discussion q ch8-14

18. What event paved the way for school desegregation in the U.S.? How well has school desegregation worked?

- 1954 Brown v Board of Education - Supreme Court ruled that o segregated public education violated minority group children's right to equal protection of the law→ Public schools be desegregated - Social Scientists' friend of the court brief used to support decision→said desegregation would discredit stereotype and there would be social harmony and education level would increase - Research 20 years later show desegregation had inconsistent effects o Students often re-segregate themselves (e.g., via seating choices at lunch or are re-segregated by school officials (e.g., honors programs via tracking) o Blacks feel inferior and show aggression towards whites, so whites discriminate blacks o However, more encouraging results when long-term effects are assessed - 1954 book Nature of Prejudice: contact hypothesis: increase contact to reduce prejudice, only works under certain conditions, otherwise it can backfire o interdependence, equal status

19. What are some common attitudes about gays and lesbians?

- Although public opinion is becoming more accepting, the majority still hold negative opinions about gays and lesbians - People with a right-wing authoritarian (RWA) or social dominance orientation (SDO) and with fundamentalist religious beliefs tend to hold the most negative opinions - People who know someone who is lesbian or gay are more tolerant - Consistent finding that heterosexual men are more intolerant of homosexuality than are heterosexual women, particularly with regard to gay men

3. What is gender polarization?

- Assume that masculine and feminine traits are polar opposites - Also assume o that people who are masculine (or feminine) on one trait are masculine (or feminine) on other traits

8. What is stereotype lift? Have you ever experienced or observed it?

- Awareness of the diagnostic purpose of a test can provide a performance boost for members of nonstereotyped groups - Downward comparisons can alleviate doubt or anxiety associated with possible failure • Eg. Whites have more confidence in diagnostic tests and do better

15. Why do some people dislike Hilary Clinton with such passion?

- Because she does not follow traditional women stereotype roles, she is a successful woman in a real traditionally seen as for men i.e. politics. - She is clearly successful so she is seen as competent but isn't liked. →she violates role congruent theory

8. What has been generally found with regard to the onset of black children's racial attitudes?

- Begin to develop racial attitudes at about 3 or 4 years of age - Mixed findings for 5 to 7 year-olds o evidence of pro-Black, pro-White, or no bias - Between ages of 7 and 10, Black children tend to o express pro-Black or neutral attitudes about Blacks o and become neutral about Whites

1. What is discrimination? How strongly are measures of it correlated to prejudice? What factors influence the relationship?

- Behaving differently toward people based solely or primarily on their membership in a social group - Verbal -- e.g., spoken to in demeaning terms, being joked about, hurtful remarks, intimidating comments, direct threats - Behavioral - e.g., being ignored, avoided, assaulted - Average correlation from 23 studies is only .32- moderate o No big correlation btwn attitude and behavior - Factors that influence the prejudice-discrimination relationship o Personal stereotypes • prejudiced people are most likely to discriminate against an outgroup member who fits their personal stereotype of the outgroup o Perceived social support- motivation vs. action • Greater prejudice-discrimination correspondence when there is perceived support for the prejudice -- e.g., Prejudiced White research participants sat further away from a Black confederate when they were led to believe that most others shared their prejudice than when they thought there was little support for the prejudice (Sechrist & Stangor, 2001) - Attitude-behavior correspondence: different measures of attitudes and behavior affect correlation, controllable prejudice must match controllable behavior and same for uncontrollable o White college students completed explicit and implicit measures of prejudice. They then discussed race-neutral topics with a Black confederate. The interactions were videotaped and raters coded the White students' behaviors for friendliness of their nonverbal (automatic) behavior and for the friendliness of what they said (controllable behavior). o High correlation between explicit prejudice and verbal behavior and high for nonverbal behavior with implicit prejudice

13. What is scapegoating? Can you think of examples of it?

- Blaming an innocent outgroup for the misfortunes of one's ingroup - Middle and upper class blame affirmative action and social programs for the poor for high taxes - Frustration-aggression-displacement theory→ not well supported by research • part of the frustration-aggression hypothesis that suggests that when it is not feasible to aggress toward the source of one's frustration, aggression will be displaced to a more readily available target - Ideological theory → supported by research • When there is no clear cause for group relative deprivation, people will search for one • If an ideology exists that provides a scapegoat, people take up the ideology (immigrants, poor) • A group is likely to be scapegoated to the extent that it has little power, is visible, is already disliked, and is seen as a threat

2. Describe blatant, subtle, and covert forms of discrimination.

- Blatant: Intentional, visible, and easily documented o e.g., beatings, derogatory name calling - Subtle: Less visible, less obvious, and harder to document than blatant discrimination; often unintentional o e.g., being ignored, patronizing speech, "vanishing"-uses linguistic devices (passive voice) to make outgroups disappear - Covert: Hidden, intentional, and, often, malicious o e.g., tokenism- hire to show we don't discriminate, containment- restrict to limited job categories, sabotage-setting them up to fail

4. Research supporting social identity theory has included tests of the categorization-competition hypothesis. What is this hypothesis?

- Categorization-competition hypothesis o Categorizing people into ingroups and outgroups is sufficient to generate intergroup competition - "us v. them" - leads to: • Outgroup homogeneity effect - perceiving outgroup members as more similar to one another than they actually are ("They are all alike.") (see next slide) • Ingroup favoritism effect - Self-esteem hypothesis o Because self esteem is derived, in part, from social identities, people are motivated to achieve and maintain positive social identities o Research support - e.g., positive correlation between self-esteem and intergroup bias and threats to self-esteem motivate intergroup bias

4. How has explicit awareness of social categories been assessed? What have the results shown?

- Children presented with pictures or dolls and asked to classify them into social categories or sort which ones "belong together" - Explicit awareness develops by approximately: 3 years of age for gender categories, 4 of 5 years of age for the categories of White and Black, Between 5 and 9 of age for other racial categories, such a Native American, Chinese, and Latino - Doll technique: black and white, which is the good doll, etc.

10. Three models of how contact reduces prejudice have been offered. Describe the common group identity model.

- Common group identity o Focuses on inducing ingroup and outgroup members to recategorize themselves into a single group→find things in common with outgroups to include them in your ingroup o Study: • start with 3 people group and answer questions, best group gets prize, others don't→ingroup favoritism • Join to groups together to make new groups of 6, second condition people were competing as individuals • Recategorization of two groups of individuals led to a reduction in intergroup bias, but did so in different ways depending on the nature of the recategorization. Recategorization to one larger group led to more attraction for former out-group members, whereas recategorization to individual identities led to less attraction for former in-group members

29. What are the most common stereotypes about people with mental illness? Under what assumption are people more likely to avoid people with mental disabilities, withhold help for them, and endorse coercive treatment?

- Common stereotypes about people with mental illness o Unpredictable and dangerous: very rare in reality - Attitudes more negative than toward people with physical disabilities - When mental illness thought to be controllable more likely to avoid, withhold help, and endorse coercive treatment - Discrimination based on mental illness is common - The stigma associated with mental illness reduces the chance that those who need it will seek help

8. Describe racial discrimination in promotions.

- Compared to White workers, Black workers are seen as having less potential for promotion, less likely to be promoted, wait longer for promotion, paid less in jobs with equivalent levels of authority - "sticky floor" effect - when Blacks get management positions they are assigned to manage other Blacks, who tend to be in low level jobs - These results may be explained, in part, by the shifting standards model - decision makers may assume that evaluations of women or minorities were made with lower standards

Subtypes of older adults

- Consistent evidence of a negative bias against older adults - However, among the many subtypes of older adults some are negative (e.g., curmudgeon) and some positive (perfect grandparent) - Research shows that when detailed information is available, older adults are evaluated more on the basis of subtypes than the more general age-based stereotype

11. Describe hate crimes. Who most often commits them?

- Criminal offenses (mostly violent crimes) about which there is evidence that the victims were chosen because of their race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, disability, or sexual orientation - Motivation is only to attack a member of a particular group - Offenders most often young males

23. Why is it difficult for gays and lesbians to disclose their lifestyles?

- Decision to disclose a gay or lesbian sexual orientation is difficult o If disclose, face ostracism and discrimination o If do not disclose • Inhibits casual conversation that is important for building relationships with co-workers • Seen as distrustful when the orientation is later revealed or found out

9. What is the stereotype fit hypothesis and how might it explain why women hold fewer managerial and executive positions than men?

- Designed to explain why women hold fewer managerial or executive positions than do men - Fill out same questionnaire for an adult male, adult female, successful manager of unspecified sex o Characteristics associated with effective managers are very similar to cultural stereotypes of men and very different than the cultural stereotypes of women o Thus, men are seen as better suited for jobs like business manager and women are seen as better suited for jobs like secretary or nurse - There is evidence of a similar disadvantage for Blacks and Hispanics

1. What does it mean to say a group is stigmatized? What factors distinguish between harmful and benign stigmas?

- Differ from privileged or dominant groups in appearance or behavior (race, sexual orientation) and have a characteristic that is devalued by the dominant group Factors: Benign vs. harmful - Course: Stable stigmas (race) are more harmful than those that can change or be outgrown (acne, voice, height, weight) - Concealability: Stigmas that cannot be hidden are in some ways more harmful than those that can. However, concealing a stigma has costs - guilt, shame, not being oneself (stay in the closet) - Aesthetic qualities: Less physically attractive people are more likely to be stigmatized - Origin - how the stigma came to be: When people believe a stigma is uncontrollable (gay) , they feel more sympathy for, and less anger with, the stigmatized person than when they feel the stigma is controllable (weight, gay) - Peril: Groups assumed to be more dangerous (Muslims) are more stigmatized than are groups that are considered less dangerous (women)

22. Is discrimination against gays and lesbians legal in the U.S.? Can you give an example?

- Discrimination based on sexual orientation is legal in much of the U.S. o E.g.- "don't ask don't tell" policy in military in past - High percentages of gays and lesbians report experiencing discrimination in the workplace

10. How might discrimination in the workplace be explained in term of intergroup respect?

- Discrimination in the workplace may be influenced more by the amount of respect that decision makers have for a group than by stereotypes held about the group - Respect o feelings of esteem for another entailing both valuing the person's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors and being willing to be influenced by that person o Respect for various groups based on the amount of power the groups have in society o Research support from two correlational studies and an experiment- says respect influences more than stereotype fit, but how can the strength be measured?

18. Why do people leave hate groups?

- Disenchantment with the group -- because of o disapproval from family and friends, adverse effects on work and career, failure of group to provide satisfactory answers about the purpose and meaning of life, distaste for violence - Relationships with outside groups o Establishing or renewing rewarding relationships with people who are not members of the group

17. How do cognitive development theories explain the development of prejudice in children?

- Emphasize the interplay between children's mental development and their environments→cognitive development occurs in stages thru years, change the way in which information is processed - Hold that prejudice is qualitatively different across stages of development as a result of reorganization of underlying cognitive structures *piaget stages: Problems with Piaget's theory: - Inconsistent with findings and conceptually vague o e.g., the theory seems to predict that prejudice would emerge beginning at about age 7, but evidence suggests it emerges earlier *Aboud's theory developed after the results were found *Developmental Intergroup Theory - Development of prejudice is a byproduct of the normal process of cognitive development→Learn what society values o Stage 1: Develop rules for categorizing people • Based on obvious perceptual differences, group size, and categories used by adults and society o Stage 2: Categorization • Attain the concept of category constancy • Categories become more complex o Stage 3: Develop stereotypes and prejudice • From implicit and explicit teaching • ingroup favoritism

24. What is ageism? What are common age-based stereotypes?

- Evaluative judgments about individuals made solely on the basis of their advanced age - Age-based stereotypes have been classified as falling into several factors: o Intolerance → easily upset, grouchy, critical o Health/physical → ill, slow, hard of hearing o Personality → set in ways, meddlesome, but likeable, interesting, experienced o Dejected → poor, hopeless, unhappy, lonely o Activity/sociability → inactive, unproductive, pessimistic, but active outside home, has friends and hobbies - Evidence that viewed as warm but not competent

7. Describe gender discrimination in promotions.

- Even though women and men receive, on average, equal job performance ratings, women are viewed as having less potential for promotion, wait longer for promotions, receive fewer promotions, especially high level promotions o glass ceiling - the point in a women's career when she can no longer rise any higher while their male colleagues rise to the top - Ironically, the male advantage in promotion is greater in female-dominated occupations such as teaching (principals) and nursing - glass escalator - These results may be explained, in part, by the shifting standards model - decision makers may assume that evaluations of women or minorities were made with lower standards

4. How do people react to having acted in a prejudiced manner? What conditions bring about the most discomfort? What effect does acting in a prejudiced manner have on future motivation?

- Experience Discomfort: o people low in prejudice tend to feel guilty o people high in prejudice tend to feel angry at others - Greatest guilt is felt when o people are high in internal motivation to control prejudice o they become aware of their prejudiced responses by themselves or by being told by ingroup members - The guilt tends to motivate people, especially those who have nonprejudiced self-images, to act in a nonprejudiced manner in the future

3. What is regressive prejudice? Why does it occur? Under what conditions is it most likely to occur?

- Expression of prejudice by people who are otherwise low in prejudice, people who pride themselves on being egalitarian - Why does this occur? o controlling prejudiced responses requires attention and mental resources because of socialization o when those resources are depleted, people may regress - Factors that can produce regressive prejudice o Can show up in behaviors that are hard to consciously control - e.g., nonverbal behavior o Cognitive demands - e.g., time pressure o Disinhibitors - e.g., anonymity, anger, alcohol o Moral credentials - having acted in a nonprejudiced manner in the past may ironically allow people to feel they have license to act in a prejudiced manner in the future

2. Describe the self-regulation model.

- For people who view themselves as unprejudiced o acting in a prejudiced manner sensitizes them to cues that warn when they might act in a prejudiced manner again o forewarned by these cues, these people suppress their prejudiced responses and replace them with nonprejudiced ones - A key factor in the development of cues for controlling prejudice is awareness of a contradiction between self-image and behavior

5. How have the forced-choice measures been used to measure the development of racial prejudice? What is a potential shortcoming of these measures?

- Forced choice: participant must choose one of two options - Preschool Racial Attitude Measure (PRAM II) o a child hears a story about a person described with positive or negative adjectives o The child must identify the person in the story from the pictures of two people that are identical, except one is white and the other is black - Problem - preference for one category does not necessarily mean rejection of the other category (might be just choosing ingroup)

17. Once recruited, how are people socialized into hate groups? What are the outcomes of the socialization process?

- Formal and informal education, mostly the latter (e.g., informal discussions) - Participation in rituals o Singing racist songs, parades, dressing in ritual clothing - Isolation from opposing viewpoints o Encouraged to sever ties with nonracist family members and friends - Outcomes of socialization o Relationships with nonmembers erode, relationships with members grow o Being White becomes more central to a member's social identity o Violence seems more acceptable o Interpret negative events in racial terms o Everyday racism gives way to extraordinary racism

5. What is the outgroup homogeneity effect? Can you think of examples of it?

- Found that male and female college students held more stereotypic views of each other's gender, whether favorable or unfavorable, than they did for their own - E.g., males were more likely to agree with statements suggesting that females freely express positive feelings, would rather drink wine than beer, and are never ready to go places on time. - E.g., females were more likely to agree with statements suggesting that males are highly assertive, do not ask for help when they need it, and get very upset when they lose.

17. What are the cultural stereotypes of gays and lesbians? What is the sexual orientation hypothesis?

- Gay men → feminine in qualities, voice, walk, mannerisms, clothing - Lesbians → masculine in characteristics, appearance, clothing - Sexual orientation hypothesis o People are more likely to believe feminine men are gay than to believe that masculine women are lesbian - Assumption that both lesbians and gay men, but especially gay men, are likely to be deviant in a variety of ways - e.g., cross-dressing, child molestation, hypersexual

12. What is the difference between personal and group relative deprivation? Which one is related to prejudice?

- Group relative deprivation has been found to be related to prejudice, whereas personal relative deprivation has not o Personal relative deprivation - feeling deprived as an individual o Group relative deprivation - feeling one's group is deprived - Classic study - Vanneman & Pettigrew (1972) o found that White people who felt their group was relatively deprived (with regard to economic gains) compared to Black people were more prejudiced against Black people than those who did not feel their group was deprived o however, feelings of personal deprivation were not related to prejudice

14. What are hate groups? How have they been researched? What are some myths about them?

- Groups whose central principles include hostility toward minority groups and typically promote White supremacy i.e. KKK - Most research in the form of ethnographic studies - i.e., participation in events, observation, and interviews - Rarely are violent- despite myth - Despite a myth to the contrary, most hate group members are middle-class and reasonably well-educated

13. Hate crime have greater effect on victims than do ordinary crimes. What are these greater effects?

- Hate crime victims suffer more severe psychological consequences for longer periods of time than do victims of similar crimes not motivated by bias o E.g., feel less control over their lives - Victims chosen at random, thus they feel that nothing can be done to avoid becoming a victim again - Secondary victimization: psychological effects not only for the victim but also for members of the victim's group - fear of becoming victims themselves

21. What are common attitudes about bisexuals?

- Heterosexuals, gays, and lesbians all hold relatively negative attitudes toward bisexuality - Stereotype that bisexuals are promiscuous

10. What is face-ism and what does it seem to tell us about stereotypes of women?

- In the media (e.g., magazines) the faces of men are depicted more prominently than those of women; whereas, the bodies of women are depicted more prominently than those of men - In an experiment (that controlled for gender of depicted faces) research participants rated people whose faces where prominently depicted as more intelligent and ambitious than people whose faces were not prominently depicted

27. What are some types of age-based discrimination?

- In the workplace o Job seeking → Older adults are less likely to be interviewed for jobs, are given shorter interviews o In the job → older workers are believed to be more unable to meet the physical demands of work, to have higher rates of absenteeism, and to be less productive than is really the case - Communication o Spoken to with patronizing speech - speaking slowly, with oversimplification and a demeaning tone, and even baby talk - Health care o Health care providers less likely to pursue aggressive treatment with older adults than with younger adults o Physicians provide better information and support for younger patients than older patients o Psychiatrists often view emotional problems as a normal part of aging

11. With regard to men and women in the workplace, what is the sticky floor? What is the glass ceiling? What is the glass escalator?

- Increasing numbers of women in higher education and the workplace - Many jobs remain segregated o e.g., women as elementary school teachers and men as engineers - Sticky floor - traditionally female jobs offer little room for advancement - Glass ceiling - invisible barrier that prevents women (and minorities) from reaching the highest level of an organization - Glass escalator - men who work in female dominated professions (nursing, middle school teacher) enjoy a fast track to management positions

12. What does behavioral evidence show with regard to the origins of gender-based prejudice in young children?

- Infants younger that 2 years-old have visual preference for gender-stereotyped toys o Dolls for girls and vehicles for boys→socialized, not biological - In most Western cultures same-sex preferences emerge at about 3 or 4 years of age o In cultures' where mixed-sex groups are more common, same-sex preferences emerge later - Homosociality - tendency to interact only with members of one's own sex - Gender-based prejudice emerges at age 3 and is strong by age 4 o Boys and girls hold equally negative attitudes about each other

22. Describe anti-bias education. Is it effective in reducing prejudice?

- Instruct students about the nature of bias, its history, and its current forms and effects - Multiple methods o Lectures, media presentations, role-playing (e.g., blue/brown eyes exercise), class discussions - Review of studies indicates that it is generally effective

13. What does behavioral evidence show with regard to the origins of gender-based prejudice in older children?

- Interesting shift in gender attitudes by both males and females: o 4 year-olds dislike (girl) tomboys the most o 8 year-olds dislike (boys) sissies the most→because males are privileged group and giving up - Other-sex prejudice increases until about 8 years of age, and then declines gradually - 8 to 10 year olds of both sexes value traditional male characteristics - During pre-adolescence both sexes like traditional girls the most

10. What has the study of intergroup behavior shown with regard to preferences and avoidance of others?

- Intergroup behavior somewhat inconsistent with attitudes about race - Observation of Black, White, and Asian preschoolers during free play shows: o girls have a same-race preference o boys have a pro-white preference - Best-friend sociometric measures indicate that same-race bias peaks in 6th to 8th grades - In high school o students report avoidance of students of other races o The majority of students report having positive cross-race interactions at school, but less than half report having positive interactions outside of school

3. What is implicit awareness of social categories? How has it been assessed with infants? What have the results of the assessments shown?

- It is the preverbal awareness of social categories that children have. Using habituation paradigm: show 2 pictures side by side, children like novel stimulus more (stare longer) because they have become habituated to old stimulus. - The research found: infants spend more time looking at a new photograph when it is of a different gender or age than when it is of the same gender or age as an old (habituated) photo, thus they can differentiate on the basis of gender and age, white infants prefer white faces over those of other races, infants prefer physically attractive faces over unattractive faces (stereotype: what is beautiful is good)

15. How does social learning theory explain the development of prejudice in children?

- Learning results from direct teaching, modeling, and vicarious learning: socialization - Direct teaching of prejudice is not common but does occur in hate groups - Indirect learning from sources, such as parents, peers, media, and school programs - Not so much empirical results

6. What has been found with regard to discrimination in performance evaluations? What factors seem to bring this discrimination about?

- Little gender discrimination - Compared to White employees, Black employees o receive lower evaluations, are less likely rated as outstanding leaders - Factors that could adversely affect minority group member's job performance o Lost opportunities effect - less accepted and given less support (mentoring) and encouragement o Mistreatment (e.g., being ignored, being joked about) may lower morale

1. What is realistic conflict theory? How did Sherif's summer camp studies support it? Sherif's studies were done in the 1940s and 1950s with 5 grade and 6 grade boys, do you think the basic findings of those studies could be replicated today? Do you think that realistic conflicts underlie prejudice?

- Members of an ingroup dislike members of an outgroup when the two groups compete for resources - Sherif's research: Microcosm - 5th grade boys at summer camp (6 weeks) - Three phases- 2 weeks each o Mere segregation (separate buses, cabins, dining rooms, activities, choose team name and wear t-shirt with name)- led to "us" v. "them" mentality, name calling, minor skirmishes(fights) o Competition (baseball, tug of war, etc, only winners get prize pocket knife [limited resources]) - led to verbal and physical conflict, antipathy towards outgroup, raid cabin, throw apple at them, a lot of ingroup bonding o Attempts to reduce conflict: unsuccessful (eat together, church together and priest talk about brotherhood) vs. successful (create superordinate goals- both want to reach goal but need both groups to work together i.e. food truck broke down, need to move it; all need to pay some money to get the movie) the ill feelings went away - Tested and replicated many times achieving same results - Would not be able to replicate today because unethical- let them go too far: threw rocks and apples, cut mosquito screen

2. What is stigma by association? Can you think of an example?

- Members of dominant groups who associate with members of stigmatized groups may themselves become stigmatized by the dominant group - Research support o E.g., experiment showing that a heterosexual person who has a gay friend becomes stigmatized by the association

4. What is attributional ambiguity? What consequence can it have? Have you ever experienced it?

- Members of stigmatized groups often find it difficult to interpret feedback from dominant groups members, because it is hard to know whether such feedback is based on: o their actual ability or achievement o or bias on the part of the dominant group members, which could be negative or positive (from feelings of sympathy or desire on the part of the dominant group member to appear unbiased) - Consequence o Members of stigmatized groups sometimes discount feedback- attributed to prejudice (sometimes even positive feedback) from dominant group members

20. What are common attitudes about gays and lesbians in the realm of civil rights?

- Men and women generally endorse broad (abstract) civil rights for gays and lesbians (e.g., free speech) - Men are less accepting of other civil rights (e.g., regarding housing, employment, and service in the military) - Both men and women show more support for equal employment rights in the abstract than for laws to ensure those rights - A substantial proportion of U.S. citizens oppose gay marriage, gay domestic partnerships, and gay adoptions - People who believe that homosexuality is a lifestyle choice, political conservatives, religious fundamentalists, and those with little contact with gays tend to be most opposed to gay rights - Similar to modern-symbolic racism attitudes

2. What are the two constellations of traits associated with women and men? What traits comprise these constellations?

- Men → competence cluster o agentic/instrumental traits -- independent, strong, self-confident - Women → warmth-expressiveness cluster o communal/expressive traits -- emotional, helpful, kind Roles - Men → head of household, bread winner, watch sports - Women → fashion conscious, home caretakers Cognitive abilities - Men → abstract thinking, problem solving - Women → art, verbal skills Physical characteristics - Men → muscular, rugged, mature looking facial features - Women → dainty, pretty, babyish looking facial features

9. What has been generally found with regard to the onset of racial attitudes in groups other than Whites and Blacks?

- Mexican American and Asian children show a pattern similar to that of Black children o Between 5 and 7 mixed findings - pro-White, pro-ingroup, or neutral o Between 7 and 10 pro-white bias disappears and express either pro-ingroup or neutral attitudes about their ingroup

6. Are gender-associated traits accurate? What is a danger of assuming accuracy?

- Mirror the characteristics that men and women use to describe themselves - However, there is considerable variability of traits within each sex - Problem of assuming accuracy - descriptive stereotypes can become prescriptive

4. According to the self-regulation model, how can control of prejudice become automatic?

- Monteith et al. suggest that self-regulation of prejudice becomes automatic over time - Once people have developed the cues and have practiced them sufficiently, they no longer have to stop and think about putting replacement responses into action - Research support -- Kawakami et al. (2000) o Participants negated stereotypes by responding "no" each time a stereotypic trait was presented on a computer screen along with a picture of member of the stereotyped group o Found this task became easier with practice

6. What are the conditions under which intergroup contact is most likely to reduce prejudice?

- More sophisticated form → conditions: o Equal status o Interdependence - work cooperatively to achieve common goals o Acquaintance potential o Institutional support

16. How are people recruited into hate groups?

- Most people who join hate groups do not seek them out, instead are recruited - The recruiter is usually someone the recruit knows and respects - Recruitment is a gradual process o Recruiter guides conversation to political issues and invites recruit to a group function to meet other people with similar views; events are innocuous (e.g., a family picnic)

14. What has been found about male-female intergroup behavior?

- Observational studies reveal that same-sex preferences begin early (2½ years) and are stable by 4 years and strong by 6 - Sociometric ratings indicate that other-sex discrimination increases from Kindergarten to 3rd grade and remains stable until 6th grade - Mixed-gender friendships are infrequent from 3rd to 12th grade, but increase slightly beginning in junior high o For boys, same-sex preferences peak at grades 3th and 6th o For girls, same-sex preferences peak at grade 7th

14. What is role congruity theory and what implication does it have for successful women?

- Observations of men and women in their social roles lead to conclusions about the characteristics the sexes have (and should have) o descriptive stereotypes become prescriptive o E.g., observation that women are not often seen in leadership roles leads people to believe that women are not well suited for such roles - When women rise to positions above those traditionally observed, they are disliked - Male and female college students were to rate a high level employee (i.e., an assistant vice president) on competence and liking. o Clearly successful women and men are seen equally competent o Ambiguous successful women are ranked as less competent than men o Clearly successful women are less liked than men o Ambiguous successful women are equally liked as men

7. What is optimal distinctiveness?

- Optimal distinctiveness o People are most likely to identify with groups that satisfy needs for both personal and group identity (be associated with successful people from your group but also have your unique features)

9. What is relative deprivation theory?

- People become dissatisfied when they perceive they are receiving either less of some resource than are others or less than they had in the past→Might not actually be deprived - If people blame other groups for causing their deprivation, then they will dislike those groups and their members (occupy wall street: blame 2%) - Feelings of low distributive justice (perception of how fairly outcomes are distributed) - Dissatisfaction can be reduced if people believe there is procedural justice (a fair process for distributing rewards) o e.g., dissatisfaction women may feel over relatively low salaries (low distributive justice) may be mitigated if they believe that differences between male and female salaries are appropriate- men need to provide for their families (high procedural justice)

5. What is the personal/group discrimination discrepancy? Why does it occur? Have you ever experienced or observed it?

- People perceive there is greater discrimination against their group as a whole than there is against themselves individually - E.g., Cosby (1984) found that women who were making $5,000 to $8,000 dollars less than their male co-workers for equivalent jobs were o just as satisfied with their jobs as the men o yet were aware of, and angry about, sex discrimination in pay in the U.S. - Support for this phenomenon has been found with other disadvantaged groups - Individual differences - some individuals are more likely to recognize that they are being discriminated against than are others - e.g., those who identify most with their group - Cognitive explanations o Group examples more readily come to mind, and are easier to process, than is individual information (including information about the self) • PGDD occurs for positive events as well as negative events o Different standards of comparison - compare own experiences with members of one's own group but compare the experience of one's group with other groups • e.g., women may believe they are doing well compared to their female co-workers, but women as a group are not doing well compared to men • Evidence that PGDD can be reduced by providing a reference group o People tend to associate discrimination with acts that are rare and severe - Motivational explanations o People want to deny or minimize their own experience with discrimination • Realize there are social costs to claiming discrimination

7. What change is occurring in stereotypes about women?

- People today believe that women are more agentic than they had been in the past and will be even more agentic in the future

32. In what ways do overweight people experience prejudice and discrimination? Why is prejudice toward overweight people accepted?

- People who are overweight experience prejudice and discrimination in education, employment, and their social life - Less likely to get dates and more likely to have low self-esteem - Stigma not concealable and perceived to be controllable→their own fault - Overweight people are seen as morally flawed and deserving of rejection - Stereotypes include lazy, sloppy, unattractive, unhappy, sad, and powerless - Overweight women are judged more harshly than overweight men - Cultural differences

26. What is the double standard of aging?

- Perception that aging occurs at an earlier age and has more serious consequences for women than for men - Research shows o Women are believed to reach middle and old age at a younger age than men o Perceived physical attractiveness declines with age, but more for women than for men - Self-reports women are more likely than men to color their hair, have plastic surgery, and use wrinkle cream and to lie about their age - However, evidence that the double standard applies to women's physical appearance, but not their competence; whereas, the reverse applies for men

8. Can social identity ever lead to greater intergroup tolerance?

- Perhaps when a person has a complex social identity (i.e., identifies with several groups - e.g., a black, female lawyer)

8. Three models of how contact reduces prejudice have been offered. Describe the personalization (decategorization) model. What is a shortcoming of this mode of change?

- Personalization (decategorization) o Proposes that intergroup contact reduces prejudice by leading people to see members of the outgroup as individuals rather than as members of social categories o Shortcoming - increased liking for some outgroup members does not always generalize to liking for the outgroup in general

30. What is lookism? What do people consider attractive?

- Physically attractive people are privileged (Lookism) and physically unattractive people can experience prejudice and discrimination - Much agreement about who is attractive o Smooth-skinned, youthful o Symmetrical, "average" faces o Muscular bodies - "What is beautiful is good" stereotype - holds most especially with regard to social competence

7. How can stereotype threat be reduced?

- Presenting a test as nondisagnositc - Encouragement o let test takers know that the skill being tested can be improved o have test takers participate in well-designed programs for high achievers - Exposure to successful role models

21. Describe multicultural education. Is it effective in reducing prejudice?

- Programs designed to teach students about ethnic, racial, religious, and other groups - Components o History and culture - contributions to society o Education about how cultural assumptions influence the interpretation of events o Development of positive attitudes toward outgroups o Teaching strategies to accommodate different learning styles o Create culture to promote equality - Based on notion that ignorance is the major source of prejudice - Research shows mixed effects

10. What is psychological disengagement? Have you ever experienced or observed it?

- Psychological disengagement o Defensive detachment of self-esteem from outcomes in a particular domain o De-emphasizing the importance of success in a particular domain o Coping mechanism to deal with negative stereotypes - Disidentification -- Define or redefine one's self-concept so that a particular domain is not an area of self-identification - e.g., Blacks in academic domains: Discount feedback as inaccurate or invalid, particularly because it may be based on prejudice→disidentify with intellect - Whites and Blacks took either an easy version of a test and experienced success or a difficult version of the test and experienced failure. White's performance-related self-esteem was lower when they took the difficult test and failed than when they took the easy test and succeeded. In contrast, Black's performance-related self-esteem was unaffected by success or failure. →academic performance does not affect self esteem for blacks

15. Why do people join hate groups?

- Racial attitudes o Most new recruits do not hold extreme racial attitudes, but do exhibit everyday racism (belief that only European Christian values are correct). After recruited converted to extraordinary racism - Searching for solutions o Hate groups can seem to fulfill needs, such as a purpose in life, a feeling of making a difference, social support, and pride - Youthful rebellion o Counter establishment political doctrine - The allure of violence o Provide a feeling of excitement, danger, and empowerment - Gender o Most members are male; the groups promote traditional gender roles

5. What research methods have been used to study discrimination in hiring? What has been found?

- Research methods o Employment audit - members of two groups are matched on appearance, education, and experience, and then are sent to apply for the same job→can look at subtle prejudice o matched mailed-in résumés→more control - Compared to White applicants, Blacks applicants o less likely to be offered interviews, offered lower salaries, steered toward lower level jobs, received lower ratings in interviews (so did Hispanics) - Currently, little gender discrimination in hiring

7. How effective is intergroup contact as a means of reducing prejudice?

- Review more than 200 studies - When the four necessary conditions are met, a moderate reduction in prejudice (equivalent to r = .27) - Larger effect with some groups than others o Sexual orientation r = .27 o Race and ethnicity r = .20 o Age r = .05→less group for change because there is high contact with people of different ages already - More effective in some settings than others o Work r = .33 o Schools r = .18

16. What factors can improve women's chances for success?

- Role models of successful women - Some leadership roles are perceived as less masculine than others o E.g., teaching evaluations for female English professors are less gender biased that those for female chemistry professors→limits possibilities of careers for women - Females show less gender bias in evaluating leaders than do men→more women are holding leadership positions so they could help get rid of the bias - Women who merge the agentic and communal styles are evaluated more favorably than are those who are more purely agentic

9. Three models of how contact reduces prejudice have been offered. Describe the salient categorization model.

- Salient categorization o Proposes that generalization occurs only if group members are seen as typical of their group

9. In what ways is being viewed as a "model minority" a double-edged sword for Asian Americans? "

- Seem to embody "American" values and characteristics - hard work and success - However can cause stress: o Sometimes not given individual credit for success o Also a negative stereotype (e.g., appearance, mannerisms, short, poor English speaking ability, unsociable) o Not helped or mentored, because not seen as needing it

6. A key component of social identity theory is self-categorization. What factors increase self-categorization?

- Self-categorization o Increased by distinctiveness - extent to which a person feels that he or she differs from other people i.e. odd one out you become aware if your category o Increased by feelings of uncertainty about one's attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions (more likely to focus and be influenced by the opinions of those in your group.)

28. In what ways are the positive self-reports about people with physical disabilities (PWDs) at odds with the experiences of PWDs?

- Self-reports indicate that college students generally have positive attitudes towards people with physical disabilities (PWDs) - However, other evidence suggests that the self-reports may be influenced by social desirability bias o Dating experience of PWDs o PWDs report being stared at, laughed at, and ignored o Employment discrimination o Spoken to with patronizing speech o Assumed to need help or special consideration - "over-helping" can undermine independence and self-confidence o Nondisabled feel anxiety when around PWDs

5. What is the simple form of the contact hypothesis?

- Simple form → Bringing people of different social groups in close contact with one another will help dispel stereotypes and reduce prejudice and discrimination.

6. What other measures have been used to study the development of prejudice?

- Social distance scale o Using a five point scale, ranging from "yes, definitely" to "no, definitely" answer questions about contact of varying degrees of intimacy (e.g., live next door to) with members of minority groups - Observation of intergroup interaction in natural settings (e.g., playground) - Self reports of interaction (subject to social desirability bias) - Sociometric ratings o Identify best friends or o given a roster of all classmates, rate each one on a scale of how much the participant would like to interact, play, or work with him or her

features of stereotype threat

- Stems from situational factors (mentioning test in diagnostic) that bring a stereotype to mind - can even affect those who do not believe in the stereotype →women taking math tests with only women do better than when mixed with men - A general process that can affect any group for which a negative stereotype exists - e.g., women (women are bad in math), Latinos, people of low SES - Operates by changing the way information is processed - taxes cognitive resources, such as working memory capacity my example: when surrounded by English speakers I don't know very well and they are aware I am Hispanic, I start speaking with a thicker accent and forget my English vocabulary even though I am fluent in English and have a better vocabulary than many English speakers

3. What are the main tenants of Social Identity Theory? What research paradigm has shown support for it?

- Tajfel and Turner (1986) -- ingroup favoritism (ingroup bias) is motivated by a need to maintain or enhance self-esteem o Self-esteem derived in part from social identity o social identity derived from perceived attributes and accomplishments of ingroups o Feel good about yourself because of your attributes and those of the groups you belong to (study about college football team, students want to be in group when they win but not when they lose) - Minimal group paradigm - e.g., overestimators and underestimatorsàsupports theory

31. In what ways do tall people benefit from their height?

- Taller people benefit from their height o Get more dates o More likely to be hired o Seen as more competent and powerful - Positive relationship between earnings and height

16. How do inner state theories explain the development of prejudice in children?

- Theories of individual differences: how these personalities develop which then lead to prejudice and discrimination - Personality o Authoritarianism might be acquired from strict and punitive parents; however, no clear research support o Social dominance orientation: cold, unaffectionate child rearing practices might cause children to see the world as a competitive jungle and desire dominance over others; research support - Social learning o Authoritarian attitudes may be learned from parents (and others) and from personal experience

Factors that influence social identity theory

- Threat to the group o Generate stronger identification with the group (after 9/11 US united) - Chronic social identities o Always with us, cant change it - e.g., race or gender o Especially important to minorities - Individual differences o E.g., people high in ethnocentrism most likely to identify with their ingroups, even assigned ingroups

12. Describe motivations to commit hate crimes? Which motivation is most common?

- Thrill seeking- most common o desire for excitement o more out of lack of respect than out of animosity o select easy and safe targets o see the crime as harmless fun - Territorial defense o see self as protecting own territory from invasion by outsiders - Retaliation o seek revenge for a real or rumored attack on a member of an ingroup o usually do not seek out the person who they believe committed the offense - Mission- rare o commitment to a bigoted ideology o committed by members of hate groups - Peer group dynamics o often carried out in groups o male bonding -- feel closer to friends, live up to friend's expectations, prove toughness o little animosity, but also little respect, for victims o diffuse responsibility for harm done o may go along unwillingly to gain (or retain) acceptance by the group - Norms o community acceptance of such behavior - inhibiting factors o lack of opportunity o fear of negative consequences o belief in nonviolence o knowing someone in the outgroup

3. What are tokens? What factors influence their lives? What are the consequences of being a token?

- Tokens - individuals in a statistical minority in a particular setting (diversity % in a business or school) - Kanter (1977) three factors that influence the lives of tokens o Visibility - attention tends to be drawn to novel or unique individuals- black person surrounded by white in an office, will stand out o Contrast - the mere presence of a token may lead to exaggeration of differences o Assimilation - the token's characteristics are distorted to fit an expected stereotype - Consequences (from Kanter's case study in a Fortune 500 corporation) o More readily noticed, for both achievements and mistakes o Seen as representative of their group o Feel alone, unwelcomed, and without support - Tokenism may be experienced when someone fills a nontraditional role

1. What is stereotype suppression and why is it likely to backfire?

- Try to push stereotypes out of mind and replace them with more acceptable thoughts - Problem - rebound effect o Unwanted thoughts that are consciously suppressed have a propensity to rebound with even greater degree of preoccupation soon after conscious suppression ends o e.g., Macrae et al. (1994) - rebound of suppressed thoughts about skinhead • Students instructed to suppress stereotypic preconceptions about a skinhead wrote about him in a less stereotypic fashion than did students not asked to suppress preconceptions. However, exhibiting a rebound effect, when asked to write about a second skinhead, students previously asked to suppress stereotypes wrote essays that were the most stereotypic o Why do stereotypes backfire? • Priming -- suppression process primes suppressed thoughts • Suppressing thoughts on a conscious level requires monitoring those thoughts on an unconscious level • Control depletion -- suppression requires cognitive effort that is hard to maintain in the long run • Use motivation -- Suppression of a stereotype creates a need to use it • evidence that giving people an opportunity to express a stereotype after a period of suppression prevents the rebound effect

2. In what ways has John Duckitt extended realistic conflict theory? For example, distinguish between stable and unstable oppression and describe how a dominate groups responds to being challenged.

- Two types of intergroup conflict o Between groups of equal power→kids in summer camp, very unusual conflict • View outgroup as threatening • Hostility toward members of the outgroup o One group dominates the other→most likely • View the outgroup as inferior • Derogate members of the outgroup to justify oppression - Subordinate group's responses to domination o Stable oppression - accepts that the dominant group is superior and is submissive (black slaves at first) o Unstable oppression - rejects that the dominant group is superior; sees them as oppressive; feels hostility toward them; motivation to challenge them (led to civil rights movement) - Dominate group's responses to being challenged o If the challenge is viewed as unjustified, then views the subordinate group as inferior and threatening and responds with hostility and derogation (beginning of civil rights movement) o If the challenge is viewed as justified, then views the subordinate group as powerful and is tolerant (or least appears to be tolerant) (end of civil rights movement)

20. Describe student teams and how the technique incorporates some to the conditions needed to make intergroup contact effective in reducing prejudice.

- Use competition between academic teams as a motivator of interracial interdependence within teams - Divide class into heterogeneous academic teams→switch teams every few weeks - Team members help each other prepare for competition o Fosters interdependence - Individuals from each team compete with individuals of similar abilities from other teams - Evaluations show positive effects o Increased interracial friendships o Enhanced academic performance, especially for minorities - Works well for sports teams

11. What is behavioral compensation? Have you ever experienced or observed it?

- When discrimination is anticipated, people change behavior in ways that disconfirm stereotypes - Need to develop skills that are above and beyond what is needed to succeed in a typical social interaction - E.g., Kaiser & Miller (2001) experiment showed that women forewarned that the essays they were about to write about their futures were going to be evaluated by prejudiced men included less information that is consistent with the female stereotype (e.g., importance of family) than did women who thought their essays would be read by men who were not prejudiced

6. What is stereotype threat? What brings it about? Have you ever experienced or observed it?

- When minorities are acutely aware that they may be judged with regard to a negative stereotype they become fearful of confirming the stereotype. - The fear can interfere with their performance on a task, even when no discriminatory action is taken - E.g., Blacks taking a test of intellectual ability→Stanford students, GMAT style • Supporting the notion of stereotype threat, Black students scored lower on a test when they were told that it was diagnostic of intellectual ability than when they were not told that it was diagnostic; whereas, the diagnostic/nondiagnostic manipulation had no significant effect on the scores of White students.

8. What is the "women are wonderful effect?"

- Women are wonderful effect o women are liked more than men on both self-report and implicit measures

1. Start with reactions to A Class Divided (DVD). Do you think the blue eyed/brown eyed exercise was a valuable experience for Jane Elliott's 3 grade children? What do you think they learned? What effects did being discriminated against have on the children? Do you think the exercise had long-term positive or negative effects? Do you think the exercise would have the same effect today? Do you think the exercise was ethical? Do you think the exercise was effective with prison workers? What did the prison workers seem to learn?

- Yes it was a valuable experience because the kids get the to feel the discrimination even if it is just for a day. They learned how color is simply biological, no choice, it does not come with characteristics of good/bad, smart/stupid. The discriminated children were sad, depressed, worse academically, felt like their value was lower. I think the exercise had long-term positive effects because during the reunion they said they were teaching their kids not to be discriminatory. I do not know how ethical the activity was and how these kids might have been permanently damaged, going home depressed. Deception was used and there was no debriefing until the next day. - It did not seem like the exercise worked with the prison workers, they were very annoyed and hostile. They did feel helpless and discriminated and sympathize with minorities: no way to be accepted.

19. Describe the jigsaw classroom and how it incorporates some of the conditions needed to make intergroup contact effective in reducing prejudice.

- divide class into small heterogeneous groups - within each group, give each student one part of a lesson (a piece of the puzzle) - test each student on the entire lesson (must get the other pieces to the puzzle) - students teach each other their parts of the lesson (many students with same puzzle get together first and teach each other before they go to their jigsaw groups) → necessitates interdependence - each student's part (piece) is equally important → promotes equal status *jigsaw activities 3 hours a week for 6 weeks vs. control no jigsaw, pre-test and post-test Results of field studies: - Increased liking for, and reliance on, classmates - Reduced prejudice and increased interracial friendships - Enhanced self esteem and academic achievement, especially for minorities

5. What is assumed about the traits of people in high status positions?

- high-status individuals have stereotypically male traits and low-status individuals have stereotypically feminine traits

4. What is assumed about men with feminine traits? What is assumed about women with masculine traits?

- men with feminine characteristics are gay and women with masculine characteristics are lesbian

7. What has generally been shown with regard to the onset of White children's racial attitudes?

- racial attitudes emerge at about 3 or 4 years of age and rapidly peak (at about age 4 or 5) - Ingroup favoritism emerges slightly before, may be distinct from, outgroup prejudice - After its early peak (at about 5 years of age) racial prejudice decreases gradually

9. What is the discrimination-affection paradox? Why does it occur? How much truth is there to the observation that "women receive special privileges, as long as they stay in line"?

- women are discriminated against (discrimination-affection paradox) o e.g., in earnings, in how much they pay for a car - Some subtypes of women are disliked, especially nontraditional subtypes (e.g., feminists) - Difference between liking and respect - Modern sexist belief that it is important to maintain traditional gender roles - Ambivalent sexism: o Benevolent sexist belief that women, who are seen as more nurturing and morally pure than men, should be shield from the stress of high-status roles- women need men to take care of them and protect them from mean world o Hostile sexist belief that nontraditional women are a threat to male status o "women receive special privileges, as long as they stay in line" -true, women who follow traditional sexist roles are treated better than feminist high achieving women

*Cooperative classroom structures:

jigsaw classroom and student teams