Domain 2: Safety Management Systems

Examples of Leading Indicators

- Level of worker participation in program activities -Number of employee safety suggestions -Number of hazards, near misses and first aid cases reported -Amount of time taken to respond to reports -Number and frequency of management walkthroughs -Number and severity of hazards identified during inspections -Number of workers who have completed required safety and health training -Timely completion of corrective actions after a workplace hazard is identified or an incident occurs -Timely completion of planned preventive maintenance activities -Worker opinions about program effectiveness obtained from a safety climate or safety opinion survey

Theory X of Organizational Management and Employee Motivation

- Work is inherently distasteful to most people, and they will attempt to avoid work whenever possible. - Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility and prefer to be directed. - Most people have little aptitude for creativity in solving organizational problems. - Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels if Maslows Hierarchy of needs. - Most people are self centered. As a result, they must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational objectives. - Most people resist change - Most people are gullible and unintelligent.

Examples of Lagging Indicators

-Number and severity of injuries and illnesses -Results of worker exposure monitoring that show that exposures are hazardous -Workers' compensation data, including claim counts, rates, and cost

Confined space written program should address

-Preventing unauthorized entry -Identifying permit space hazards -Developing safe entry practices -Maintaining and using equipment properly -Testing for applicable entry conditions -Providing permit space attendants -Providing emergency Retrieval Systems

Organization Behavior Model (OBM)

-Specifying Objectives and Goals -Giving reinforcement and feedback -Gaining commitment from employees and management. Goals are frequently incorrectly developed, which makes them likely to fail. They must be attainable, and employees must believe they are relevant and worthwhile.

6 Principles of an Auditor

1. Integrity: the foundation of professionalism. - Perform work with honesty, diligence, and responsibility. -Observe and comply with legal requirements. -Demonstrate their competence while performing their work. -Perform their work in an impartial manner, i.e., remain fair and unbiased in all their dealings. - Be sensitive to any influences that may be exerted on their judgment while carrying out an audit. 2. Fair presentation: The obligation to report truthfully and accurately. 3. Due professional care: The application of diligence and judgement in auditing. 4. Confidentiality: security of information. Auditors should exercise discretion in the use and protection of information acquired in the course of their duties. 5. Independence: The basis for the impartiality of the audit and objectivity of the audit conclusions. Auditors should be independent of the activity being audited wherever practicable, and should in all cases act in a manner that is free from bias and conflict of interest. 6. Evidence Based Approach: The rational method for reaching reliable and reproducible audit conclusions in a systematic audit process. Audit evidence should be verifiable.

Herzberg Motivational Theory

1959. In this theory, Herzberg stated that motivation can be split into two categories: hygiene factors and motivation factors. Hygiene factors affect the level of dissatisfaction but are rarely noted as creators of job satisfaction. However, if these factors are not present or satisfied they can demotivate a person. Hygiene factors include the following: -Supervision -Interpersonal relationships - Physical working conditions. - Salary Motivation factors include the following: -Achievement -Advancement -Recognition -Responsibility Whenever there is a shortage of motivational factors in the work environment, the employee will focus on other factors, such as hygiene factors.

Fault Tree Analysis

Analysis that uses deductive analysis involving reasoning from the general to the specific. Most other safety analysis use inductive reasoning and progress from a specific item to the general overall failure. Allows the analyst to determine the combinations of failures that are necessary to achieve an event defined as the top or undesired event, FTA is well suited for the analysis of highly redundant systems, The fault tree is a graphic model that displays the various combinations of equipment/component failures and human errors that can give rise to the top event. The FTA provides a means to qualitatively or quantitatively identify the frequency of the top event. FTA uses Boolean logic (the use of AND / OR gate logic) to relate the top event to a combination of basic events that must occur in order for the top event to happen. The fault tree, once constructed, can be quantified by using the failure rate data for the basic events (i.e., those events at the bottom of the tree). A quantified fault tree projects the rate of occurrence for the top event.

Critical Incident Technique

Asks those participating to describe any incidents that come to their attention. This technique can be useful in investigating worker-equipment relationships in past or existing systems, evaluating modifications to existing systems, or developing new systems.

Audits should be based on documented audit objectives, scope and criteria. These should be defined by the person managing the audit program and be consistent with the overall audit program objectives.

Audit Objectives: define what is to be accomplished by the individual audit and may include the following: - Determination of the extent of conformity of the management system to be audited, or parts of it, with audit criteria. - Determination of the extent of conformity of activities, processes and products with the requirements and procedures of the management system. - Evaluation of the capability of the management system to ensure compliance with legal and contractual requirements and other requirements to which the organization is committed. -Evaluation of the effectiveness of the management system in meeting its specified objectives. - Identification of areas for potential improvement of the management system. Audit Scope: should be consistent with the audit program and audit objectives. It includes such factors as physical locations, organizational units, and activities and processes to be audited, as well as the time period covered by the audit. Audit Criteria- used as a reference against which conformity is determined and may include applicable policies, procedures, standards, legal requirements, management system requirements, contractual requirements, sector code of conduct or other planned arrangements.

Management Styles

Autocratic leaders make decisions unilaterally. Permissive leaders permit participation in the decision-making process. Directive Democrat Allows subordinates to participate in the decision-making process but closely supervises employees. Directive Autocrat Makes decisions unilaterally and closely supervises employees. Permissive Democrat Allows employees to participate in the decision-making process and gives subordinates some latitude in carrying out their work. Permissive Autocrat Leader makes decisions unilaterally but gives employees latitude in carrying out the work.

Exposure

Contact with or proximity to a hazard, taking into account duration and intensity.

Fall protection general rule

Elevated work platforms require railings @ 4 ft Standard railings have a top rail @ 42 in (±3 in), mid-rail 21 in, & toe board 4 in, withstanding 200 lbs (890 N) in downward or outward direction on top rail

Fail Safe Designs

Ensure that a failure will leave the product unaffected or will convert it to a state in which no injury or damage will occur. The process fails safely. Types of fail safe: Fail-passive: arrangements reduce the system to its lowest energy level. Fail -active design maintains tan energized condition that keeps the system in a safe mode until corrective or overriding action occurs or an alternate system is activated. Fail -operational arrangements allow functions to continue safely until corrective action is possible. Example of a fail-active device would be a battery operated smoke detector that chirps when it is time to replace the battery.

Audit Guide

Guides, appointed by the auditee, should assist the audit team and act in the request of the audit team leader. Their responsibilities should include the following: - Assisting the auditors in identifying individuals to participate in interviews and confirming timings. - Arranging access to specific locations of the auditee. - Ensuring that rules concerning location safety and security procedures are known and respected by the audit team members and observers. The role of the guide may also include the following: -Witnessing the audit on the behalf of the auditee - Providing clarification or assisting in collecting information.

Theory X Manager

Holds that people must be motivated to work by external reward and punishment because they are unmotivated toward work. - Manage by coercion, threats, or micromanagement. or - Permissive with employees and seeks harmony. - Somewhere in between the two above.

3 basic steps of BBS Process

Identify critical behaviors: Employers write, in observable terms, what employees should do to properly perform their jobs. The safety and health professional can list a few critical behaviors or a complete inventory, depending in the scope and results desired. -Conduct Measurement Through Observations: trained observers watch the workplace to determine if listed behaviors are performed safely or unsafely. The total number of observed behaviors is divided into the number of safe behaviors to obtain a percentage figure for safe behaviors. - Give performance feedback: The percentage figure for safe behaviors is shown on a graph displayed in the workplace. At regular intervals, behaviors are again observed and new safe behavior figures are added to the graph. Studies show this critical feedback will improve safety behaviors. Praise and recognition from managers or peer pressure can be effective ways to encourage and reinforce safe behaviors.

Accurate data is a must when evaluating floor loading in an industrial environment. If data is not readily available from reliable sources, the best choice is to have a competent engineer perform a structural analysis. OSHA 1910.22

In every building or other structure, or part thereof, used for mercantile, business, industrial or storage purposes, the loads approved by the building official shall be marked on plates of approved design which shall be supplied and securely affixed by the owner of the building, or his duly authorized agent, in conspicuous place in each space to which they relate. It shall be unlawful to place, or cause, or permit to be placed, on any floor or roof of a building or other structure, a load greater than that for which such floor or roof is approved by the building official.

The best protection when dealing with hoisting and rigging equipment includes having:

Inspection of hoisting and rigging equipment before each job provides the greatest protection from use of defective equipment.

Safety Through Design

Integration of hazard analysis and risk assessment methods early in the design and redesign processes and taking the actions necessary so that risks of injury or damage are at an acceptable level. This concept encompasses facilities, hardware, equipment, tools, materials, layout and configuration, energy controls, environmental concerns and products.

Behavior Sampling

Involves observation of worker behaviors at random intervals by organizational experts and classification of these natural risk behavior according to weather they are safe or unsafe. Using this technique, management can apply various components of a safety program (such as safety lectures, posters, brief safety talks, safety inspections, motion picture films, and supervisory training) and immediately note their influence on workers' unsafe behavior.

Cost/benefit analysis

Is a generic process of evaluating competing courses of action by examining the dollar costs of certain abatement actions versus the dollar value of the benefits received. Cost/benefit analysis allows management to understand and prioritize action to reduce risk of identified financial loss scenarios.

Safety Culture

Is a groups attitude that everyone in the group will try to behave in a way that protects the safety of each other, Recognition will reinforce their trust in the culture. An important factor in developing a safety program is to incorporate concepts of job enrichment, participation and employee-centered leadership. Management will most likely support a proactive safety effort when prevention of losses relates to achievement of company objectives,

Acceptable Risk

Is a residual risk level achieved after risk reduction measures have been applied. It is a risk level that is accepted for a given task (hazardous situation) or hazard.

Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Analysis

Is a systematic way to examine how process variations affect a system. A hazard evaluation team composed of experts from different areas systematically examines every part of the process to discover how process design deviations can occur, The hazard evaluation team leader systematically guides the team through the process design, using a fixed set of guide words. These guide words are applied at crucial points or nodes of the process. The guide words include no, more, less. as well as. part of, reverse, and other than, They are combined with a condition, such as flow or pressure, to define the deviation. For example, "what is the effect of low flow on the process?" Typical deviations include leaks or ruptures, loss containment, ignition sources and chemical reactions. The HAZOP analysis should identify hazards and operating problems, and enable the HAZOP team to recommend design or procedural changes that will improve the safety of the process. The results of the HAZOP analysis are documented in a tabular format with a separate table for each segment of the process under study.

Mishap

Is an unplanned event or series of events resulting in death, injury, occupational illness, damage to or loss of equipment or property, or damage to the environment.

loss of control

Is the proactive measures taken to prevent or reduce loss evolving from accident, injury, illness and property damage. The aim of loss control is to reduce the frequency and severity of losses. Loss control is directly related to human resource management, engineering and risk management practices.

Risk Management

Is the process by which assessed risks are mitigated, minimized or controlled through engineering, management or operational means. This involves the optimal allocation of available resources in support of safety, performance, cost and schedule.

Management by objectives (MBO)

Is the process of agreeing upon objectives within an organization so that management and employees agree to the objectives and understand what they are in the organization. Main focus: set established goals for the organization by allowing both management and employees to participate in the process. Some of the important features and advantages of MBO are as follows: - Motivation- It involves employees in the whole process of goal setting and increases empowerment and employee job satisfaction and commitment. - Improved communication and coordination: In the MBO process, there are frequent evaluations of the objectives and goals. This evaluation process, which is conducted by both management and employees, assists in maintaining harmonious relationships. When goals are lacking, both employees and management participate in the problem-solving process. - Clarity of goals Is a process of joint objective setting between a superior and subordinate. It is also known as management by results. The managers meet the following performance objectives: - Target a key result to be accomplished. - Identify a date for achieving results - Offer a realistic (measurable) and attainable challenge. - Be as specific and quantitative as possible.

Risk Analysis

Is the process of identifying safety risks. This involves identifying hazards that present mishap risk with an assessment of the risk probability.

Arc Flash Boundaries.

Limited Approach Boundary - Entered only by qualified persons or unqualified persons that have been advised and are escorted by a qualified person. Restricted Approach Boundary- Entered only by qualified persons required to use shock protection techniques and PPE. Flash Protection Boundary - linear distance to prevent any more than second-degree burns from a potential arc flash (typically 4 feet).

Pareto Principle and Chart

The Pareto principle states that, for many events, roughly 80% of the effects come from 20% of the causes. The Pareto chart answers the following questions: - What are the largest issues facing our team or business? - What 20% of sources are causing 80% of the problems (80/20 ruler)? - Where efforts should be focused to achieve the greatest improvements?

Risk

The combination of the severity of a defined exposure with its frequency of occurrence. The technique that effectively decreases a project's schedule risk without decreasing the overall risk is to incorporate slack time into the projects critical path schedule early in project planning.

Severity

The extent of harm or damage that could result from a hazard-related incident or exposure.

Hierarchy of controls

The hierarchy of controls provides a systematic way of thinking, considering steps in a ranked and sequential order, to chose the most effective means of eliminating or reducing hazards and their associated risks. The top three levels in the hierarchy are more effective because they: are preventative actions that eliminate/ reduce risk by design, substitution and engineering measures. Rely the least on the performance of personnel, - are less defeatable by supervisors or workers.Consists of Elimination, Substitution, Engineering Controls, Warnings, Administrative Controls and Personal Protective Equipment.

Incident Indirect Costs

The indirect or hidden costs are time lost from work by the injured, loss in earning power, economic loss to the injured family, time lost by fellow workers, loss of efficiency due t break-up of crew, lost time by supervision, cost of breaking in a new worker, damage to tools and equipment, time damaged equipment is out of service, spoiled work, loss of production, spoilage, failure to fill orders, overhead costs, and miscellaneous. Lost production time. Productive time lost by an injured employee. Productive time lost by employees and supervisors helping the accident victim. Cleanup and startup of operations interrupted by an accident. Time to hire or train a worker to replace the injured worker until they return to work. Property damage. Time and cost for repair or replacement of damaged equipment, materials or other property. Cost of continuing all or part of the employee's wages, plus compensation. Reduced morale among your employees, and perhaps lower efficiency. Cost of completing paperwork generated by the accident. OSHA penalties.

As low as reasonably practical (ALARP)

The level of mishap risk that has been established and is considered as low as reasonably possible and still acceptable. It is based on a set of predefined ALARP conditions and is considered acceptable.

Probability

The likelyhood of a hazard causing an incident or exposure that could result in harm or damage for a selected unit of to,e, events, population, items or activities being considered.

Span of Control

The number of subordinates a manager can effectively supervise. Manager cannot effectively supervise more than half a dozen subordinate managers.

Acceptable Risk

The part of identified mishap risk that is allowed to persist without taking further engineering or management action to eliminate or reduce the risk, based on knowledge and decision-making. The system user is consciously exposed to this risk. It is a risk level achieved after risk reduction measures have been applied and that is accepted for a given task (hazardous situation) or hazard. For the purpose of this standard, the terms "acceptable risk" and "tolerable risk" are considered synonymous.

ANSI/ASSP Z10: American National Standard for Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems

This voluntary consencus was published by the American Society of Safety Professionals (ASSP) following American National Standards Institute (ANSI) requirements. It provides management system requirements and guidelines for improving occupational health and safety. Experts from labor, government, professional organizations and industry formulatedd the standard after extensive examination of current and international standards, guidelines and practices.

Combined Audit

Two or management systems of different disciplines (e.g., quality, environmental, occupational health and safety) are audited together.

Joint Audit

Two or more auditing organizations cooperate to audit a single auditee.

Incident Energy Calculations (arc flash - electrical)

Used to determine the appropriate PPE that will limit the possible thermal energy exposure to critical body parts, such as the dace and chest areas. Usually, the calculations give the heat exposure in calories/cm2 or Joules/cm2. Once you know the heat exposure level, you can choose the protective clothing to best protect you employees.

Incident Direct Costs

Medical and Compensation:

Maslow's Hierarchy of needs.

1943. All human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs and that certain lower factors need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied. As a safety professional, it is important to understand this theory and the potential motivation of employees.

Employee Coaching

A behavior-based approach treats safety as an achievement-oriented process, not outcome based. It also uses face finding versus fault-finding and is proactive, not reactive. The primary attributes to BBS Employee Coaching are: -Achievement oriented -Proactive -Fact finding process

Loss Reduction

A risk control technique that reduces the severity of a particular loss.

Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OHSMS)

A set of interrelated elements that establish and support occupational safety and health objectives.

Minimum Attractive Rate of Return (MARR)

AKA hurdle rate, is the minimum rate of return on a project a manager or company is willing to accept before starting a project, given its risk and opportunity cost of forgoing other projects.

Accepted risk

Accepted risk has two parts: (1) risk that is knowingly understood and accepted by the system developer or user and (2) risk that is not known or understood and is accepted by default.

Prevention through design

Addressing occupational safety and health needs in design and redesign processes to prevent or minimize work-related hazards and risks associated with construction, manufacture, use, maintenance and disposal of facilities, materials, equipment, and processes.

ISO registrar

An accredited registrar, also called an accredited certification body (CB), is an organization accredited by a recognized accrediting body for its competence to audit and issue certification confirming that an organization meets the requirements of a standard (e.g. ISO 9001 or ISO 14001).

Hazard

Any real or potential condition that can cause injury, illness, or death to personnel; damage or loss of a system, equipment, or property; or damage to the environment. It is any potentially unsafe condition resulting from failures, malfunctions, external events, errors, or a combination thereof. It is any condition, set of circumstances, or inherent property damage that can cause injury, illness or death.

Internal Audit

Are conducted by the organization itself, or on its behalf, for management review and other internal purposes (e.g. to confirm the effectiveness of the management system or to obtain information for the improvement of the management system). Internal audits can form the basis for an organization's self declaration of conformity.

Theory Y Manager

Assumes all workers are basically interested and motivated to work and therefore have a reduced need for an external reward system.

Theory Y of Organizational Management and Employee Motivation

Employees are motivated primarily at the esteem and self-actualization levels. Almost in contrast to Theory X, Theory Y leadership makes the following general assumptions. - Work can be as natural as play if the conditions are favorable. - People will be self-directed and creative to meet their work and org. objectives if they are committed to them. -People will be committed to their quality and productivity objectives if reward that address higher needs such as self-fulfillment are in place. - The capacity for creativity spreads throughout organizations. - Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population. - Under these conditions people will seek out responsibility. Under Theory Y an organization can apply the following scientific management principles for employee motivation: -Decentralization of delegation -Job enlargement: broaden scope of employees job, which adds variety and opportunities. -Participative management: consult with employees in decision making process. -Performance appraisals.

Safety

Freedom from conditions that can cause death, injury, occupational illness, damage to or loss of equipment or property, or damage to the environment. It is the ability of a system to exclude certain undesired events (i.e., mishaps) during stated operation under stated conditions for a stated time and the ability of a system or product to operate with a known and accepted level of mishap risk. It is a built in system characteristic.

International Labor Organization Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems

ILO-OSH 2001 : The international labor organization (ILO), a UN agency tgat brings together governments, employers and workers of its member states, has developed voluntary guidelines on safety and health management systems. The guidelines are designed as an "instrument fir the development of a sustainable safety culture within the enterprise and beyond." The key elements of the guidelines are built on the concept of continuous improvement.

Mitigation

Is an action taken to reduce the risk presented by a hazard, by modifying the hazard in order to decrease the mishap probability and/or the mishap severity. Mitigation is generally accomplished through design measures, use of safety devices, training or procedures. It is also referred to as hazard mitigation and risk mitigation.

Risk acceptance

Is an informed decision to take a particular risk.

Risk Tolerance

Is an organization's readiness to bear the risk after risk treatment in order to achieve its objectives.

Risk Communication

Is the interactive process for exchanging risk information and opinions among stakeholders.

Factors that make the greatest impact on whether an employee will or will not work safely.

Many BBS experts agree that the most critical factors that make the greatest impact on whether employees will work safely are: -Team spirit -Recognition -Attitude The best way to reduce injuries and property damage in the future is to systematically reinforce positive employee actions and behavior. An important factor in developing a safety program is to incorporate concepts of job enrichment, participation and employee-centered leadership. Management will most likely support a proactive safety effort when prevention of losses relates to achievement of company objectives.

Behavior Sampling

Or activity sampling technique involves observation of worker behaviors at random intervals and classifying theses behaviors as safe or unsafe.

Residual Risk

Overall risk remaining after system safety mitigation efforts have been fully implemented.

Two primary actions that influence behavior change the most.

Positive reinforcement and reinforcing the behavior as close to the action time as possible.

Leading Indicators

Proactive activities that identify hazards and assess, eliminate, minimize and control risk. A leading indicator can help predict safety performance.

Unacceptable risk

Risk that cannot be tolerated.

External Audit

Second and third party audits. Second party audits are conducted by parties having an interest in the organization, such as customers, or by other persons on their behalf. Third-party audits are conducted by independent auditing organizations, such as regulators or those providing certification (registrars).

SMART GOAL

Specific Measurable Actionable Realistic Time Oriented

Audit (ISO 19011)

Systematic, independent and documented process for obtaining audit evidence and evaluating it objectively to determine the extent to which the audit criteria are fulfilled. (ISO 19011:2011 3.1).

Systems Theory

Systems theory is an interdisciplinary theory about the nature of complex systems in nature, society, and science and is a framework by which one can investigate or describe an group of objects that work together to produce some result. In this theory, the organization is considered and treated as a system.

Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

Tabulates the ways in which equipment and components can fail, and the effects of these failures on a system, process or plant. Failure modes describe the ways in which equipment can fail (such as open, closed, on, off, leaks, etc.). The FMEA identifies the individual failure modes that can either cause or contribute to an accident. This method of analysis does not address multiple failures. An FMEA analysis should produce a qualitative, systematic list of equipment and components, a list of associated failure modes, and a list of the effects of the failure modes on the system. The information produced by an FMEA analysis can be used to support recommendations for increased equipment and component reliability that would improve safety.

Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA) A.K.A The Deming Cycle

The Deming Cycle or PDCA cycle is a continuous improvement quality model that consists of four repetitive steps conducted in a logical sequence. The four steps include Plan, Do, Check, Act. Deming proposed that if these four steps are continuously followed, quality will improve. Both quality and HSE management systems are built on the well-known Plan-Do-Check-Act process. Briefly stated, the purpose of standards is to provide organizations with an effective tool for continuous improvement in their occupational health and safety management systems to reduce risk of occupational injuries, illnesses and fatalities.

OSHA's Voluntary Protection Program (VPP)

The OSHA VPP recognizes and partners with businesses and worksites that demonstrate excellence in occupational safety and health. To qualify for one of the VPPs, applicants must have in place an effective SHMS that meets rigorous performance-based criteria. OSHA verifies qualifications through a comprehensive on-site review process. Using one set of flexible, performance- based criteria. OSHA verifies qualifications through a comprehensive onsite review process. Using one set of flexible, performance-based criteria, the VPP process emphasizes management accountability for worker safety and health; continued identification and elimination of hazards; and active involvement of employees in their own protection.

Risk Assessment

The process of determining the risk presented by the identified hazards. This involves evaluating the identified hazard's causal factors and then characterizing the risk as the product of the hazard severity times the hazard probability. Processes used to evaluate the level of risk associated with hazards and system include: - Assure management commitment, involvement and direction (an absolute). - Select a risk assessment team, including employees with knowledge of jobs and tasks. - Establish the analysis parameters. - Select a risk assessment technique. - Identify the hazards. - Consider Failure Modes. - Assess the severity of consequences. - Determine the occurrence probability, prominently taking into consideration the exposures. - Define the initial risk. - Make risk acceptance or nonacceptance decisions with employee involvement. - If needed, select and implement hazard avoidance, elimination, reduction and control measures. - Address residual risk. - Document the results. - Follow up on actions taken.

Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

The process of identifying the basic lowest level causal factors for an event. Usually the event is an undesired event, such as a hazard or mishap.

Residual Risk

The risk remaining after preventive measures have been taken. No matter how effective the preventative actions, residual risk will always be present if a facility or operation continues to exist.

GHS Signal Word

The signal word indicates the relative degree of severity of a hazard. The signal words used in GHS are: - Danger: for more severe hazards - Warning: for the less severe hazards

GHS Label Standardized Elements

The standardized chemical label elements under GHS are as follows: -Product Identifier -Supplier identifier -Chemical identity - Hazard pictograms - Signal words - Hazard statements - Precautionary Statements

Motivational-hygiene Theory

The theory attempts to explain how persons are satisfied by certain intrinsic job factors while being motivated by other extrinsic factors that are quite peripheral to the job being performed.

Lagging Indicators

While lagging indicators can alert you to a failure in an area of your safety and health program or to the existence of a hazard, leading indicators allow you to take preventive action to address that failure or hazard before it turns into an incident. A good program uses leading indicators to drive change and lagging indicators to measure effectiveness.

Contingency Theory

class of behavioral theory that claims that there is no best way to organize a corporation, to lead a company, or to make decisions. Instead, the optimal course of action is contingent upon the internal and external situation.