DEVELOPMENTAL WEEK 3

Describe the core knowledge theory

Innate knowledge systems predispose us to understand the world and new information But require experience to extend this innate knowledge Suggested domains: ◦Physical ◦Linguistic ◦Psychological ◦Numerical ◦Morality?

What is involved in The Sensorimotor Stage with Adaptation

Involves building schemas through direct interaction with the environment Assimilation: Use current schema to interpret external world Accommodation: Creating new schemes or adjusting older ones after noticing discrepancies

What is Piaget's sensorimotor stage?

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities stage in Piaget's theory characterized by a focus on the here and now without the ability to represent experiences mentally experiencing the world through senses and actions Early development of goal-oriented behavior (such as trying to roll over to reach a ball) and object permanence - the concept that things continue to exist even though you can't see them.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

stage theory of psychosocial development, lifespan consists of eight dilemmas that must be solved correctly in order to solve the next dilemma

What is effortful control? (quilt)

the capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response the ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination how effectively a child can FOCUS and SHIFT ATTENTION, inhibit impulses, and manage negative emotions

What is the internal working model of attachment?

the child's mental representation of the self, of attachment figure(s), and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. The working model guides children's interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages

What is temperament?

- "constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation" (Rothbart & Bates, 1998, p.109) ◦an individual's behavioural style and characteristic way of emotionally responding - Foundation of later personality a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

- At what age stages did Ainsworth view the development of attachment? - What can a child experience when caregiver is not present to establish the attachment?

- 0 - 6 weeks: Pre-attachment; general sociability, indiscriminant - 6 wks - 6/8 months: Attachment-in-the-making - 4 months: differential sociability - 6/8 mths - 18mths: Clear-cut attachment to primary caregiver - Stranger Anxiety - Separation Anxiety - Emergence of secondary attachments

How does Infant Communication Development work? and at what stages are each at? - 8 points

- 4 months: interest in turn-taking games, gaze in direction adults looking - 6 months: babbling initially universal sounds - 6 - 9 mths: developing understanding of single words - 10-11 months: joint attention - 12 months: universality of babbling lost - 9 - 12 mths: understands simple instructions - 12 months: pre-verbal gesturing - 10-15 months: first words

- What is the relationship between avoidant and resistant attachment types with having greater dependency in school age? - What is a secure attachment associated with? - What aspects of the Childs life internal and external are affected?

- Avoidant and resistant attachments associated with greater dependency in school-age - Secure attachment consistently associated with: - higher self-esteem - more self-confidence - more ego-resilience - higher popularity - better cognitive skills - better coping skills - greater enthusiasm & persistence for learning - higher curiosity - higher independence from parents - fewer problem behaviours

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory: - Explain The Sensorimotor Stage, when does it occur? - What is adaption and organisation?

- Birth to age 2 years - Understand and act on the world using sensorimotor or behavioural schemes - Adaptation and Organisation account for changes in schemes (or schema) ◦Adaptation: Involves building schemas through direct interaction with the environment ◦Organisation: Change in schema that occurs internally

- What is the social interactionist view? - What is the debate here? - What affects language progress?

- Children cue caregivers to provide necessary language experiences - Language acquired via social interaction ◦Debate over whether there are also innate or specialised language abilities - Social competence and language experience affect language progress

What is object permanence and when does it occur? When does no object permanence occur? and when does it occur?

- Developmental progression - Under 6 months: no object permanence - Emerges Substage 4 - 8 - 12 months: search but A-not-B errors ◦Child searches where last found an object, not where we moved it the understanding that things continue to exist when they are out of sight

What are Emotional self-regulation & effortful control fostered by? What are the stages?

- Emotional self-regulation & effortful control are fostered by: 1)Parenting ◦Appropriate stimulation ◦Sensitivity and responsiveness ◦Shaping socially approved ways of expressing emotions . - boys more training in controlling negative emotions than girls . - Girls "naturally" better at self-control of negative emotion - cultural differences ◦Effective management of tantrums 2) Cognitive development (and underlying pre-frontal cortical brain development) ◦Executive functioning esp. control of attention ◦Language development . - How might language development influence emotional regulation? 3) Motor development ◦How would motor development assist emotional self-regulation?

What is emergence of self-regulation? Why is this important and how was this demonstrated?

- Emotional self-regulation: strategies to self-adjust emotional state to a comfortable level in order to be able to meet goals - Important for autonomy, cognitive development, and social skills e.g. the marshmallow test

- What was the idea behind Thomas and Chess's temperament and the goodnesses of fit model? - What is meant by goodness of fit? - What happens when there is not a goodness of fit, what can this lead too? - How can a childs temperament be modulated? - What are the three categories of infant emotional/behavioural style? and what is there outcome for each?

- Goodness of fit": the degree to which an individual's temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment ◦Lack of fit ---> parent socialisation efforts to recognise the child's particular style but also to modify that to better fit the environment ◦E.g., difficult temperament, shyness - Parents can modulate children's temperament by their influences on their environment three categories of infant emotional/behavioural style: - easy (positive mood, regular body functions, adaptable), - slow to warm up (intially withdraws but is soon able to adapt to new situations), - difficult (negative mood, irregular body functions, tend to withdraw in new situations) - easy- 40%; quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences - slow to warm up- 15%; inactive, shows mild looked reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjust slowly to new experiences - difficult- 10%; is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely

What is emotional development - happiness? What kind of signs and when do these signs become noticeable in infants, around what age? What is this in relation too? (3) ELR

- HAPPINESS . - Social smile around 6 - 10 weeks ◦Think about evocative gene-environment correlations ◦Relation to language and cognitive development ◦Relation to parent-child relationship

What Critiques are there of the Nativist Approach? (3)

- Hard to identify universal grammar - Slower and more error-prone language acquisition than innate ability would predict - Learning is important in language - Brain plasticity shows other areas of brain capable of supporting language

- What is Bowlby's Attatchment theory? - How did his ethological theory come into play with attachment? - What is attachment? - What is meant by the internal working model?

- John Bowlby influenced by psychoanalytic background and Lorenz' imprinting work ◦Ethological theory: human attachment is an evolved response that promotes survival - Attachment: active, reciprocal tie that endures across time and space; leads to desire for contact, distress at separation - Development of internal working model regarding availability of attachment figures that influences later relationships

- What happens if an infant/toddler/child is not hitting/meeting their milestones are in instead missing them? What might this indicate? - What is the developmental surveillance approach and why is it important? - If a child does not hit a milestone what could this mean? e.g. that they will never hit it, developmentally or neurologically delayed, or just age delayed?

- May indicate ◦Intellectual disability ◦Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) ◦Autism Spectrum Disorder ◦Other developmental disability/condition - Importance of developmental surveillance approach ◦Wide variability in typical development, some delays may remit with age

New York Longitudinal study (Thomas & Chess, 1977) - What were the 9 temperamental aspects identifiable at birth? AIRADTQAA

- Nine temperamental aspects identifiable at birth: . - Activity level . - Intensity of reaction . - Rhythmicity . - Attention Span/Persistence . - Distractibility . - Threshold responsiveness . - Quality of mood . - Adaptability . - Approach/Withdrawal

- How does each theory type (Psychoanalystic and Behaviourism) view the first relationship of attachment? - How was this demonstrated and who conducted this experiment?

- Psychoanalytic theories: emphasis on feeding - Behaviourism emphasis on classical conditioning- also focused on feeding . - Harlow & Harlow's work with rhesus monkeys discounted role of feeding

What are the sensorimotor substages?

- Reflexive schemes(birth-1 month) - Newborn reflexes - Primary circular reactions(1-4 months) - Simple motor habits centeredaround own body - Secondary circular reactions(4-8 months) - Repetition of interesting effects;imitation of familiar behaviors - Coordination of secondary circular reactions(8-12 months) - Intentional, goal-directed behavior; beginning object permanence - Tertiary circular reactions(12-18 months) - Exploration of object propertiesthrough novel actions - Mental representation(18 months-2 years) - Internal depictions of objects and events; advanced object permanence (invisible displacement)

- Is temperament stable over time? - Do a lot of children change their temperament rapidly? - How can temperament be modified? EP (2) - What does more difficult infant temperament behaviours lead too? What makes this situation more likely to occur? - What is said to be a better predictor of later functioning and when is this said to occur? - What are the long term predictors of better functioning in an individual's young and adulthood periods? - What are the long term implications for children and adolescent predictors of better functioning? (2)

- Temperament is relatively stable over time ◦Very few children change radically ◦BUT, temperament can be modified through experiences, especially parenting style - More "difficult" infant temperament --> behavioural and emotional adjustment problems in early childhood and beyond . - Especially if there are other risks in the child's life - Temperament is a better predictor of later functioning after effortful control emerges (about 3 years) - Longer-term: childhood and adolescent predictors of better functioning in young adulthood ◦better emotional control ◦less emotional reactivity

- When does an infants visual self recognition .e.g their Self-Development emerge? How is this dine, through what test? - When can infants recognise themselves in photographs? - Are there any cultural differences? - How can this skill be acquired earlier?

- Visual self-recognition emerges around 20 months ◦Rouge test - Recognise self in photographs by around 2 years Early foundation in cause-and-effect experiences - Cultural differences ◦Acquired earlier with distal parenting styles that emphasise independence cf. proximal parenting styles that emphasise interdependence

- What are developmental disabilities? - How can we monitor an infants/toddlers development so we can make sure they. hit their milestones? - What dies monitoring their development help us do?

- When a child does not meet typical social, play, and communicative milestones it can be indicative of a developmental disability . - For example, no speech by two years of age, not responding to name - Monitoring infant/toddler development of these early social, communication, and play milestones can help identify children at risk of developmental disabilities. disabilities that are present at birth or emerge during childhood

What is the social interactionist theory? (quilt)

-says that language acquisition is driven by child's desire to communicate and behave in a social manner -As children are exposed to language, the brain groups sounds and meanings together -as child interacts w/ others, certain brain circuits are reinforced and other are de-emphasized focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes where language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate in a social manner

What is emotional development - Anger? - When and why dos anger first occur? - Can mothers recognise different cries, why is this relevant (2)? - What happens as intentional behaviour increases? - What are considered the terrible twos

ANGER - Distress shown from birth ◦Crying . Mothers (main caregivers) can generally recognise different cries for discomfort, anger, pain and respond accordingly - Relevant to resolving Trust crisis - Relevant to establishing secure attachment - As intentional behaviour increases, frustration and anger more frequent ◦The terrible twos!

What is the difference between adaption and organisation?

Adaptation and Organisation account for changes in schemes (or schema) ◦Adaptation: Involves building schemas through direct interaction with the environment ◦Organisation: Change in schema that occurs internally

What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation?

Assimilation: Use current schema to interpret external world Accommodation: Creating new schemes or adjusting older ones after noticing discrepancies

What are the Cognitive Gains in Infancy and Toddlerhood in regards to attention (2), memory (2) and catergorization (1)?

Attention -improved efficiency, ability to shift focus -less attraction to novelty, improved sustained attention Memory -longer retention intervals -development of recall by second half of first year Categorization -gradual shift from perceptual to conceptual categorization in toddlerhood

How does Bowlby view the Long Term Correlates of Infant Attachment?

Bowlby (1973): ◦"confidence in the availability of attachment figures or the lack of it, is built up slowly during the years of immaturity...and whatever expectations are developed during those years tend to persist relatively unchanged throughout the rest of life" ◦Developmental pathway ''. . . turns at each and everystage of the journey on an interaction between the organism as it has developed up to that moment and the environment in which it then finds itself'' ◦i.e., both early attachment quality and continuity of caregiving quality important

Bowlby, attatchment behaviours (quilt)

Bowlby believed that attachment behaviors are instinctive and will be activated by any conditions that seem to threaten the achievement of proximity, such as separation, insecurity, and fear. Bowlby (1969, 1988) also postulated that the fear of strangers represents an important survival mechanism, built in by nature. Babies are born with the tendency to display certain innate behaviors (called social releasers) which help ensure proximity and contact with the mother or attachment figure (e.g., crying, smiling, crawling, etc.) - these are species-specific behaviors. During the evolution of the human species, it would have been the babies who stayed close to their mothers that would have survived to have children of their own. Bowlby hypothesized that both infants and mothers have evolved a biological need to stay in contact with each other. These attachment behaviors initially function like fixed action patterns and all share the same function. The infant produces innate 'social releaser' behaviors such as crying and smiling that stimulate caregiving from adults. The determinant of attachment is not food but care and responsiveness. Bowlby suggested that a child would initially form only one attachment and that the attachment figure acted as a secure base for exploring the world. The attachment relationship acts as a prototype for all future social relationships so disrupting it can have severe consequences.

- What comes with caregiving quality? - What is interactional synchrony?

Caregiving Quality ◦Sensitivity - accurate identification of infant communication and needs - positive emotions - interest and pleasure in infant ◦Interactional Synchrony - awareness of appropriate level of stimulation - Mother and infant reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and do this in a synchronised way. When two people interact, they mirror each other, including facial expressions and movements

- What is infant-directed speech (IDS)? - What are the characteristics of IDS? (6) - Is IDS essential? - What does IDS play a role in? - What happens to babies who talk more in regards to their language development?

Characteristics ◦higher pitch ◦simple vocabulary ◦sound substitution ◦short sentences ◦fluctuating intonation ◦exaggerated expressions & gestures IDS not essential but interaction is ◦e.g., Kaluli people of Papua New Guinea do not use "baby talk" - IDS plays a role in gaining attention, maintains communication ◦Provides opportunities for learning - Babies who are talked to/with more show greater language development

How does child temperament relate to language development?

Child temperament ◦E.g. emotional reactivity diverts children from processing language. ◦Quantity and richness and caregiver conversations ◦Referential vs. expressive style-What is language for?

What does Chromsky's theory basically state?

Children have an inborn ability to learn language through exposure to it, not being taught it. - nature - Theory proposed that we are born with a biological predisposition that prepares us to learn language Nature is more important than nurture.

What is the language acquisition device (LAD)?

Chomsky's term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation. a collection of processes that facilitate language learning

- What is personality emergence according to Erikson's psychosocial theory? - What age does the first stage occur at? - How is this stage resolved? ESLC (1) - How is this stage more broad than Freuds perspective? - What is the prime adaptive ego quality of trust? and why is this? - What are the implications here? - What is the core pathology for mistrust? - What is Eriksons second stage and at what ages does it occur? - Why is the second stage important and for what? How does this link back to - ---- Freuds theory? Are there any problems/criticisms/punishment for failed attempts?

ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY TRUST vs MISTRUST (0 - 1 year) Successfully resolved by experiencing sympathetic, loving care ◦Broader focus than Freud's narrow focus on oral gratification via breast feeding - Trust --> Prime adaptive ego quality: hope ◦Minimal fear or apprehension about future ◦--> Confidence to explore wider world Implications for cognitive and social development - Mistrust --> Core pathology: withdrawal - Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (1 - 3 years) . - Importance of parental handling of emerging desire for autonomy - Cf. Freud's narrower focus on toilet training . - Over-controlling and under-controlling by parents both problematic . - Criticism and punishment for failed attempts at autonomy --> shame & doubt

What is emotional development - fear? and when is it more likely or most intense? When does stranger and separation anxiety happen? when does it peak?

FEAR - Intense Stranger Anxiety around 9 months ◦more likely or intense if : . - in unfamiliar environment . - away from mother . - stranger is an adult . - stranger is passive and unsmiling . - stranger is a bearded male - Separation Anxiety: from 8 - 9 mths, peaks around 15 months

What re self-conscious emotions? and when do they occur in infants?

Higher-order feelings including: ◦Shame, guilt, embarrassment, envy, pride ◦Appear between 18-24 months

What is Holophrastic speech?

Holophrastic speech single word conveys whole idea or whole sentence word + context, gesture, intonation a single word functioning as an entire sentence or phrase does for an adult in the early stages of language acquisition, the young child's use of single words to convey complete thoughts

What are the important factors to consider with the attachment theory?

Important Factors Opportunity ◦Risks from early institutional care where no opportunity to form relationship with one or a few caregivers Think about the Romanian orphans study ◦Up to 6 years, late adoptees can securely attach to parents, but some difficulties for late adoptees Higher rates of insecure attachments

- Explain an infants characteristics for their temperament and attachment - What is an important experience for attachment? - What family factors could cause strain on this relationship? - is there any heritability for attachment/ attachment types?

Infant Characteristics ◦Temperament difficult infants: insecure attachments more likely ◦Attachment - Heritability virtually 0 Experiences of parent-child interactions important Family Factors ◦Stress . - Financial difficulties . - Marital problems

Learning Objectives

Infant cognitive development ◦Piaget/Neo-piagetian conceptualisations ◦The information processing perspective ◦Vygotsky's sociocultural approach How language develops, Personality development How and why early emotions develop How and why self-regulation emerges What temperament is, how it is measured, how early temperament influences later development What attachment is, how it is measured, how early attachment influences later development The emergence of self-knowledge Red flags of developmental disorders

What is Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory? Who is his theory similar too, why is this?' How is this knowledge constructed? (4)

Like Piaget, constructivist, but emphasisedsocial mediation of cognitive construction ◦Child as "little apprentice" (cf. Piaget's "little scientist") Knowledge constructed via: ◦Collective dialogues ◦Collaborative learning ◦Guided participation, scaffolding ◦Imitation

- Who created the Nativist approach? - What does this approach entail (UMF) (3) - What is the evidence behind this? UUSS (4) - What is the sensitive period said to be developed in?

Nativist Approach Chomsky (1957) Language Acquisition Device (LAD) ◦universal grammar hard-wired ◦maturational unfolding ◦fine-tuned by experience Evidence ◦Universal aspects of early language ◦Uniquely human ◦Specialised area left hemisphere ◦Sensitive period 6 - 12 years the view that language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity people are pre-programmed with the innate ability to develop language

- What are the outcomes of developing self-awareness for infants? ECD - Does this matter improve anything or teach the infants anything? CLS = E

Outcomes of developing self-awareness ◦emergence self-conscious emotions ◦improvements in effortful control, compliance, & delay of gratification ◦Combined with advancing cognitive, language, and social skills supports developing empathy.

What does self regulation rely on? What is effortful control and what does it rely on (BD)? What are its executive functions based on? IFS What are the aspects of this system? IPS What is effortful control important for?

Relies on Effortful Control ◦Capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan & execute a more adaptive response ◦Utilises executive functions: inhibitory control, focusing & shifting attention Aspects of information processing system Rely on underlying brain development ◦Important aspect of temperament

What are the temperament types?

Three types: Easy 40%- adjust easily to new situations, quickly establish routines, are generally cheerful, and easy to calm. Slow-to-warm up 15 %- inactive, initially unwilling to approach, adapt or be distracted but adjusts with time Difficult 10%- irregular, reactive, unhappy, hard to distract, slow to adapt Average/mixed: 35%

- Describe Ainsworths Attachment types for infants? - when around - when they leave - what the child may experience - when they return - their relationship - How common were each type found to be in her study - What is type a, type b, type c, type d?

Type A: Avoidant (insecure) (15%) ◦When around: minimal interest in caregiver ◦When leave: minimal distress at separation ◦Experiences when gone: minimal stranger anxiety ◦When return: does not seek out caregiver on reunion Type B Secure (approx 60%, fewer lower SES) ◦When around: seeks caregiver if distressed ◦Experiences when gone: separation anxiety ◦When return: joy upon reunion ◦Relationship: caregiver provides secure base for exploration Type C Anxious-Ambivalent or Insecure-Resistant (about 10%) ◦When around: minimal exploration ◦Relationship: preoccupied with caregiver ◦When returns: resists separation but resistant upon reunion Type D: Disorganised/Disoriented (about 15%) ◦"fright without solution" (Main & Hesse, 1990) ◦relationship: associated with maltreatment, residential care, maternal mental illness ◦Bizarre behaviours- contradictory, incomplete, stereotypies, freezing/stilling, disoriented or apprehensive in presence of parent

What were the criticisms of Piaget's theory?

Underestimated infant abilities ◦But correct general trend ◦Development not so stage like Correct that sensorimotor skill assists some aspects of cognitive development ◦E.g., crawling assists depth perception and retrieving hidden objects But evidence of some conceptual understanding before motor skills

What is the information processing theory?

a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output

What does Chomsky believe in his theory of language development?

believes all languages share some basic elements, or universal grammar (all have nouns, verbs, adjectives as building blocks)

- What sounds do infants make a based on Chromsky's Language Development? - What is the order?

cooing, babbling, one-word speech, telegraphic speech, whole sentences babbling stage, one-word stage, two-word stage

Explain Ainsworth Strange Situation When do all infants develop an attachment types?

measures the quality of the attachment relationship. This method involves observing a child's reactions when his/her caregiver leaves the room and when the caregiver returns. (separation anxiety = becoming distressed when parent leaves the room) -Secure Attachment = parent is a secure base to explore from, sad when they leave and happy when they come back -Insecure Attachment Anxious-Ambivalent = often refuse to leave their parent, are very upset when they leave and often angry when they come back Aviodant = seek little contact with their parent, don't care when they leave and avoid them when they come back Disorganized-Disoriented = go back and forth between approaching and avoiding parent, and are often confused whether to seek or avoid them (this often appears in abused children) All children have developed an attachment relationship by 12 months ◦Quality differs Measured using the Strange Situation Test ◦Critical episode is the reaction to the reunion with caregiver ◦But also look for use of mother as secure base, separation anxiety, stranger anxiety

- What are Early Vocalizations in infants? and what age do each of them occur? - Do infants follow a predictable pattern in their early use of vocalisations?

newborn reflex cries 2 months cooing (vowel sounds) 6 months babbling /p/, /b/, /m/, /n/ + soft or long /a/ What "words" would that produce? - infants follow a fairly predictable pattern in their early use of vocalizations. e.g. crying, cooing, babbling

What are an infants First words and Two-word utterances? what is this associated with?

over-extension under-extension 18 - 24 mths telegraphic speech correct word order associated with improved compliance

What characterisitcs match each Attachment type in infants?

secure: responsive, positive emotions, tender handling and sensitivity and synchrony avoidant: over-stimulating and intrusive resistant: minimal interaction and inconsistent care disorganised: dysfunctional caregiving

What is infant-directed speech (IDS) (quilt)?

the simplified, exaggerated, high-pitched tones that adults and children use to speak to infants that function to help teach language a form of communication made up of short sentences with high-pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, clear gestures to support verbal meaning, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts