cognitive viewpoints also consider the role of affect and the importance of contextual variables (e.g peers) in both the origins and maintenance of problem behaviours

Explain aggression in grils.

-relational aggression, girls harm each other's relationships, exclude girls, rumour spreading -for girls, this is more common than physical -available evidence suggests that boys and girls engage in comparable rates of relational aggression -boys' antisocial behaviour is more overt, may get them noticed at an early age

What is relational aggression?

-relational aggression: gossip, insults, ostracism -->girls express this more

How does CU affect parenting?

-relationship between parenting and conduct problems also appear to be affected by a child's callous-unemotional traits -ineffective parenting was related to conduct problems, but only in children who were rated low on CU traits -children with CU traits displayed conduct problems regardless of the quality of parenting they received

what are best practice guidelines?

-research findings -identify treatments for which there is scientific evidence for their efficacy

What have genetic studies found about ADHD?

-runs in families -ADHD is higher in biological parents of children with ADHD compared with adoptive parents of children with ADHD -twin studies, twins are a lot more likely to have ADHD -specific genes may contribute to the expression of ADHD

What is critical for epidemiology?

-sampling and measurement of disorder are critical for this type of study

What is a sample of convenience?

-school, working with them because they are willing to work with me -clinic, work with the clinics that want to work, clinics that say no and yes differ in meaningful ways -you need to think about the group you are not studying and how that affects your results and do you need a random population? Generalizing to Canadians or a specific university

What are the IQ deficits in CD?

-score lower on IQ tests by about 8 points, greater for child-onset CD and is not accounted for SES, race or detection by the police -related to the co-occurrence of ADHD

What is screening?

-screening: identify children at risk, who are referred for thorough evaluation -young children at risk for developing later mental health problems are now being assessed more frequently -growing recognition of the importance of early identification, intervention and prevention

What are ethical standards?

-selecting treatment goals and procedures that are in the best interests of the client -making sure that client participation is active and voluntary -keeping records that document the effectiveness of treatment in achieving its objectives -protecting the confidentiality of the therapeutic relationship -ensuring the qualification and competencies of the therapist -new approach to having the child as a partner in their treatment -difficult to determine when a child can provide informed consent or refuse treatment and balancing the child's right of confidentiality against the rights of the parents and the integrity of the family

What are the advantages and disadvantages of PMT?

-short-term effectiveness -reductions in problem behaviours of siblings and reduced stress and depression in the parents -most effective with parents of children younger than 12 -very demanding (must attend meetings) used smartphones to alleviate some of the demand -not straightforward, parents might not feel they need to change their behaviours

What is insecure attachment? anxious, resistant type

-shows disinterest or resistant to exploration and play, wary of novel situations/strangers, difficulty settling when reunited with caregiver and may mix active contact-seeking with crying and fussiness -resistant pattern of early attachment have difficulties managing anxiety, exaggerate emotions and maintain negative beliefs about the self -disorders: phobias, anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms, depression

How do siblings of children with ADHD feel?

-siblings of children with ADHD feel victimized by their ADHD sibling and that this experience is often minimized or overlooked

What are we able to conclude after we have combined reports?

-situational versus pervasive ADHD -situational identified by parent or teacher -pervasive ADHD identified by both -research does not clearly suggest that pervasive is more severe than situational -parent-report only may be different than ADHD identified by a teacher -->better characterised as a disruptive behaviour disorder (ODD or CD)

What social cognitve factors are influenced by CD?

-skills involved in attending to, interpreting, and responding to social cues -social cognitive deficits and antisocial behaviour across all types of conduct problem trajectories especially early onset -CD kids show social-cognitive impairments -egocentrism, a lack of social perspective taking -theory of mind deficits or deficits in moral reasoning -deficits in facial expression recognition and eye contact in children with CD, may contribute to their antisocial behaviour and social difficulties

What is the snowballing negative cycle?

-snowballing negative cycle, one defect or problem behaviour produces changes in others -->e.g peer rejection leads to social-cognitive deficits and aggression; social-cognitive deficits lead to peer rejection and aggression; aggression leads to peer rejection

What is social information processing?

-social information processing -a series of cognitive steps that take a person from situation to action -what do I pay attention to? (encoding) -what does it mean? (interpretation) -what can I do? (response search) -what will I do? (response decision) -how well did I do it? (enactment)

What is social learning?

-social learning, not only overt behaviours but also the role of possible cognitive mediators that may influence the behaviours directly or indirectly -behaviours may be learned not only by operant and classical conditioning, but also indirectly through observational learning -children can learn behaviours through watching others without reinforcement or practice

What is the summer program treatment?

-social skills training followed by coached group play -contingency management: e.g if you use your new skill, you earn a reward. Group management if the entire group needs a certain amount of points to get a reward, this leads to kids managing each other -studies have suggested significant improvement

How do cultural factors affect aggression?

-socialization of children for aggression has been found to be one of the strongest predictors of aggressive acts such as homicide and assault

What is a theme that appears in ADHD friendships with peers?

-some adolescents with ADHD may meet their social needs by maintaining one or two positive close friendships -the friendship might be based on 'having fun' rather than seeking 'emotional support'

What do symptoms of ADHD look like in adulthood?

-some children outgrow their disorder or learn to cope with it (mainly those with mild and no comorbidity) -children have better outcomes if their symptoms are less severe and who receive good care, supervision, and support from their parents and teachers who have access to economic and community resources -restless, easily bored, and constantly seeking novelty and excitement -experience work difficulties, impaired social relations and suffer from depression -low self-concept, substance abuse and personality disorder

How can antecedents confirm hypotheses?

-some hypotheses can be confirmed or rejected by changing the antecedents and consequences to see whether the behaviour changes

What are the disadvantages?

-specific treatments will interact with unique characteristics of a particular child -limited generalizations -subjectivity involved

What is analogue research?

-specific variable of interest under conditions that only resemble or approximate the situation for which one wishes to generalize -focus on circumscribed research questions under well-controlled conditions -illuminate a specific process that would otherwise be difficult to study

What are DSM-specifiers?

-specifiers: describe more homogeneous sub groupings of individuals with the disorder who share particular features and to communicate information that is relevant to treatment of the disorder -rate subtypes of disorder, co-occurring conditions, or the course or severity of the disorder -note general medical conditions relevant to the understanding or management of the individual's mental disorder

What are other considerations of the DSM?

-specify psychosocial and environmental problems that may affect the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of clinical disorders -note events that have been present over the past year -unless a prior event (e.g car crash caused brain damage) still affects the present

What is standardization?

-standardization is a process that specifies a set of standards or norms for a method of measurement that are to be used consistently across different assessments of the construct of interest -these standards and norms relate to the procedures that must be followed during administration, scoring, and evaluation of findings -without standardization you can not replicate, you won't get universal results

Is MST valid?

-statistical versus clinical significance -statistical significance: there is a difference between the groups -clinical significance: is the difference meaningful, does an intervention help people -functional outcomes, it is clinically significant

What does correlation not determine? Who makes this mistake often?

-stay-at-home more violent sons -they think if you stay at home you are more likely to be violent -media often makes this mistake

What is stigma? What does it lead to?

-stigma, refers to a cluster of negative attitudes and beliefs that motivates fear, rejection, avoidance, and discrimination with respect to people with mental illnesses -->leads to prejudice and discrimination -->stigma results in low self-esteem, isolation, hopelessness, and embarrassment to seek treatment

What was the medication management condition?

-stimulant medication -28 day titration period (where they are determining the optimal dosage)

What is observation?

-structured or unstructured -vary from very inclusive observation of all behaviours to highly selective coding of very specific behaviours (e.g number of smiles) -extensive time needed for observing and for coding and summarizing observations -does not rely on participants' providing specific information, but what is observed may be influenced by the presence of the observer -highly influenced by the complexity of the observation system

WHich three neural systems influence CD?

-subcortical neural systems abnormalities lead to aggressive behaviours -prefrontal cortex decision making circuits and socio emotional information-processing circuits that assess social cues and evaluate the consequences of aggressive or not aggressing -frontoparietal regions involved in regulating emotions and impulsive motivational urges

What is a substance use disorder?

-substance use disorders during adolescence involve self-administration of any of the substances that alters mood, perception or brain functioning, resulting in substance abuse or substance dependence

What do teens use? What is the effect of these substances?

-substance use is common among teenagers, it can be harmful: lowers inhibitions, reduces judgment, and increases the risk of physical harm and sexual assault -alcohol use lead to unsafe sexual activity, smoking, and drinking and driving -girls in violent relationships are more likely to use alcohol -teens who use alcohol and drugs are more likely to have sexual intercourse at an earlier age, have more sexual partners and are at greater risk for sexually transmitted disease -unhealthy weight control, suicidality, and mood and anxiety disorders

Why do children who are at risk not develop a disorder?

-survive using strong self-confidence, coping skills, and abilities to avoid risk situations may be considered resilient -fight off or recover from their misfortune -sustained competence under stress, or rebound to a previously healthy level of competence following traumatic or stressful experiences

What are disadvantages to retrospective design?

-susceptible to bias and distortion in recall -fail to identify the individuals who were exposed to certain earlier experiences but did not develop the problem (e.g people who experienced sexual abuse but did not develop an eating disorder)

Why might a person not respond to stimulants?

-symptom severity, if you are much worse than the group, you might not respond as well -youth comorbidity, ADHD and conduct problems they may not respond as well, they might not participate -parental psychopathology, parent is not functioning well -->parents who are distressed, they may not be able to carry out the treatment or instructions -cognitive functioning, if the child is high in cognitive functioning they could do well -poverty, more disruption, more chaos -ethnicity, different responsive rate between races

What is the ODD and CD connection?

-symptoms of ODD emerge 2-3 years before CD, at about age 6 as opposed to age 9 -ODD could be a precursor for CD, not a guarantee but it does happen

What are the advantages of categorical measurement advantages?

-synthesis of information, it helps psychologists organize information, all clinicians are using the same framework and it acts as a common language

When does temperament establish? What does it contribute to?

-temperament is established during early brain development -temperamental styles can be related to a particular disorder (e.g anxiety) or due to closely related to the temperament

What is test-retest reliability?

-test-retest reliability: the results you obtain should be consistent if the tests are repeated within a short time

What is an EEG?

-the brain's measurable electrical activity with ongoing thinking, emotion, or state of arousal -records electrical brain activity using electrodes attached to the surface of the child's scalp

What are environemental stressors?

-the manner in which one's circumstances affect the course of a disorder should be distinguished from how they may initially contribute to the problem -->e.g environmental stressors: e.g child abuse that bring about poor adaptation or the onset of a disorder -some factors can exacerbate a child's problems

Explain the education portion of parent management training.

-the parents are informed about ADHD so they understand the disorder -->removes guilt -use immediate, frequent and powerful consequences; strive for consistency; planning ahead; not personalizing the child's problems and practicing forgiveness

What are the three main features of psychological disorders?

-the person shows some degree of distress, such as fear or sadness -his/her behaviour indicates some degree of disability, such as impairment that substantially interferes with or limits activity in one or more important areas of functioning, including physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural -such distress and disability increase the risk of further suffering or harm, such as death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom

How is the DSM developmentally insensitive?

-the same symptoms apply to all ages, even though they are normative at certain ages -it is categorical, however there are kids below the criteria requirements who experience impairment in function

Explain speech and language impairments in kids with ADHD.

-the type of speech and language impairment may be related to the child's specific ADHD symptoms -preschoolers with hyperactivity-impulsivity related to poor language skills those inattention were correlated with weaker receptive and expressive vocabulary skills -difficulty understanding others' speech and in using appropriate language in everyday situations -pragmatic language skills may be related to the children's social difficulties -they speak with poor grammar, miscommunication results

What are Cognitive-behavioural treatments?

-the way children and parents think about their environment determines how they will react to it -faulty thought parents: distortions in cognitive content and processes (e.g faulty problem solving) -identify maladaptive cognitions and replace them with adaptive ones -to teach the child coping strategies in specific situations, learn to regulate his or her own behaviour -how others respond to the child's maladaptive behaviour

Explain the delinquent youth study and days out of jail.

-their functional outcome: days you stay out of jail -at the end of the assessment, kids in MST 74% were not arrested compared to the control group, 29% were not arrested MST: Cost -estimated cost for an average participant in MST is $4743 -$87 961 for one year in a residential juvenile detention facility -United States spends $15 million a day to keep juvenile offenders incaracerated

How do we establish causality?

-theoretical expectation that A would cause B -A and B have to be related empirically (correlation) -elimination of other possible causes -temporal ordering: A occurs before B (A needs to occur first) -responsiveness: Changing A leads to change in B

What are the child's friendshps like? When are criminal offenses likley to occur?

-they can become bullies, continue conduct problems into adolescence -they often friendships with like-minded antisocial individuals, associating with deviant peers is a powerful predictor of conduct problems -they transition into criminal acts (e.g stealing) -many youth offenses occur in groups -involvement with deviant peers is a strong predictor of autonomy and early sexual activity in adolescence

What do you need to consider when you are parenting?

-think about which quadrant you are in in -think about whether a reinforcer is pos/neg -are you inadvertently providing reinforcement for a behaviour you do want to see -remember that attention is a very powerful reinforcer

What are tic disorders?

-tic disorders: sudden, repetitive, non rhythmic motor movements or sounds such as eye blinking, facial grimacing, throat clearing and grunting -experience more behavioural, social, and academic difficulties

What are behavioural peer interventions?

-traditionally, social skills training is done in the office or clinic -discussion and role-playing -studies have suggested that these types of interventions are not effective for children with ADHD -you need to have them interacting with kids in order for this management to work -have the kids play games together, and focus on working on social relations

What is transaction?

-transaction, dynamic interaction of child and environment -the child and the environment contribute to the expression of a disorder and one cannot be separated from the other -environment and children are active contributors to adaptive and maladaptive behaviour -environment is never the sole reason for disorders

What is treatment as usual?

-treatment as usual, randomly assigned to get a new treatment or a treatment that they would have typically received (e.g cancer, chemotherapy was the control group) -->often due to ethical reasons, but we want to know that the new intervention does better than the conventional therapy. Often people in the community do not receive evidence based treatment.

What is the anger coping program?

-treatment for aggressive behaviour designed by John Lochman and colleagues -focuses on specific cognitive biases -interpretation: hostile attribution bias -distorted perceptions of aggressiveness: aggressive youth underestimate their own aggressiveness and overestimate the aggressiveness of others -faulty emotional identification: tend to mislabel affective arousal as anger -response search and selection: rely heavily on direct action rather than verbal solutions -->maladaptive outcome expectancies: aggressive youth do not think that conflict can be resolved through non-aggressive means

What is behaviour therapy?

-treatment of child and family disorders -based on operant and classical conditioning -focused initially on children with intellectual disability or severe disturbances

What is a single case experimental design?

-used to evaluate the impact of clinical treatment -assessment of behaviour over time, the replication of treatment effects within the same subject over time

What are prevention programs?

-uses videotapes for training: child management skills -addresses antisocial individual, family and school difficulties -parents are taught personal self-control for managing anger, depression and blame -learn effective communication skills and coping strategies and strengthen social support -teachers are taught how to strengthen relationships, effective discipline, anger management, problem solving -children view videotapes of conflict situations at school and home that illustrate problem-solving and social skills

What are correlates?

-variables that are associated at a particular point in time with no clear proof that one precedes the other -->is her sadness preventing her from making friends, or is she said because she doesn't have friends

What is the role of HPA and CD?

-variations in stress-regulating mechanisms, including the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) -children with CD (early onset) display low psychophysiological cortical arousal and low reactivity of the ANS (e.g lower resting heart rate)

How is the verbal IQ lower in children with CD?

-verbal IQ is lower than performance IQ in children with CD; deficit in language -affect the child's receptive listening, reading, problem solving, pragmatic language, expressive speech and writing, and memory for verbal material -poor language ability predicted the development of later conduct problems, suggesting that targeting language deficits may be useful -presence of language deficits does not predict future aggression

What are verbal abilities linked to?

-verbal abilities were negatively related to physical aggression but positively associated with theft, and their inductive reasoning was negatively associated with increases in theft across adolescence

What are common peer problems?

-verbal and physical aggression toward other children and poor social skills -preschoolers who show poor self-regulation have difficulty understanding the perspectives of others, experience corporal punishment from their parents, and display higher levels of peer aggressiveness during the transition to grade school -children with CD are rejected by their peers, although some may remain quite popular -children rejected for two or three years by grade 2 are more likely to display conduct problems later in adolescence

What is wait-list control?

-wait-list control group, a control group that will not initially get it but they will later on -->usually due to ethical reasons

What is internal validity?

-want to ensure that groups d o not differ in any other way than the experimental manipulation

What are the main changes of children's mental health?

-we are able to recognize earlier mental health problems -we detect mental disorders more often -children still do not receive proper care

Why were foster homes created?

-we had to take children out of institutions -babies who did not have physical contact had emotional and behavioural problems -->introduction of foster homes

What is evidence-based treatments?

-well established treatments: -a large series (>=9) of single-case study designed demonstrating efficacy -or, at least two between group-design experiments -need either one of these to determine it is effective

Which symptoms are more likely to result in a referral?

-when girls display defiance and aggression they are referred at a younger age than boys, lower tolerance by adults or greater concern for their behaviours -girls are more likely than boys to display inattention/disorganized symptoms characteristic of sluggish cognitive tempo (forgetful, lethargic) rather than hyperactive

Why is good to have the observer from the same cultural background?

-when teachers rate youths from another cultural background, they rate them higher on behavioural and emotional problems -a child's presenting problem can be different from the one eventually identified as the target for intervention

What are sensitive periods?

-windows of time where environmental influences development, both good and bad are enhanced -->e.g infants are sensitive to proximity with their caregiver which forms secure attachment -often learning occurs -development is a process of increasing differentiation and integration

What is withdrawal?

-withdrawal, as manifested by either of the following: alcohol withdrawal syndrome -alcohol or a related substance is taken to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms

What is problem solving skills training?

-work with the child to reduce behaviour problems -targeting upstream cognitive processes -underlying theory: social-information processing

Why do you need to consider situational factors?

-you need to consider situational factors and other factors so you make the right conclusion -a disorder might not be linked to an ethnicity but it has a high prevalence in a particular ethnicity because they have low SES

What are the symptoms of substance use disorder?

1) substance is often taken in larger amounts or over a longer period than was intended 2) there is a persistent desire or unsuccessful effort to cut down or control substance use 3) a great deal of time is spent in activities necessary to obtain substance, use the substance, or recover from its effects 4) there is a craving or a strong desire or urge to sue the substance 5) recurrent substance use results in failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home (e.g repeated absences or poor work performance related to substance use; substance-related absences, suspensions, or expulsions from school; neglect of children or household) 6) continued substance use despite having persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of the substance 7) important social, occupational, or recreational activities are given up or reduced because of substance use 8) there is recurrent substance use in situaitons in which it is physically hazardous (e.g driving an automobile or operating a machine when impaired) 9) substance use is continued despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been caused or exacerbated by the substance 10) tolerance as defined by either or both of the following: a need for markedly increased amounts of substance to achieve intoxication or desired effect markedly diminished effect with continued use of the same amount of the substance 11) withdrawal, as manifested by either of the following: the characteristic withdrawal syndrome for a substance the same substance is taken to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms

What is the prevalence of ODD and CD?

10% for ODD 9% for CD

What is the DSM definition of ODD?

A pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behaviour, or vindictiveness lasting at least six months as evidenced by at least four symptoms from any of the following categories and exhibited during interaction with a least one individual who is not a sibling

What are the symptoms of conduct disorder?

Aggression to People and Animals 1) often bullies, threatens, or intimidates others 2) often initiates physical fights 3) has used a weapon that can cause serious physical harm to others (e.g bat, knife, brick) 4) has been physically cruel to people 5) has been physically cruel to animals 6) has stolen while confronting a victim (e.g nugging, extortion) 7) has forced someone into sexual activity Destruction of Property 8) has deliberately engaged in fire setting, with the intention of causing serious damage 9) has deliberately destroyed others' property (other than by fire setting) Deceitfulness or Theft 10) has broken into someone else's house, building, or car 11) often lies to obtain goods or favours or to avoid obligations (e.g 'cons' others) 12) has stolen items of nontrivial value without confronting a victim (e.g shoplifting, but without breaking and entering forgery) 13) often stays out at night despite parental prohibitions, beginning before age 13 years 14) has run away from home overnight at least twice while living in parental or parental surrogate home, or once without returning for a lengthy period 15) is often truant from school, beginning before age 13 years

What must we consider about the behaviour?

B) the disturbance of behaviour is associated with distress in the individual or others in his/her immediate social context (e.g family peer group, work colleagues) or it impacts negatively on social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning C) the behaviours do not occur during the course of a psychotic, substance-use, depressive or bipolar disorder. Also, the criteria are not met for disruptive mood disorder

What is conduct?

Conduct, indicates how well a person follows rules of a particular society -young age, children should control their behaviour -enter school, follow classroom rules -adolescence, follow the rules set by school, home, and society without supervision

Which interview style is more reliable and valid?

Data suggest that structured and semi-structured are more reliable than unstructured -unstructured, two clinicans could come to different conclusions Data suggest that structured and semi-structured are more valid than unstructured

Which style of interview is more reliable?

Data suggest that structured and semi-structured are more reliable than unstructured -unstructured, two clinicians could come to different conclusions Data suggest that structured and semi-structured are more valid than unstructured

Is observation valid?

External validity - extent to which findings will generalize -presence of an observer may change behaviour -->particularly a problem for older children and adults, starts around 10 or 11 -may not see the same results in the 'real world' -->computer stimulation of getting provoked by a peer is not the same as a real provocation -may be difficult to see behaviours of interest -->low-base rate, hard to see physical aggression because it doesn't happen often -covert, e.g relational aggression, can't see someone start a rumour, it might happen in the bathroom where you can't go -researchers have developed very creative solutions to this -wireless microphones (could change behaviours, younger children forget, older children stop talking) -structured laboratory tasks such as having a child provoked by an imaginary peer

What must be met in order for a diagnosis of hyperactivity and impulsivity?

Hyperactivity and Impulsivity: six (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is inconsistent with developmental level and negatively impacts social and academic/occupational activities -17 or older, 5 symptoms

How do these Patterns Develop?

Parents -mothers of aggressive boys also show the hostile attribution bias -parents may reinforce or approve of behaviours -may see aggression as a competent response to peer provocation Peers -may be reinforcing behaviours -children with aggressive behaviour problems think aggression works, probably because it often does

Why is SUDS expressed differently in youths?

SUDS in youth differ in the pattern of use: function of the restrictions on availability -->adolescents drink less frequently but larger quantities -substance use is influenced by peers, the desire for autonomy and experimentation with adult privileges and the level of parental supervision

Why is science necessary?

Science is a best available method for accumulating knowledge and correcting errors and personal biases

What is cross-sectional research?

cross-sectional research: different children at different ages or period of development are studied at the same point in time -don't lose participants, practice effects don't occur or general changes in the field

What are the symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity?

a) often fidgets with or taps hands or feet or squirms in seat b) often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected c) often runs about or climbs in situations where it is inappropriate Note: in adolescents or adults, may be limited to feeling restless d) often unable to play or engage in leisure activities quietly e) often 'on the go' acting as if 'driven by a motor' f) talks excessively g) blurts out answers before a question has been completed h) difficulty waiting his or her turn i) interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g butts into conversations, games or activities, start using other people's things without asking permission)

What is attachment?

attachment: process of establishing and maintaining an emotional bond with parents or other significant individuals -infants are preadapted to engage in relationship-enhancing behaviours such as orienting, smiling, clinging -in order to survive infants need to become attached to a specific person -adults are equipped with attachment-promoting behaviours to respond to an infant's needs, which are complementary to the needs of the infant

What is attentional capacity?

attentional capacity: the amount of information we can remember and attend to for a short time -Children with ADHD do not have a deficit in their attentional capacity -they can remember the same amount of information for a short time as do other children

What is a basic quality of life?

children require a basic quality of life: safe community, good schools, proper health and nutrition, access to friends, and opportunities to develop close relationships with extended family and members of the community

What type of CD is likely to lead to later psychiatric problems?

children who display outvert-destructive behaviour are persistent physical fightings, are at high risk for later psychiatric problems and impairment in functioning

What are clinical descriptions?

clinical descriptions: summarizes the unique behaviours, thoughts, and feelings that together make up the features of the child's psychological disorder -establish basic information about the child's concerns at presentation, how their behaviour or emotions are different from or similar to those of other children of the same age, sex, SES and cultural background -describe the intensity, frequency and severity of the problem -age of onset and duration of difficulties -->some problems are transient and will spontaneously remit, while others persist over time

What is comorbidity? Why is this disadvantageous in an experiment?

comorbidity: simultaneous occurrence of two or more childhood disorders that is far more common than would be predicted from the general population -the treatment might treat one disorder better than the other and this could lead to false conclusions -some use a pure sample, this often is small atypical samples and findings do not generalize to the population

What were the results of MTA?

compare long term medication and behavioural treatments for ADHD note that for improving ADHD symptoms (as rated by both parents and teachers), medication outperformed behavioural treatment but this was not true for many other outcomes (e.g observed classroom behaviour, parent and teacher reported social skills) also note that children who got behavioural treatment did improve on ADHD symptoms parents prefer behavioural treatments

How can you view the MTA data differently?

composite measure encompassing all outcomes, reflection of the whole child -main finding: we need medication, it is the best treatment -when you analyze the data differently, the combined treatment is better than medication

What are cultural syndromes?

cultural syndromes: a pattern of co-occurring, invariant symptoms associated with a particular cultural group, community, or context -culture affects the expression of symptoms and disorders -cultural syndromes are not always seen as a disorder in the culture where it occurs -abnormal child behaviour varies between cultures

What is the Wechsler test?

defines intelligence as the 'overall capacity of an individual to understand and cope with the world around him' -they help predict who will struggle in school -represent different types of intelligence, emphasis on fluid-reasoning abilities, higher-order reasoning, and information-processing speed and less emphasis on possible externally or culturally influenced factors such as arithmetic knowledge -Verbal Comprehension Index, Perceptual reasoning index, working memory index and processing index -->assess cognitive strengths and weaknesses that are important to the assessment of learning disabilities, executive functions, attention disorders, traumatic brain injuries, intellectual disability, giftedness, and various other medical and neurological concerns

What is developmental psychopathology?

describing and studying disorders of childhood, adolescence, and beyond in a manner that emphasizes the importance of developmental processes and tasks -organizes childhood milestones and sequences in physical, cognitive, social-emotional, and educational development -role of developmental process, the importance of context and the influence of multiple and interacting events in shaping adaptive and maladaptive development

What are best practices guidelines?

developed statements to assist practitioners and patients with decisions regarding appropriate treatments for specific clinical conditions

What do intial assessments consider

developmental and family history

What is a developmental pathway?

developmental pathway: the sequence and timing of particular behaviours and possible relationships between behaviours over time -->development is active and dynamic process that can account for different beginnings and outcomes -->helps us understand the course and nature of normal and abnormal development

What are developmental tasks?

developmental tasks: broad domains of competence such as conduct and academic achievement

What is a diagnosis?

diagnosis: analyzing information and drawing conclusions about the nature or cause of the problem, or assigning a formal diagnostic label for a disorder

What is a diathesis?

diathesis: vulnerability (biological, contextual or experience-based) or tendency toward disorder

How is DSM culturally sensitive?

different criteria for diagnosis in different culture -cultures that value reserved and inhibited patterns of child behaviour, symptoms of ADHD are less common -if ADHD symptoms occurred in those cultures, the teachers view them as problematic due to the culture-linked values and expectations

Why do informants disagree?

different perspectives of informants situation specificity of children's behaviour: higher ADHD behaviour at school

What is perferred dimensional or categorical?

dimensional approach is preferred for research categorical approach is better for clinical purposes -->good for communication among clinicians

What does dimensional classification assume?

dimensional classification approaches assume that many independent dimensions or traits of behaviour exist, and that all children possess them to varying degrees

What is discontinuity?

discontinuity: developmental changes are abrupt and qualitative (e.g can't be measured, e.g mood) -future behaviour is poorly predicted by earlier patterns -seen is eating disorders (occurs suddenly, few predictors, a child can show normal development and then abrupt onset)

What is discriminant validity?

discriminant validity: degree of correlation between measures that are not expected to be related to one another -->e.g scores on a measure designed to assess depression and another designed to assess intelligence should not correlate

What are distortions of quality of life?

distortions of quality of life, person's subjective perception of their position in life evidenced by their physical, psychological and social functioning -->rate it higher than others do

What is distractibility?

distractibility: a deficit in selective attention -ADHD children are distracted by stimuli that are highly salient and appealing -all children find distractions disruptive to a certain extent

What is emotion dysregulation?

dysregulation, existing control structures operate maladaptively (e.g a child is fearful for no reason)

What is epidemiological research?

epidemiological research, study of the incidence, prevalence, and co-occurrence of childhood disorders and competencies in clinic-referred and community samples

What is epigenetic mechanism?

epigenetic mechanism: involve changes in gene activity resulting from a variety of environmental factors, such as toxins, diet, stress and others -->environment can turn genes on and off -epigenetic alterations can be reversible through pharmacological and behavioural interventions

What is equifinality?

equifinality, the concept that similar outcomes stem from different early experiences and developmental pathways children have different strengths and weaknesses, but later will both have the same disorder

What does an interaction mean?

even if you have a diathesis and a stressor it does not necessarily mean you will develop a disorder the stressor just mental disorder the likelihood

Are syringe-exchange programs effective?

evidence for effectiveness played a key role in the dissemination of syringe-exchange programs -large pharmacy stopped selling injection equipment, making it much more difficult to get clean needles -the local health department and a drug-users group set up a syringe-exchange program -found that subsequent to the introduction of this program, rates of HIV among IV drug users decreased -disseminated to other cities in the Netherlands

What were MAT moderators?

excellent responder: if you were not having problems or minimal bad responder: you were still showing problems medication management or medication and behavioural treatment, those children were more likely to be excellent responders behavioural treatment and community treatment were less likely to be excellent responders if the parents didn't have depression their kids were more likely to be excellent responders lower level of symptoms, they were more likely to be excellent responders if the children had depressed parents and severe symptoms, if they had high IQ they were more likely to be excellent responders

What are threats to external validity?

external validity: degree to which findings can be generalized, or extended to people, settings, times, measures and characteristics other than the ones in a particular study -threats to external validity include characteristics of the participants, reactivity of subjects, the setting, or the time when measurements are made -low-SES are often underrepresented because they often don't seek treatment or drop out

What are externalizing problems?

externalizing problems: encompass more acting-out behaviours (e.g aggressio

What is fMRI?

fMRI registers neural activity in functioning areas of the brain -shows which brain areas are active during mental operations (e.g mental math)

What is an adpatational failure?

failure to master or progress in accomplishing developmental milestones -->children with disorders differ from some aspects of normal development -->rarely due to a single cause

What were the results of SAPP?

group who received SAPP had improved social problem solving abilities at the end of the intervention -offered more assertive/prosocial solutions to problematic social situations -among girls who were very socially aggressive prior to starting the program, those who received SAPP were rated by teachers as being slightly more empathic and slightly less likely to engage in socially aggressive behaviours than those who received the reading intervention -teachers were kept unaware of intervention condition (blind)

Why might SAPP not be enough?

in the real world, problematic behaviours may be reinforced children are unlikely to change such behaviours that are working for them parents, changing the reinforcing contingencies

What is incidence rates?

incidence rates: reflect the new cases of a disorder appear over a specified period (e.g the number of youths who develop a depressive disorder during the school year)

What were the results of MST?

increase dose of MST delinquent behaviour decreases -more MST, better family functioning after treatment -family functioning decreases delinquent behaviour and decrease in peer affiliation -more delinquent peer affiliation results in more delinquent behaviour higher dose of MST improved family functioning, decreases delinquent peer affiliation and behaviour and delinquent peer affiliation decreases behaviour -appears that adherence to treatment is associated with changes in family functioning -changes in family functioning and delinquent peer affiliations are responsible for at least some of the change in delinquent behaviour

What is the independent and dependent variable?

independent variable is manipulated by the researcher, causes change in another variable dependent variable, influenced by the independent variable

What is informed consent?

informed consent: all participants are fully informed of the nature of the research: risks, benefits and expected outcomes and alternatives, they can withdraw at any time

What is longitudinal research?

longitudinal research: the same children are studied at different ages or periods of development

What are familial aggregation studies? What can't you control for?

look for a cluster of disorders within a given family and compare to a normal distribution -cannot control for environmental variables

What is the affect of low parental monitoring?

low parental monitoring (e.g don't know where there adolescent is) is a predictor of adolescent substance use -the perception of parental monitoring is important -a significant protective effect of perceived parental monitoring in predicting lower levels of substance use -higher levels of parental monitoring were associated with less alcohol use in males and no effect on females' behaviour -trust between adolescent females (but not males) and their parents was a strong deterrent for risk behaviours -other risk factors: poor parent-teen communication, poor family values and family conflict

Explain the ADHD and college social drinker experiment.

male and female single college students who were social drinkers were randomly assigned to interact with boys who were trained to perform behaviours characteristic of either typical children (friendly and cooperative) or children with ADHD -participants rate their mood before and after interactions -after the interaction they were given a break, beer was available for their consumption -both genders reported the same level of distress with the ADHD kids, only the men who interacted with the ADHD kids drank enough to increase blood alcohol levels -fathers with ADHD children could increase alcohol consumption -->hard to know since these conditions are not real-world, they weren't actual parents and it was in a laboratory research designs: strategies used to examine questions) of interest -ways the conditions are arranged to draw valid inferences about the variables of interest

What are severities of CD?

mild: few if any conduct problems in excess of those required to make the diagnosis are present, and conduct problems cause minor harm to others (e.g staying out after dark, truancy, lying) moderate: the number of conduct problems and the effect on others are intermediate between those specified in 'mild' and those in 'severe' (e.g stealing without confronting a victim, vandalism) severe: many conduct problems in excess of those required to make the diagnosis are present, or conduct problems cause considerable harm to others (e.g forced sex, use of weapon, stealing while confronting others)

What are the different types of severity?

mild: few, if any, symptoms in excess of those required to make the diagnosis are present and symptoms result in no more than minor impairments in social or occupational functioning moderate: symptoms or functional impairment between mild and severe are present severe: many symptoms in excess of those required to make the diagnosis, or several symptoms that are particularly severe, are present, or the symptoms result in marked impairment in social or occupational functioning

How do minorities affect aggressive behaviours?

minority status is related to antisocial behaviour in USA -however, race doesn't cause antisocial behaviour other factors do -economic hardships, limited employment opportunities, residence in high-risk urban neighbourhoods and membership in antisocial gangs -minority children who lived in a bad neighbourhood but had family support show fewer antisocial behaviour than children who have low or no family support

What are moderator variables?

moderator variables: influence the direction or strength of the relationship of variables of interest -the association between two variables depends on a function of moderating variable (e.g child's age or sex) -->e.g physical abuse resulted in internalizing problems more often in females than males -->the child's sex was a moderator variable, the relationship between two of the variables (abuse and internalizing problems) differed depending on the third (if the adolescent was a boy or a girl)

What is motivational interviewing?

motivational interviewing uses a patient-centered and directive approach and addresses the ambivalence and discrepancies between a person's current values and behaviours and their future goals -type of treatment depends on levels of use and home environment -adolescents with low to moderate levels of substance abuse and a more stable home environment are candidates for outpatient treatment -severe substance abuse and unstable living situations, or comorbidity require inpatient or residential settings

What is multimethod assessment approach?

multimethod assessment approach: emphasizes the importance of obtaining information from different informants in a variety of settings and using a variety of methods that include interviews, observations, questionnaires, and tests -which assessment to use is based whether the assessment if for diagnosis, treatment planning, or treatment evaluation on whether the problem is observable or internal (e.g anxiety)

How is the baseline determined?

multiple-baseline designs across behaviours, different responses of the same individual are identified and measured over time to provide a baseline against which changes may be evaluated

What is nomothetic formulation?

nomothetic formulation: emphasizes broad general inferences that apply to large groups of individuals (e.g children with a depressive disorder)

What is physical dependence?

occurs when the body adapts to the substance's constant presence

Why is ADHD linked to family problems?

often due to the child's co-occurring conduct problems rather than to ADHD symptoms

What are snares?

persistence in early adulthood is often the result of snares, outcomes of antisocial behaviour that close the door to getting a good job, -common snares include unplanned parenthood, dropping out

Which symptoms are more common in adolescents?

physiological dependence and symptoms are less common in adolescents -adolescents experience withdrawal symptoms -more likely to show cognitive and affective features associated with substance abuse and/or withdrawal, such as disorientation or mood swings

What is the prefrontal cortex

planning decision making

What personal views affect substance use?

positive attitudes about substance use (e.g high perceived benefit) and having friends who hold similar views is associated with substance use -perceiving oneself to be physically older than same age peers and striving for adult social roles are risky attitudes -if an adolescent feels connected to their school community is associated with a lower risk for use of substances -school connectedness is a nonspecific risk factor, these adolescents show lower levels of risk behaviour in many domains

What is positive bias?

positive bias: exaggeration of one's competence is referred to as a positive bias

What are the types of reinforcement and punishment?

positive reinforcement: increases behaviour by adding a stimuli negative reinforcement: increases behaviour, take away stimuli positive punishment: decreases behaviour by adding a stimuli negative punishment: decreases behaviour by taking away a stimuli

What are target behaviours?

primary problems of concern, with the goal of then determining what specific factors may be influencing these behaviours

How is science distinguished from pseudoscience?

science is distinguished from pseudoscience because scientists play by the rules of science, are prepared to admit when they are wrong and are open to change

What are the two branches of CD?

with limited prosocial emotions: an individual must have displayed at least two of the following characteristics persistently over at least 12 months and in multiple relationships and settings. These characteristics reflect the individual's typical pattern of interpersonal and emotional functioning over this period and not just occasional occurrences in some situations. Thus, multiple information sources are necessary. Include both the individual's self-report and people who know the individual lack of remorse or guilt: does not feel bad or guilty when he/she does something wrong (excludes remorse when expressed only when caught/facing punishment). e.g the individual is not remorseful after hurting someone or does not care about the consequences of breaking rules callous-lack empathy: disregards and is unconcerned about the feelings of others. The individual is described as cold and uncaring. THe person appears more concerned about the effects of his/her actions on himself/herself, rather than their effects on others, even when they result in substantial harm to others unconcerned about performance: does not show concern about poor/problematic performance at school, at work, or in other important activities. The individual does not put forth the effort necessary to perform well, even when expectations are clear and typically blames others for his or her poor performance shallow or deficient effect: does not express feelings or show emotions to others except in ways that seem shallow, insincere, or superficial (e.g actions contradict the emotions displayed; can turn emotions 'on' or 'off' quickly) or when emotional expressions are used for gain (e.g emotions displayed to manipulate or intimidate others)