Early Europe and Colonial America

76. School of Athens. Raphael. 1509-1511 C.E. Fresco.

Content: -This mural is not an actual school, but instead a place where great philosophers and scientists of the ancient world congregated. -Raphael wanted to display the people sharing ideas, especially since it was during the time of the Renaissance. -Plato and Aristotle are the central figures in this piece. They are very important to Western thinking and in different ways, their philosophies impacted Christianity. -Plato, who is a lot older and was actually Aristotle's teacher, is seen pointing up because in his philosophy. He believed the constantly hanging world that we live in is just a shadow of a higher, truer reality that is unchanging and eternal. For Plato, this other reality seats all truths, beauty, justice, and wisdom. There is a realm based on mathematics and pure ideas that is more true than the everyday world we see. The book Plato holds is his own called the Timaeus. -The colors each of these philosophers wear also contrast: Plato is wearing red and purple- the purple refers to the ether (air), red to fire- neither of which have weight; Aristotle wears blue and brown that are the colors of water and earth, which have gravity, which has weight. -Aristotle on the other hand, holds his palm down because his philosophy supports that the only reality in this world is the one that we can physically see and experience by sight and touch. The book he is holding called Aristotle's Ethics emphasizes the justice, friendship, relationships, and government of the human world and the thought that people need to study this. -The division continues in this artwork- on the side of Plato there are philosophers who are concerned with the issues of the ideal. -For example, Pythagoras, a great ancient mathematician, who is seen on the lower left, who discovered laws of harmony in music, in mathematics. He taught others that each of the planets produce a music note as it moved based on the distance it was from the Earth. As these planets moved they created a perfect harmony called "the harmony of the spheres". -On the other hand, Euclid, who is seen on the lower right, is drawing a geometric diagram for students. He is interested in measuring and the idea of the practical. -There are representations of classical sculptures in the niches on the left and the right. On the platonic side- there is Apollo, the God of the Sun, Music, Poetry- ideas that support his philosophies. On the other side, Athena, the God of War and Wisdom, who is presumably involved in the more real, practical affair of a person. Function: -This fresco overall represents the change of only getting knowledge from authority and that one had to accept it- New image of sharing knowledge and the history of the accumulation of knowledge. It demonstrated the Renaissance influence. -Also a tribute to the wisdom of the great philosophers of this time. -The four frescos Raphael painted were arranged for the holy Pope. Raphael has hope that his frescos will give Pope Julius II and the other artists and citizens of Italy some knowledge of the other ancient philosophers.

90. Angel with Arquebus, Asiel Timor Dei. Master of Calamarcac. 17th century C.E. Oil on canvas.

Function: -Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism. -Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate. -Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well. -Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism. -Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism. -The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigeneous people's faith. -Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities. -The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule. Content: -Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards. -Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes. -The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement. -Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people. Context: -One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei. -16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism. -This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful. -José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs. -While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling. -Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels.

95. The Virgin of Guadalupe (Virgen de Guadalupe). Miguel González. c. 1698 C.E. Based on original Virgin of Guadalupe. Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City. 16th century C.E. Oil on canvas on wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl.

Function: -She is used as a symbol of justice and gives people comfort that she will help them out in their lowest points of life. -In modern day, she represents the people standing against oppression and long for independence. -This also illustrates how native and Spanish cultures blended in Mexico. -An important figure for the Day of the Dead celebrations. Content: - Guadalupe averts her gaze and clasps her hands together in piety. -She is standing on a crescent moon and being supported up by a seraph. - She is wearing Mary's traditional, bright colors. Golden stars adorn her cloak and a mandorla of light surrounds her. - In the Book of Revelation , it describes the Woman of the Apocalypse as "clothed with the sun, with the moon under her feet and a crown of twelve stars on her head." - This relates because in the Guadalupe image, twelve golden rays frame her face and head. This is a direct reference to the crown of stars. -Guadalupe's ashen skin possibly represents an indigenous Madonna. -The angel at the bottom of the image was seen by the Indians as an "intermediary god" carrying in a new era, the beginning of a new civilization. Context: -In 1521, after the defeat of the Aztec capital and the establishment of the Spanish Viceroyalty of New Spain, the Virgin Mary became one of the most popular themes for artists. -Many people consider this image to be a work not made by human hands and divinely created. -In the original image is enshrined in the basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City today. -Today millions travel annually to see the image. The original shrine devoted to Guadalupe, on a hill above the basilica, marks the site of her initial miraculous appearance. -In December of 1531, a Nahu man named Juan Diego was on his way to mass. As he walked on the hill of Tepeyac, Guadalupe appeared. -This hill was formerly the site of a shrine to the Aztec mother goddess Tonantzin. -Guadalupe called Juan by his name in Nahuatl, the language of the Nahua. She asked that Juan Diego ask the bishop, Juan de Zumárraga, to construct a shrine in her honor on the hill. -After he tells the story to the bishop, he doesn't believe Juan Diego and wants proof of this appearance. -After speaking again with Guadalupe on two other occasions, she informed Juan Diego to gather Castilian roses, inside his native cloak and bring them to the bishop. -When Juan Diego opened his tilma in front of Bishop Zumárraga, the roses spilled out and an imprint of Guadalupe appeared on it. -Bishop Zumárraga began construction of a shrine on the hill right after this. -She was so revered that people of different social and ethnic backgrounds paid her reverence. -People attributed her with miraculous event happening, such as assisting to end a flood in Mexico City. -She was declared a patron of the city. -Many variation of Guadalupe can be found. Some portray her with darker skin and with add ons such as an eagle parched on a cactus (sign for the establishment of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan).

67. Pazzi Chapel. Basilica di Santa Croce. Florence, Filippo Brunelleschi 1429-1461 C.E. Masonry.

Function: -The building itself has the function of a religious structure, used as the chapter house by Santa Croce friars (as seen in the benches that line the wall). In other words a meeting room for monks of Santa Croce. -Now it is a true representation of early Renaissance work. -Includes influence from other artists besides the architect, including Giuliano da Maiano, Luca della Robbia, Desiderio da Settignano and his brother Geri, and Alesso Baldovinetti. -It was also used as a classroom for teaching monks (as well as other religious purposes) -There was a place where the commissioning family could bury its dead. -It could also be a social expression, as well, being that it was commissioned by a wealthy and influential family at the time the Pazzis. This would've essentially been a marking of territory in Florence. -Overall, it is also the embodiment of the Pazzi family's power, wealth, and perhaps generosity. -This structure carries a particular importance, as seen in how it was funded even through war with neighboring cities. Content: -Includes elements that are typical of Brunelleschi like the use of pietra serena / the grayish green stone. This greyish green stone articulates the decorative elements on the walls and even the white colored walls themselves (emphasizing the perfect geometry displayed throughout). -It is preceded by an atrium, an entrance hall, supported by six Corinthian columns placed next to the central arch. -It is a rectangular layout containing a square room, covered by a dome, and two sides of the remaining space with a barrel vault with round windows. -The wall opens on a scarsella (a small square apse or large semicircular recess in a church, arched or with a domed roof) covered by a dome decorated with a fresco painting reproducing the sky over Florence. -Still discussed who contributed this, but many attribute the chapel to Michelozzo, Rossellino or Giuliano da Maiano. -Has the feeling of an ancient Roman temple, as in it is close to a centrally planned space like the Pantheon. There is an attention to perfect geometry and centrality, as if the artist is trying to create a classism as well as replicate the ideals and standards of ancient Rome. -There are fluted plasters (decorative pillars) on the interior and long walls. -There is a hemispherical dome with an oculus in the center, with windows piercing its sides. This allows a pleasant light into the building. It looks like a dome on pendentives (a structure that allows a circular dome over a square space). -In the triangular spaces of this pendentive are roundels (disks, or decorative medallions) of terracotta. Luca delorobia was the artist who contributed to this. The central dome is decorated with round sculptures and the coat of arms of Pazzi Family (two paired dolphins) made of glazed terracotta, works by Luca della Robbia. -The architect wanted to create a space that wasn't exactly a basilica, for it is meant to be a chapter house not a church. But there is still a desire to work with centrally planned space. -Overall it emits a feeling of order, design, perfect construction, and rationality. There is a subservience to the overall design conception. All of these elements mentioned contribute in some way to the overwhelming feeling of classism in the structure. Keep in mind, it is not exactly centrally planned - for it is more broad than long. There are also small barrel vaults on either side of this dominent central dome. -Pretty much Brunelleschi wanted to turn this rectangular space into a square with a dome on top, and he does so pretty well, making it appear less rectangular and more geometrically even. Context: -Brunelleschi built the Pazzi chapel as a perfect space with harmonious proportions, doing this by including in his project plan the knowledge he gained during a stay in Rome, where he focused on measuring ancient buildings like the Pantheon. -It was commissioned by Andrea de' Pazzi in 1429 to the architect, but the construction continued on after the architect's death in 1446. It was never truly finished after the family suffered consequences of a conspiracy organized by some of the Pazzis with the archbishop of Pisa Francesco Salvati, against another family. -Luca delorobia was the artist who contributed to the roundels, as he perfected the ability to fire at high enough temperature to vitrify modern glazes. -The desire to work with centrally planned space becomes even more prevalent in the High Renaissance. -Giuliano da Maiano made the frame and the door, Luca della Robbia made the relief representing Saint Andrews on the throne above the portal and the glazed terracotta rounds. -The external frieze to Desiderio da Settignano and his brother Geri. -Alesso Baldovinetti drew the pattern of the stained glass window with the figure of Saint Andrew.

63. Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, including Lamentation.Padua, Italy. Unknown architect; Giotto di Bondone (artist). Chapel: c. 1303 C.E.; Fresco: c. 1305. Brick (architecture) and fresco.

Function: -This was a private chapel of devotion for the Scrovegni family -It was commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni, a banker, who wanted to atone for he and his father's sin of usury (charging interest on loans), so he believed that by building a chapel, he could go to Heaven spot on. Content: -The frescoes are designed in three registers that tell a biblical story (39 scenes) -The top begins with the life of Christ's grandparents (Yoakim and Anna) and the life of Mary, then the middle row is about the life of Christ (including His childhood and the Ministry of Christ), and finally the bottom depicts the Passion- the final part of Jesus's life, ending in the Pentecost. -Some of the images are not directly in the Bible but rather filled in with the information from a book called The Golden Legend that is a narrative form Jesus is usually depicted moving left to right (narrative) and in profile which was considered the most honorable way to depict someone (from Roman coinage). -Unlike the classic Byzantium style of the 2-dimension, Giotto begins to create a sense of depth in his paintings. -One of the most famous frescoes is the Lamentation- it is a picture of Jesus after he was cut down from the cross and he is surrounded by a variety of individuals including his mother Mary (holding him), Mary Magdalene (at his feet- she anointed them), St. John (arms out in despair), and the disciples. There are also angels flying in the air, representing his divinity. -The expressions of the people there are of mourning and despair, very human emotions- each figure is grieving in their own way -The tree in the background is barren but will also grow leaves again- symbol of Jesus coming back to life. -On the ceiling is a starry blue sky with images of Christ and Mary's faces. -Below the three registers are personifications of the 7 virtues and vices (desperation, envy, infidelity, injustice, wrath, inconstancy, foolishness, then hope, charity, faith, justice, temperance, fortitude, and prudence). -On the west wall is the scene of the Last Judgement. -In the center is the largest figure Christ who is the judge, around him are the Elect (people going to Heaven) and there is also a scene of Hell, above him is Heaven. -There is an image of Enrico Scrovegni giving the chapel to the Virgin Mary, represents him atoning for his sins. -Another famous scene is the Kiss of Judas Depicts when Judas came to Jesus and turned him in to the Roman authorities, the faces of Jesus and Judas are very close together, shows intimacy The scene is chaotic and violent, the Romans attacking the disciples. Context: -Next to old Roman Arena, so called Arena Chapel, Scrovegni from the family who commissioned it Was built in order to atone for his sins of usury. -These frescoes represent a transition from medieval period where the figures were divine (lots of gold, little emotion and contact with each other) to the Renaissance period (emotion in the grief, figures holding and kissing each other, depth to the paintings)

62. Röttgen Pietà. Late medieval Europe. c. 1300-1325 C.E. Painted wood.

Function: -This would've been on an alter with other religious art, possibly depicting Christ. -This type of sculpture was common in German abbeys. -His depiction of Christ is hard to look at and evokes feelings of horror and distaste, this creates intrigue Content: -Depicts Mary holding her dead son. -Has a sharp crown of thorns and there is blood; overall gruesome. -Mary still looks young in this, but she looks hopeless and doesn't believe he is going to rise again. -Her son is extremely skinny and all his ribs are shown. -"The patient Christ" was a new depiction of Christ. Context: -Originally depiction of Christ on the cross would demonstrate the Christus triumphans. -Made in the late gothic period of Middle Ages. -Greco Crucification evolved in the artistic world and showed suffering of Christ, but made sure to keep his legs together to not be too humanized and immodest. -This period arose that a connection with God should happen with emotion; this is clearly shown in artwork at the time. -Reflects mysticism of the time; not caring about previous issues with iconoclasm during middles ages.

64. Golden Haggadah (The Plagues of Egypt, Scenes of Liberation, and Preparation for Passover). Latemedieval Spain. c. 1320 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (pigments and gold leaf on vellum).

Content: -First page: Preparation for passover Upper right panel filled with several women celebrating the coming of Passover with musical instruments. -Miriam, Moses's sister, holding tambourine with islamic decoration, Islamic motifs like this thought to represent the language and beauty of life through its geometric presentation. -Women wearing long, pale colored gowns/dresses Upper right panel features children dressed in same colors of the women's dresses eagerly receiving matzah and haroset their master of the house is giving out. -Bottom right panel has a group of people preparing the house for Passover; women clean while men inspect the progress of matzah bread Bottom left panel features sheep being butchered for the festival. Second page: The plagues of europe -Upper right panel features Egyptians and their animals becoming overrun with boils. -God believed to have instructed Moses to toss soot in the air, which resulted in this epidemic where Egyptians became victim to boils and ulcers. -Lower left panel features Egyptians' domesticated animals succumb to disease while wild ones begin to take their place. -Upper right panel features frogs swarming Egypt, specifically a high official's room, most likely the Pharaoh. -Lower right panel features wild animals frightening the Pharaoh, a phase of the 10 plagues often disputed to include either wild beasts or swarms of flies. Third page: Scenes of Liberation -Upper right panel features scenes of the most devastating phase of the 10 Plagues, the killing the of the first born (3 parts): a mother weeping over her newborn's death, an angel (some experts believing to be the Angel of Death God sends in some interpretations) hitting an ill man in front of a somber women, and a funeral procession for one of the firstborn killed. -Upper left panel features the Pharaoh forcing Israelites out of Egypt, the latter doing so with dough in hand and their hands raised. -Lower left panel features Egyptian knights taking after the Israelites following their exile from Egypt Lower right panel features the aftermath of the belief God responded to Moses's call for assistance while evading the Egyptians in pursuit by parting the Red Sea for the Israelites but letting it crash down on their pursuers, with depiction of the soldiers drowning behind the Israelites. Function: -Illustrates the story of Passover from the Book of Exodus, which focuses on the Israelites escape from slavery and oppression in Egypt. -It is read, celebrated, and studied during Seder, a meal marking the beginning of Passover by families. -This Haggadah would have been used at a private home. -The Golden Haggadah's decorative nature and fine condition implies its belonging to a wealthy family Judaism condemns "graven images", an idea originating from the second commandment Moses believed to have received from God, but the Golden Haggadah is considered a tool of education. -Thus its illustrations are allowed, meant to be didactic and help Jewish people better understand the developments of the Book of Exodus. Context: -The Golden Haggadah was created during the Gothic period. -Gothic art developed out of Romanesque art, further pushing both sculpture and painting from stiff depictions of people to those more lively and flowing. -Also characterized by prevalence of curved lines in painting, refined decoration in its features, and more detail given to the faces of individuals such as those in illuminated manuscripts- -1300s Spain was multicultural, with Christianity, Islam, and Judasim all having points of influences in aspects of life such as art. -Islamic geometric pattern seen in Golden Haggadah. -Sephardic Jews were located on the Iberian Peninsula during this time period, although experiences phases of oppression in Spain. -Jewish families could rise to wealth through various merchant practices and thus the Golden Haggadah is believed to have belonged to rich Jewish family.

75. Sistine Chapel ceiling and altar wall frescoes. Vatican City, Italy. Michelangelo. Ceiling frescoes: c. 1508-1512 C.E.; altar frescoes: c. 1536-1541 C.E. Fresco.

Content: -The narrative begins at the altar and is divided into three sections. - In the first three paintings, it tells us the story of The Creation of the Heavens and Earth; this is followed by The Creation of Adam and Eve and the Expulsion from the Garden of Eden; last is the story of Noah and the Great Flood. -In the four corners of the room, in the pendentives, one finds scenes depicting the Salvation of Israel. -Michelangelo paints The Last Judgement above the altar and his style has become more cynical and Mannerist. - He emphasized musculature and anatomy anatomy as he displays drama and power. -Sitting on the architectural framework of the four architectural corners of each nine biblical scenes are male nude figures, called Ignudi. Context: -Created by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel. -He began working on frescoes for Pope Julius II in 1508. -Michelangelo proposed to paint the Old Testament scenes now found on the vault, divided by the fictive architecture that he uses to organize the composition. -Michelangelo completed the Sistine Chapel in 1512. -The chapel recently has undergone a controversial cleaning in which soot and grime from years of the chapel's use were cleaned off to try to bring back the rich colors of Michelangelo's vision. -Up and coming Renaissance artists would visit the chapel in order to try to study and imitate the monumental weight, harmony, strength, anatomical perfection, and elegance of Michelangelo's figures.

87. Self-Portrait with Saskia. Rembrandt van Rijn. 1636 C.E. Etching.

Content: -The seventeenth- century Dutch artist, Rembrandt van Rijn etched him and his wife wearing historical clothing. Rembrandt is wearing a fanciful 16th- century style plumed beret and a fur trimmed overcoat, while his wife, Saskia, is wearing an old- fashioned veil. -The two figures are in half- length, seated at a table before a plain background. Rembrandt is larger and in the front with a serious expression. On the other hand, Saskia is drawn as a smaller scale, sitting behind him. -This etching marks the first time that Rembrandt presented himself as an artist at work. In his left hand, he holds a porte -crayon and drawing on a piece of paper Context: -Rembrandt, who has made over 75 self portraits, is known for showing himself in a variety of different imagined roles. -This small etching can be seen as a marriage portrait. The young woman seated with 30 year old Rembrandt is his wife, Saskia van Uylenburgh. They most likely met through Saskia's cousin, Hendrick Uylenburgh, an art dealer in New Amsterdam The couple got married on June 22nd, 1634 and remained together for thirteen years until Saskia had an unaccepted death. It's surprising that this is the only portrait of these two together. -Rembrandt is the first to popularize the etching technique as a major form of artistic expression. His artwork varies of subjects popular at the time such as history, landscapes, still life, and everyday life as well as portraits. Function: -It is believed viewers are being let in on a private moment between the couple and highlights the nature of the relationship. -More of a private side of Rembrandt showing off his wife.

79. Allegory of Law and Grace. Lucas Cranach the Elder. c. 1530 C.E. Woodcut and letterpress.

Content: -Two nude male figures appear on either side of a tree. One side is green and living, which symbolizes the "Gospel" side, while the other side is barren and dying on the "law" side. -Six columns of Bible citations appear at the bottom of the panel. -On the "gospel" side, John the Baptist directs a naked man to Christ on the cross in front of the tomb and to the risen Christ who appears on top of the tomb. The arisen Christ stands above the empty tomb, acting out the miracle of the Resurrection. -This nude figure doesn't want to follow the law or to present his good deeds on the judgment day. -In the left, a skeleton and a demon force a naked man into hell, as a group of prophets, including Moses, point to the tablets of the law. -The motifs on the left side are meant to exemplify the idea that law alone, without gospel, can never get you to heaven. -Christ sits and judges as Adam and Eve eat the fruit and fall from grace. -All together, these motifs demonstrate that law leads to hell no matter what. Context: -The Law and the Gospel is the single most influential image of the Lutheran Reformation. -The Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther in 1517, was originally an attempt to reform the Catholic Church. However, reform quickly became rebellion. -The Catholic Church insisted that believers could take action to vouchsafe their salvation by doing good deeds, while Luthers insisted that salvation was in God's hands, and all the believer had to do was to open up and have faith.

73. Last Supper. Leonardo da Vinci. c. 1494-1498 C.E. Oil and tempera.

Function -Christ's "Last Supper". -Used to teach n about this pivotal moment in the religion -Shows unity between the earthly, mortal world with the eternal and divine, but also shows the chaos and flaws of humanity. Content: -Christ asks 2 important lines: "One of you will betray me". - "Take, eat; this is my body" as well as "Drink from it all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for the forgiveness of sins". Christ blesses the bread and wine. These words are the founding moment of the sacrament of the Eucharist. -There are many symbolic references that identify each apostle such as: -Judas Iscariot is recognized both as he reaches to toward a plate beside Christ and and he clutches a purse containing his reward for identifying Christ to the authorities the following day. -Peter, who sits beside Judas, holds a knife in his right hand, foreshadowing that Peter will sever the ear of a soldier as he attempts to protect Christ from arrest. -The balanced composition is made by an equilateral triangle formed by Christ's body. -These ideal geometric forms refer to the renaissance interest in Neo-Platonism. -Leonardo's pretty landscapes beyond the windows are often interpreted as paradise. It has been suggested that this heavenly sanctuary can only be reached through Christ. -The twelve apostles are arranged as four groups of three and there are also three windows. The number three is often a reference to the Holy Trinity. Context: -The subject of the Last Supper is Christ's final meal with his apostles before Judas turns him in to the authorities. -Soon after the painting was completed on February 9, 1498 it began to deteriorate; terrible condition.

71. Madonna and Child with Two Angels. Fra Filippo Lippi. c. 1465 C.E. Tempera on wood.

Function -Patronage is a factor, Lippi produced this artwork for the Medici family. -They wanted a piece to show a religious background, along with constantly being reminded of Jesus Christ every time they would look at this painting. So in order to accommodate these requests, Mary has her hands together to represent prayer, and the two angels have wings. -Lippi wanted a humanist representation of Mary to show the audience a more authentic look on such angelic people. -This artworks function is to remind the viewer of the story behind the virgin Mary, and Christ. Content -Fra Fillippo Lippi's wife was used as a model for Mary in this painting, and she is represented as a very beautiful woman with delicate features. -The angels look very playful, one of the angels is posed smiling at the viewer. The other is in the background with one side of his face showing, the other is blocked by Jesus. Both angels are seen supporting baby Jesus with their hands. -Every figure in this artwork has blonde hair symbolizing youth and innocence. -The frame of the picture behind Mary aligns to the painting itself, and helps to add onto the realistic aspect of what Lippi was trying to portray. Context -The time period of this artwork is sometime during 1460 - 1465 -Lippi was a painter, in Florence, during the second generation of Renaissance artists, when he painted this artwork.

69. David. Donatello. c. 1440-1460 C.E. Bronze.

Function -Patronage is a factor, this sculpture was made to represent David as a symbol for the Republic of Florence, Italy (which like the Old Testament youth stood up to its rivals) and also a great role model for independence. -Specifically, Florence had been set upon Milan and other rivals and withstood, similar to David overcoming Goliath the larger adversary. -This figure is important because it's Donatello's most famous work, it was the first major work of Renaissance sculpture, and it is the first freestanding nude sculpture (since the ancient times) for about a thousand years. -The people during this time started to celebrate body and humanism. Their mindsets were,"God made it so we should show it off." Content -This sculpture represents the story of David and Goliath. David was a shepherd boy who herded the sheep and was favored by God. -He was challenged to fight Goliath, and David ended up being victorious, because he is seen casually resting his foot on Goliath's head with a sword in his right hand. -David's pose can easily be represented as effortless, and feminine. Since David is not entirely naked, the main focus is drawn to his hat and boots. The hat adds to David's beauty by the adolescent body, and the flower detail on the hat represents a "homosexual subculture" during fifteenth-century Florence. And the boots are represented as the "manly" features for David, because he's standing on Goliath's head. -A useful interpretation has been to place the statue in the context of fifteenth century notions of male identity. -There is a separation between David's graceful pose and the beauty of his facial expression and the gruesomeness of the decapitated head of Goliath below his feet. -For the viewer, it's hard to imagine this young man, who had been engaged in mortal combat and cut off the head of Goliath. Context -The time period of this artwork is sometime during the 1430s - 1460s Italy, in the fifteenth century, (Florence) above all is the seat of an artistic, humanistic, technological, and scientific time period known as the Renaissance.

74. Adam and Eve. Albrecht Dürer. 1504 C.E. Engraving.

Function -Served to please the eye -Made to show people the story of Adam and Eve with a new modern invention. Content -Adam and Eve are clearly in a german forest (evidence- the woods are shown as dark and menacing like they are in german tales and there are "devils" around the couple which are seen throughout german folklore) -Adam and Eve are the first humans ever created according to the bible. -There are multiple animals around them including a parrot who is on a branch which identifies the artist as a citizen of Nuremberg. -Showcases Vitruvian (Roman architect) ideals about the human body. -The four animals represent the four humors in the human body (Melancholic: elk, black bile, Phlegmatic: ox, phlegm, Sanguine: rabbit, blood, and Choleric: cat, yellow bile). -Adam and Eve are pictured naked and naturalism is seen. There heads are tilted towards each other and artificial distinct configuration between the head and neck is seen. - During the Italian Renaissance, people were painted with perfect proportions of the body. -The nearly symmetrical frontal poses of Adam and Eve demonstrate idealized proportions of the nude to a Northern audience unfamiliar with classical norms of beauty. -Colorful tropical parrots were collectors items in Germany. -Symbols of art since the call of the parrot was "Eva-Ave" represented Eve and Ave Maria ("Hail Mary"-the name of a prayer in honor of the Virgin Mary). Context -Parrots were often bought by wealthy germans at the time to show off their wealth. -At the time people thought that if all of your humors were healthy a person would look ideal -German artists were interested in classical Italian/Roman art. -Printmaking was super new to people at the time of its creation. -Dürer was credited as an agent of change from gothic to renaissance.

89. Ecstasy of Saint Teresa. Cornaro Chapel, Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria. Rome, Italy. Gian Lorenzo Bernini. c. 1647-1652 C.E. Marble (sculpture); stucco and gilt bronze (chapel).

Function -To inspire faith into the viewer. -To tell the story of Teresa. -Church itself operates as a Catholic church and originally dedicated to St. Paul. -It was rededicated to the Virgin Mary in gratitude for a military victory in 1620. Content -Saint Terasa was a recently canonized saint who in this piece is seeing a vision of an angel. -The story is that the angel appeared to her and stabbed her several times taking a piece of her when he pulled back the spear. -She was then filled with both incredible pain and the love of god. -The angel is angelic and flowing. -Teresa is more grounded and of the earth Around the statue the Cornaro family is seen looking down at the scene from nose bleed like seats. -The fresco shows a dove surrounded by light which represents the holy spirit. Context -Bernini used both his deep religious faith and love of theater to make this. -In the Cornaro Chapel Teresa was canonized in 1622. -Bernini was commissioned by cardinal Frederico Cornaro.

96. Fruit and Insects. Rachel Ruysch. 1711 C.E. Oil on wood.

Function: -1648 Netherlands gained independence from Spain, and a flourishing new economy followed. Increased trade allowed a wealthy merchant class to rapidly grow, so Ruysch's paintings were made to sell directly to wealthy buyers (not commissioned by the Church or a monarchy). -Also speculated that flowers used to send message of the mortality of humans and beauty. Content: -Depicts a large bunch of flowers, vegetables, and small insects. -Squash, plums, peaches, chestnuts, grapes, wheat (autumnal). -In a Christian context, the grapes (wine) may represent the blood of Christ and the wheat (grain, bread) the body, or Eucharist. -A small butterfly, lizard, flies, and small ant. -A bird's nest with eggs. -Represents the microscopic natural world in great detail. Context: -During this art period, the paintings in highest demand included still-lifes, landscapes, or realistic life scenes, a movement away from earlier periods of grand religious depictions. -Around this time, the horticulture industry was rapidly expanding in the Netherlands, and flowers (especially tulips) were a symbol of wealth (aforementioned economic rise following Netherlands' independence). -Her father was a scientist and specialized in botany, and he possessed various different plant specimens Rusych's paintings reflect these small aspects of the natural world and the ability to study it very closely, learned from her father. -Made around the time the microscope was invented, and new emphasis was placed on this new world and microscopic things. -This painting represents a microcosm of the new environment that was being discovered in science with the microscope. -Ruysch was a very prolific an well-known artist, specialized in still-lifes of flowers. -Her art pieces were widely coveted and very expensive. -At 15 she started an apprenticeship with well-known artist Willem van Aelst who also specialized in flowers.

53. Merovingian looped fibulae. Early medieval Europe. Mid-sixth century C.E. Silver gilt worked in filigree, with inlays of garnets and other stones.

Function: -A brooch for fastening clothes -It was buried with the dead to show their status and who they were as people -Expensive objects to the commission. The owners wanted to resonate their identity. Content: -They usually had elaborate designs. -A great example of barbarian metalworks and cloisonne. -Decorated with garnets, amethyst, and colored glass. -The shape of an eagle head is at the end of the fibulae. -Garnets were used to decorate the eyes. -The brooch was a body of a fish. -Pendants could possibly be hung on the small loops at each end of the fibulae. -Semi- precious stones and gems were used to decorate the rest of the fibulae. Context: -Made popular by Roman military campaigns. -Called a "crossbow" fibula because of its resemblance to a weapon. -Cultural exchange occurred between the barbarians and Romans as they copied and shared each of their works after antiquity. -Little written documents about the barbarians are found today, so it gives historians some information. -The eagle found is a popular motif in barbarian art in the Middle Ages. -Eagles, which was originally the pagan symbol of the sun, is used my Imperial Rome and an emblem to Saint John. -Made by solder wires on a metal base and those areas created by the wire are filled on the stone.

54. Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George. Early Byzantine Europe. Sixth or early seventh century C.E. Encaustic on wood.

Function: -A private devotional object used to inspire the pious and help them express their veneration for God and enhance their spirituality. Content: -Shows the Virgin and Child flanked by two soldier saints, St. Theodore to the left and St. George at the right. -Above these are two angels who gaze upward to the hand of God, from which light emanates, falling on the Virgin. -The space appears compressed. They are positioned in the front and staring directly at the viewer. -Their feet are slightly lifted off the ground to mark divinity. -They have no emotions on their face and are erect. - It looks almost as if they are ready to receive praise and respect from the viewers. -The virgin is the center icon as they sit on a throne to imply being removed from the world. -They are highlighted by the Heaven's light to show their relationship with God, but does not look at the viewer. -The Child is in the Virgin's lap. He also is not making eye contact with the viewer. -The angels are looking upwards to the hand of God and are dressed in all white. -They are also seen wearing halo to make their holiness more evident. -They are the furthest back and highest up to really show how they are removed from the Earth. -God is represented by a hand emerging in the top of the painting. -Light is shining from his hand and most likely will land on the Virgin. -This is set into zones to set the path of holiness to God. -Each zone shows subjects who symbolize the levels of relative closeness to God. -The architecture at the top closes off and protects this holy scene. Context: -The face of the people are modeling. Shadows are also used to highlight the light coming from God's hand and the throne on the floor. -Naturalistic features such as vein on the angels and the drapery make the painting look more realistic. -These are more Greek/Roman traits, unlike some Byzantine traits such as emotionless faces, simple body positions, big, gold halos, and the appearance of being very flat that are also pointed out in this painting. -Created when Constantinople was being restored and making a bunch of churches. -A transitional piece going from Classical Antiquity to the height of Byzantine Christianity.

94. Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene. Circle of the González Family. c. 1697-1701 C.E. Tempera and resin on wood, shell inlay.

Function: -Artist is unknown, but it was made locally. So it's made by an artist in New Spain at the time for the viceroy. Most likely was supposed to be placed in his palace Context: -This folding screen is inspired by Japanese folding screen and is called a biombo. -But this is a world that would've been used in the Spanish colony that is now Mexico. -At this time, Mexico is part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. -The Viceroy is actually the administrator for the king. -Early in the 17th century, there's a rise in interests of Japanese objects that are coming to Mexico from the Phillipines. - The type of objects being traded were folding screens, ivory goods, and other luxury items. -Jose Sarmiento de Valladares owned this object, the viceroy himself. -Huge amounts of money were being generated by the colonists. -Huge silver mining industries, raw goods like tobacco, cochineal, and other products were all being sent back to Europe, so people like the viceroy were able to afford these type of fold screens and boxes. -Mexico is in the middle of these exchanged networks, the transpacific exchange, objects being traded from Asia, going to Mexico back to Europe. Content: -On the screen itself, it's a battle scene. -This biombo is only half of the original. The other half is in the museum of in Mexico City. -A chaotic scene between members of the Habsburg empire, the Spanish empire at the time, and the Turks. -The Habsburg's were the family that ruled Spain and in control of much of the world as well as Central Europe. -Seeing the Battle of Belgrade between the Ottoman Turks going into Central Europe, but here it is in Mexico on a Japanese screen. -Each side of the biombo were intended for different audiences. -Side with the battle was intended for the viceroy, people coming to visit the viceroy, and important individuals. -Political use as an expression of his power. -The other side is way more relaxed and is much more decorative. The decorative border hangs, almost making it look like a textile. -It's a hunting scene. The design came from a Medici tapestry that was made in France. The tapestry was then copied into print, which is how it appears here in Mexico. -The battle scene is also based off a print coming from Europe. -There is footing, which is reminiscent of lacquerware from Japan. Above that is a dense botanical motif with all these blossoms. -Creating this frame allows viewers to look into this deep space and spectacular landscape. -On both sides of the screen, there are a lot of classicizing elements such as the swags at the top held in the mouths of lions. This is a classical elements people saw in Rome during the Renaissance.

77. Isenheim altarpiece. Matthias Grünewald. c. 1512-1516 C.E. Oil on wood.

Function: -Created to serve as the central object of devotion in an Isenheim hospital built by the Brothers of St. Anthony. -Facilitate public prayer. -Fully opened on special occasions to help inspire hope. Content: - On these panels are visions of hell on earth, in which the physical and psychological torments that afflicted Christ and a host of saints are visions in dark colors and played by distorted figures—men, women, angels and demons are lit and placed in eerie landscapes. -The painted panels fold out to reveal three distinct ensembles. In its common, closed position the central panels close to depict a horrific, night-time Crucifixion. -There is seen Christ, distorted, displayed on the cross. His hands pelted to the cross in agony and his body marked with spots of pox. -The Virgin swoons into the waiting arms of the young St. John the Evangelist while John the Baptist, on the other side gestures towards the suffering body at the center and holds a scroll. -The emphatic physical suffering was intended to be miracle performing, a point of identification for those in hospital. -The flanking panels depict St. Sebastian, long known as a plague saint because of his body pocked by arrows, and St. Anthony Abbot. -In the predella panel is a Lamentation, the horrifyingly punctured dead body of Christ is presented to contemplate mortality and resurrection. -The second position emphasizes this promise of resurrection. Its panels depicts the Annunciation, the Virgin and Child with musical angels and the Resurrection. -The musical angels are lit by an eerie orange-yellow light while the adjacent Madonna of Humility sits in a twilight landscape. -In the Resurrection panel, Christ is draped in orange, red and yellow body haloes and rises hovering over the sepulchre and the bodies of the sleeping soldiers. This is a combination of Transfiguration, Resurrection and Ascension. -In the two inner panels, on the left, St. Anthony is visited in the blasted-out wilderness by St. Paul. They are about to be fed by the raven in the tree above, and Anthony will later be called upon to bury St. Paul. -The meeting cured St. Anthony of the misperception that he was the first desert hermit, and was therefore a lesson in humility. Context: -Isenheim Hospital was run by Brothers of St. Anthony. -St. Anthony was a patron saint of those suffering from skin diseases. -Took care of sick and dying peasants at hospital Christ was painted in such a macabre way to show them that he too suffered like they are now.

88. San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane. Rome, Italy. Francesco Borromini (architect). 1638-1646 C.E. Stone and stucco.

Function: -Dedicated to St. Charles Borromeo and the Holy Trinity (for the Trinitarians) - A great church within a very small and cramped space Content: -The facade has undulating waves, while the upper part has concave bays. - In the center, there is an oval held by asymmetrically placed angels. -The upper facade was completed only after Borromini's death -Most sources believe that the top half is a result of Borromini's nephew's taking over the project in about 1675-1677. -The lower stories have two outer concave bays and a convex center, which is united by continuous entablature. -There's a central niche above the portal of the statue of St. Charles Borromeo by Antonio Raggi. -The sides are statues of the founders of the Trinitarian order, St. John of Matha and St. Felix of Valois. -The dome has windows at the base add to ethereal effect and cofferings, which are circles with octagonal molding, unequal hexagons, and Greek crosses. -Has a window of real sunlight where an oculus might be. -There's a paradox of imagination ,fantasy, emotion against intellect. This helps add to the mystical effect of the church and the mysteriousness of religion. -The decorations are symmetrical and there are many carvings -There are also cherubs with a head and wings but no body -Light unifies the space Context: There are characteristics of the Baroque, which are undulating movements and sculptural effects -Borromini built it basically for free because he was very thankful to the trinitarians - his first clients. -This allowed himself full creative freedom. -This was Borromini's first independent commission in Rome. -It was commissioned in 1634 and was built during 1638-1646 except for the tall facade, which was added about 1677. Francesco Borromini was anItalian architect who was a chief formulator of Baroque architectural style. He was known for basing his designs on geometric figures. -He also had medieval, Florentine, and mannerist influences -He suffered from severe melancholiamade worsened by hallucinations. -He fell upon a sword during a fit after mortally wounding himself, repented, received the last sacraments of the church, and wrote his will before he died. - His friend, MadernoIt, suggested that Borromini's suicide was the result of an increasing schizophrenia and that this pathological process is reflected in his architecture. -It got its name because of its location. It's located in one of the four corners between Via del Quirinale-Via Venti Settembre and Via delle Quattro Fontane, which contain the famous fountains.

50. Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well and Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis. Early Byzantine Europe. 6 th Century C.E. Illuminated manuscript

Function: -Depicts the first book of the bible -Meant to please the Christian audience Content: -In Europe, artists and patrons of the ancient world liked realistic details and veracity. Medieval artists and patrons instead valued symbolism and abstraction. The artist of this manuscript was caught in between both of these art styles. -Fragment of a Greek copy of the Book of Genesis. -Left page: Rebecca and Eliezer: from Genesis 24. Abraham wanted to find a wife for Issac, his son. He sent a servant named Eliezer to look for one in his extended family. While looking, she took 10 of Issac's camels and stopped at a well to give them water. She prayed that Issac's wife would help him water his camels. Along came Rebecca who helps ad Eliezer knows that this is the woman for Issac. -The story overall is about God intervening to ensure a sound marriage for Abraham's son. - Right page: shows two episodes. Rebecca is shown twice as she leaves to go get more water for herself and then encounter Eliezer, who she assists in getting the camels water as well. -There are classical elements to recall artwork from ancient Greece and Rome such as walking by a colonnade. -On the left, is a woman nude. She serves as a personification of the source of the well's water. -Representations of people as lakes or large bodies of water were common in the classical world. - The figure's sensuality is emphasized by her nudity and reclining pose, typical of Greek and Roman art. -This is in contrast to Rebecca's heavily draped and fully-covered body, typical of Early Christian art. -Elements of Early Christian art, such as the symbolic representation of the walled city, packed with rooftops and buildings that are not represented in a spatially consistent way, is typically medieval art; so is the colonnade. -The folds of clothing were also simplified. The figures appear to be more cartoon-like. -The other is Jacob wrestling the angel: Genesis 32. Jacob is leading his family across a bridge to get over a river. He then has to fight an angel all night, where he ten receives his blessings and in the end, his name is changed to Israel. -Signs of Romanesque- forms of the bodies under the drapery and Roman colonnade on the bridge. Context: -Example of the oldest surviving well-preserved illustrated biblical books and a great example of an artist caught in the moment of transition. -Medieval artists were interested in the concept of space or being realistic, but liked instead the symbolic representation of things, which is seen all over this manuscript.

58. Church of Sainte-Foy. Conques, France. Romanesque Europe. Church: c. 1050-1130 C.E.; Reliquary of Saint Foy: ninth century C.E., with later additions. Stone (architecture); stone and paint (tympanum); gold, silver, gemstones, and enamel over wood (reliquary).

Function: -Has a religious function, a place of worship and pilgrimage, hosts pilgrims on their journey to Santiago de Compostela in Spain. -It is also an abbey, a part of a monastery where monks worked, prayed, and lived. -Visitors would be blessed, demonstrate their piety, and to be saved on Judgment day. -Places like these would inspire Christians into behaving in a holy manner that would ultimately lead them to Heaven. -There was a lot of misuse of church offices at the time among clergymen, elements like the carvings that you'll see speak to the misuse of church offices. Indeed, this portal was not only a warning for pilgrims, but for the clergy as well. -Generally to respect Christ and honor his sacrifice on the cross for mankind's salvation. Content: -Barrel-vaulted nave, with arches on the interior, the central part of the church building, meant to accommodate most of the congregation. -Apse, the typically large semicircular or polygonal recess in a church, with a domed roof, usually containing the altar. Side aisles on either side. 5 radiating chapels surround the apse (in a semicircle). -A cruciform outlined church. -Elaborately carved relief carving on the South end of the Last Judgment. Before people would go inside to receive blessings, an important message of the Last Judgment is shown. This scene is depicted on the tympanum, the central semi-circular relief carving above the central portal. -In the center sits Christ. He is depicted as in power, the one true Judge. He sits enthroned with his right hand pointing upwards to the saved while his left hand gestures down to the damned. Reminds people of the joys of heaven and torments of hell. Mary, Peter and possibly the founder of the monastery as well as an entourage of other saints are on the right of him. -Below the saints on Christ's Right is an arcade (a covered passageway with arches along one or both sides) covered by a pediment, symbolizing the House of Paradise. Houses those who are saved; people who will live with Christ forever. Abraham is seated at the center. Above Abraham, the Hand of God reaches out to a kneeling Sainte Foy (Saint Faith) On the pediment's opposite side, angels open and release souls from their graves to be judged by God. -A large doorway is shown leading to paradise, and a gaping mouth is shown leading to hell. Clear divide in faith is depicted on Judgment day Pediment of the Lower register of Hell has the Devil sitting in the center, smiling and surrounded by tortured souls. -Feelings of pain, chaos, and cruelty all surround him. They all represent capital sin, adultery, gluttony, arrogance, misuse of church offices. -Devil sits enthroned like Christ: as he has the power to judge/punish the damned. -On the left of the devil is a hanged man, representing Judas. He hanged himself after he betrayed Christ. -As mentioned before, the reliquary is a container holding the remains of Saint Foy, a martyr. It is golden and gem encrusted, very expensive. Those on pilgrimage would bring gems of their own to contribute. Context: -Other small churches stood on sight from the 7th century. A church had stood on the spot since the 600s; the Church of Sainte-Foy was built from 1050-1130. -It's an important pilgrimage church on the route to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain. Many churches on the pilgrimage route had a similar or identical layout. -Pilgrims went to receive a blessing; their visitation = demonstration of piety -The reliquary: Originally displayed in a monastery in Agen. First mentioned in written history in 1010 by Bernard of Angers, worried it would inspire idolatry because of its expensiveness. -The monks at Conques stole it to draw visitors, it contained the bones of a beloved martyr. Sainte Foy, a 12-year-old French, Christian convert lived in Southern France under the Roman Empire. She was killed for refusing to worship pagan gods, making her seen as a martyr. -Pilgrims would bring gems to be added to the reliquary as symbols of their piety. Includes agates, amethysts, crystals, carnelians, emeralds, and many others... -The Reliquary brought/brings a great number of pilgrims or tourists. Perhaps the purpose of wanting to attract more people was to build up Conques' commerce and economy...

92. Woman Holding a Balance. Johannes Vermeer. c. 1664 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Function: -Here show is wealth and piety. There is need a balance between those two worlds. -The sign of vanity possibly is relating to the worldly possession idea as she is ignoring the painting and focusing on what is in front of her. Content: -This scene is just out of her everyday life. -The woman is dressed in fine clothing is apart of the upper merchant class in Holland during the 17th century. -This class was buying more art. -She wears a typical cap made of linen worn by women at home. The fur trimmed jacket meaning it's cold out. -She stands in front of table on the wall opposite her is a window to let light in. -On the table in front of her, there are a number of boxes. One is already open and is thought to have held the balance and weights. In the other box, there are strings of pearls and coins to possibly weight the material wealth. (Against weighing the judgement of material wealth vs like of divinity). -Behind her, there is a painting of christ functioning as a judge over the souls. -The souls at bottom on the right are blessed and left are damned. This plays out the last judgement. -Strong indication that this painting is about more than just a woman weighing her valuables -Her head divides the blessed from the damned. -Light illuminates the the side of the blessed and darkens her back which is the damned. -The light also creates motion, bringing to life this idea that she is waiting for the balance to become still. Context: -The origins of this work has been traditionally linked to Pieter de Hooch, whose Gold Weigher matches Vermeer's work very closely. Since neither of the paintings is dated, critics have guessed who influenced who on the basis of style. -Little is known about his childhood -During this time, artists are now painting for the merchant class as opposed to for the church. -Vermeer makes very secular painting and uses light from windows a lot. Most of his painting are also in houses just like this one.

70. Palazzo Rucellai. Florence, Italy. Leon Battista Alberti (architect). c. 1450 C.E. Stone, masonry.

Function: -It was designed as a home for the Rucellai family. -Represents the family's wealth, power, status etc. It also gave them a place for business, a place to house their servants and to house any guests that they had. Content: -Many different designs can be seen on the exterior of the building. Including the family seal which depicts a ring with 3 feathers coming out of it. -Rectangular windows (1st floor) as you go up the windows get rounder. -A feeling of lightness as you move from the bottom to the top of the building. -Surrounded by benches. -Large blocks of stone are seen near the bottom of the building. -Entirely straight lines. -Pilaster (Flattened Columns) are seen at the bottom of the building. Context: -The building was built after the Medici's built their house and some of that can be seen in the two buildings. -Giovanni Di Paolo Rucellai commissioned the building, he had also commissioned several other works and was a very big patron of the arts. -Rucellai and Leon did use more Ancient Greek and Roman styles when they built his house, however Alberti took influence from the Colosseum when he visited Rome in the 1430s. He used a lot of similar elements mainly for design and not actual support. The columns don't do anything for the facade they are there for style. -The Rucellai family was a family of merchants who had commissioned several pieces. This building was to be their house. -Their family had intended the building to be bigger than it was but they couldn't purchase the nearby building so the plans were never completed. -Leon wrote a book on architecture that was the first printed book about architecture, the book is called On the Art of Building In Ten Books, the different sections go over different elements of architecture. -He wanted to build a house for his family that displayed how powerful and wealthy he was. -The building was created in 1450.

93. The Palace at Versailles. Versailles, France. Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart (architects). Begun 1669 C.E. Masonry, stone, wood, iron, and gold leaf (architecture); marble and bronze (sculpture); gardens.

Function: -Meant to emphasize King Louis IX's importance The Hall of Mirrors. -The practical function was just a passageway for the king to pass through. -It was also used for parties and military agreements, and with how the sun reflects off of the windows it showcases the grandeur and power of the "Sun King". -Designed to glorify the french monarch with a combination of Baroque and Classical architectural styles. -By utilizing the classical Greek architectural style, King Louis was linking himself to the great thinkers of the classical period, a display of vanity in a sense. Content: -The Kings official state bedroom. -Where the king would perform rising and going to sleep ceremonies everyday. -The Queen's bedchamber The Hall of Mirrors: -Runs along the the entire length of the central building. -One wall contains giant windows overlooking the gardens while the other wall consists of 357 mirrors The exterior of the palace uses simple Classical architecture borrowed from ancient Greek temples. The Gardens: -Symmetrical French gardens with ornate fountains that seemed to have "magically" still water. -Behind the palace is the Latona Fountain which depicts scenes from Ovid's Metamorphoses -The Royal walk extends back with trees lining the path leading to the Fountain of Apollo. -Beyond the fountain there is the Grand Canal which Venetian Gondolas traversed -The Orangerie is a grove of exotic trees, flanked by raised flower beds. Context: -Initially the palace was used as a hunting lodge and private retreat for King Louis XIII and his family. King Louis XIV transformed the residence into the grandiose complex we know today. -Vast sums of money, and even lives were lost, in an attempt to bring water for the many fountains and waterways. Water was scarce at Versailles. -The Palace of Versailles was declared the official royal residence in 1682, but it was abandoned after the death of Louis XIV. -Following the French Revolution the complex was almost destroyed. -Versailles acted as the headquarters for the German army besieging Paris in 1870-71. -William I of Prussia was crowned German Emperor in The Hall of Mirrors in 1871. -Today it is mostly a tourist attraction but sometimes used for visiting heads of state. -UNESCO designated the palace and gardens as a World Heritage site in 1989.

51. San Vitale. Ravenna, Italy. Early Byzantine Europe. 526-547 C.E; mosaic.

Function: -One of the most famous images of the political authority from the Middle Ages. -Church where panels are in are used primarily to worship the Christian god. Content: -A major theme of this mosaic program is the authority of the emperor in the Christian plan of history. -The mosaic program also gives visual testaments to the two major ambitions of Justinian's reign: as heir to the tradition of Roman Emperors, Justinian anted to restore the territorial boundaries of the Empire. As the Christian Emperor, he saw himself as the defender of the faith. -It was his duty to establish religious uniformity throughout the Empire. -Justinian is posed in the center. He is haloed and wears a crown and a purple imperial robe. -He is surrounded by members of the clergy. -On his left is most famously Bishop Maximianus of Ravenna being labelled with an inscription. -To Justinian's right are members of the imperial administration identified by the purple stripe and at the very far left side appears a group of soldiers. -The clergy and Justinian are carrying a censer, the gospel book, the cross, and the bowl for the bread of the Eucharist. -This identifies the mosaic as the Little Entrance which marks the beginning of the Byzantine liturgy of the Eucharist. -Justinian's gesture of carrying the bowl with the Eucharist can be seen as an act of homage to the True King who appears in the adjacent apse mosaic. -Christ, dressed in imperial purple and sitting on an orb to signify universal dominion. -He offers the crown of martyrdom to St. Vitale, but the same gesture can be seen as offering the crown to Justinian in the mosaic below. -Justinian is Christ's vice-regent on earth and his army is actually the army of Christ signified by the Chi-Rho on the shield. -Justinian mosaic reveals an ambiguity in the positioning of the figures of Justinian and the Bishop Maximianus. Context: -This mosaic establishes the central position of the Emperor between the power of the church and the power of the imperial administration and military. -Justinian has religious, administrative, and military authority. -There is overlapping suggesting that Justinian is closer to the viewer, but it is evident Maximianus's feet are lower, suggesting that he is actually closer to the viewer. -This can perhaps be seen as an indication of the tension between the authority of the Emperor and the church.

78. Entombment of Christ. Jacopo da Pontormo. 1525-1528 C.E. Oil on wood.

Function: -Patron was Girolamo Vittrice, wanted it by Pontormo for his family Chapel within church in Florence. -Acts as main altarpiece. -Summons grief over Christ's sacrifice, but also encourages the magnitude of the moment. -Piece challenges naturalism of Renaissance works Some historians believe the work was connected to the Chapel itself; meant to show Christ being laid to rest in Capponi Chapel. -Contrasts religious iconography with human suffering at the supposed moment of Christ's death. Content: -Mary displays "Swooning Virgin" expression Circular composition, no where for one's eyes to really stop and test on. -Could be implying endless grief. -Center of piece is a woman's handkerchief and Christ's hand being held up by others. -Hands could be symbolizing the sacrifice Christ's death was thought to be, gifting humanity the ability to ask God for forgiveness with his death. -Constant movement of the individuals also plays to the restlessness of the piece, eye cannot rest. -Exclusion of context clues, like tomb/slab or cross/ladder leaves the actual moment up to interpretation. -Debated topic of what stage of Christ's sacrifice this was. Context: -Protestant Reformation in Northern Europe began, Martin Luther popularizing the questioning of transubstantiation, good works, indulgences (1517). The Florentine Republic shaken but reinstated, eventually ends as Medici family takes control and becomes Dukes of Florence. -Associated with rise of Mannerism and artistic fading of Renaissance naturalism. -Artificially emphasized, art becomes its on source of meaning and extravagance instead of nature More ambiguous depictions of already created scenes. -Emotion takes over rationality, exaggerated to the point of contrivance.

80. Venus of Urbino. Titian. c. 1538 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Function: -Patronage was a factor. -Duke Urbino Guidobaldo II Della Rovere commissioned this work from Titian for his wife. -The woman (who is assumed to be Venus) looks directly at the viewer as if she is waiting for them. -Her expression is confident and unfazed by her own nudity. -The viewer is drawn in by the intrigue of her expression and reclined pose. Content: -The woman was named Venus because this allowed the artist to paint her nude without social repercussions. -Though many people have given the woman in the painting several different identities, some kind some vulgar. -Many thought she wasn't Venus but just a depiction of the ideal female body type. -The two woman in the back of the painting are not as debated over, it is thought the younger and older woman represent motherhood and the dog represents fidelity. -There are also roses that symbolize love. -The most popular theory of the woman is that Titian blended common women's identities in sixteenth century Italy to create this piece. Context: -When this piece was made Venice had a strong government with good trade that was able to invest in artists. -This piece helps show the social practices of intertwining marriage, sexuality, and female beauty in Renaissance Italy.

66. Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece). Robert Campin. 1427-1432 C.E. Oil on wood.

Function: -Private devotion -Helps maintain an interest from physical objects to spiritual ideas. Content -The center scene: Mary and Gabriel- appear closer to make prayer more intimate. -He appeared to tell Mary she will give birth to Christ. -The shiny pot represents Mary's purity. -A small figure holding a cross coming through the window to Mary represents the holy spirit. -This is the first time God has taken human form. -Donors are on the left: The Patrons: a man and his wife and the donors are kneeling. -In a walled garden refers to Mary's virginity. -Joseph is on the right. He is a carpenter and is making tools in a workshop. -Through the window, viewer can see the prosperous city. Context: -New found prosperity in Northern Europe caused commissions to increase. -Annunciation was painted first, then the left side donors were added.

82. Il Gesù, including Triumph of the Name of Jesusceiling fresco. Rome, Italy. Giacomo da Vignola, plan (architect); Giacomo della Porta, facade (architect); Giovanni Battista Gaulli, ceiling fresco (artist). Church: 16th century C.E.; facade: 1568-1584 C.E.; fresco and stucco figures: 1676-1679 C.E. Brick, marble, fresco, and stucco.

Function: -Serves as the main and original church for the Jesuits. I-It's an important place for previous and current Jesuits, as it is the mother church. -Served as a model for the future Jesuit churches. -Ceiling fresco serves to illustrate the beliefs of the Jesuits. -Called the people to their faith and scared them into not believing. Content: -Single aisled church, removing others for more space and easily walked through. -Church has a cruciform floor plan, so it does not bear exactly like a cross. -The church has a dome over the intersection of the large nave and transept. -A mix of the rational and Baroque styles. -Focus is on the altar in the center. -Renaissance style columns. Context: -Saint Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the newfound Jesuit religion, needed a church to serve as the religion's center. -They were against the reformation and focused their teachings on charitable works, education, and missionaries. -Tense moment in terms of religion, as the reformation was almost 100 years prior and there were many religious wars going on. -Funded by Cardinal Farnese, who was the Pope's grandson. -Church is in the center of old Rome.

98. The Tête à Tête, from Marriage à la Mode. William Hogarth. c. 1743 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Function: -Similar to a political cartoon, meant to make fun of the wealthy. -A satirical look at arranged marriages, this is done to appeal to the middle class. -The people are shown in goofy poses and over exaggerated facial expressions. Content: -The piece shows an unmarried couple in the middle of a fight. -The artist makes it clear that this is a very wealthy couple by showing them in a a lavish home surrounded by expensive things carelessly strewn across the floor. -The man (recognized to be Viscount Squanderfield) seems to be drunk and uninterested. -A dog is also sniffing at what seems to be a bonnet in his pocket suggesting he's been cheating. -The wife is also shown to be cheating as her blouse is unbuttoned and she seems all too relaxed. -The accountant adds to the silliness of the painting by having an over exaggerated expression on his face with his hands in the air. -The paintings of saints and christian sculptures and offerings highlight the couples immorality. Context: -This is the second piece from a group of 6 works -These works are in chronological order to form a storyline. -A story of a marriage for wealth that depicts the flaws of the wealthy and their immorality. -Hogarth created these works to profit off of the new middle class by creating art that would be mass consumed.

81. Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza. Viceroyalty of New Spain. 1541-1542 CE Ink&color on paper.

Function: -The Frontispiece is a commissioned Codex to record information about the Aztec Empire. It has information about the organizations and foundations of their capital (Tenochtitlan) -Their capital city was built where it was because their ancestors were told to leave their current home and build one where they saw an eagle on top of a cactus -The glyphs surrounding the page are supposed to be years. Content: -The work depicts the Aztects finding their city and them conquering other nations depicting how powerful they were -The work also depicts their founding of Tenochtitlan -The work also depicts Tenoch the priest and the other 9 men who led the Aztecs to find their new capital -The war scene beneath is to represent their previous military victories and have them come off as powerful Context: -The creator of the work is unknown, they were most likely indigenous(Nahuas specifically) and possibly more than one person created the work. -The work was created in 1541-1542 CE at the Viceroyalty of Spain. -It was made to record information about the Aztecs. -The specific page is meant to show the founding of the Aztec capital. -The work was going to be sent to Spain but it never made it their as French pirates took it and it later ended up in France.

56. Great Mosque. Córdoba, Spain. Umayyad. c. 785-786 C.E. Stone masonry.

Function: -The Great Mosque was created as a place of worship, and to reinforce Umayyad Muslim rule over the region in Spain -Mihrab in the Mosque points towards Mecca, a holy place in Islam that is prayed towards by Muslims.The beauty of the Mosque is to glorify worship of God, and to help promote Islamic culture and control in Spain, where Islam was foreign. -This mosque was built on the site of a Christian church made by the Visigoths. This makes a statement about the new rulers and existence of Islam. Content: -The Great Mosque does not contain any icons, due to the unique iconographic restrictions of the islamic faith. -Much of the artistic importance of the Great Mosque comes from its architecture and coloring, and the many individually important features of the Mosque which help with following proper religious procedures. -There are patterns made of different materials along many walls of the Mosque, which add to its beauty. -Repeating elements (columns, arches, voussoirs) - establishes a steady rhythm within the structure.-This structural repetition suggests the same kind of repetition in prayer (as seen in Muslim worship: five times per day). -Mosaics, inscriptions from the Quran, and brilliant colors line interior. -Mihrab= the wall that indicates the direction of Mecca for Muslims' daily prayer time-Intricate composition of criss-crossing arches demonstrates the mathematical & architectural accomplishments of the Islamic civilization. -Minbar= used to stand by the mihrab as the place for the prayer leader & a symbol of authority Context: -The Great Mosque in Cordoba was created by the Umayyads, a Muslim nation which had invaded Cordoba and the rest of Spain in order to spread Islam and gain power. -The Mosque is also thought to have materials and influences taken from a previous Christian church it had replaced, and represents the diversity of cultures that had ruled in Cordoba. -Roman and Visigothic influences are seen in the architecture of the Mosque, showing a synthesis of architectural design. -The building was expanded over 200 years (even after becoming a mosque). -Began as a roman temple. -Temple was converted to a church by Visigoths - who seized cordoba in 572 CE.-Rulers built mosques & palaces through the islamic empire to demonstrate dynasty authority & the increasing power of the islamic faith. -Both a major commercial & intellectual center for the arts, literature, science, & philosophy. -Fostered a diverse & thriving urban culture. -The Great Mosque was one of the most important buildings in Cordoba, both as a place of worship, a cultural hub, and an administrative headquarters. It remains an iconic part of the city into the modern day.

57 . Pyxis of al-Mughira. Umayyad. c. 968 C.E. Ivory.

Function: -The Pyxis were bestowed upon members of the royal family, specifically sons, wives, or daughters on special occasions such as marriage, coming of age, or birth. -Later they were given as Caliphal gifts to important allies, many of whole converted to Islam and swore their allegiance to the Umayyad Caliphs in Spain. -The practical function was to carry perfumes and other cosmetics. Content: -The pyxis is decorated with four eight-lobed medallions. -These medallions are surrounded by figures and animals, including falconers, wrestlers, griffons, peacocks, birds, goats and animals to be hunted. -Each medallion has princely iconography. -One medallion centers around a lute player surrounded by two figures, one who holds the braided scepter and flask of the Umayyads, while the other holds a fan. Presumably the man with the scepter and flask symbolizes the Umayyad Caliph, and the figure with the fan, the Abassids. -Another medallion shows lions attacking two bulls. As in Arabic poetry, these lions symbolize the victorious. -The final scene shows men on horseback date-picking. The date-palm, found primarily in the Middle East and North Africa, may allude to the lost lands of the East. -An Arabic inscription in the kufic script runs around the base of the lid and reads: "God's blessing, favours, joy, beatitude to al-Mughira son of the Commander of the faithful, may God have mercy upon him, in the year 357." -Although Islamic art is commonly viewed as an-iconic, human and animal figures play an important role in iconography. Context: -The pyxis was probably cut from the cross-section of an elephant's tusk and it was adorned in highly specific, royal iconography. -There are also traces of inlaid jade. Jade and other precious and semi-precious stones were used in the decoration of these boxes. -This was a coming of age gift for al Mughira, the 18-year-old daughter of the caliph of the Umayyad dynasty. -Ivory was part of the mediterranean art tradition, so this work is an example of local artistic tradition blended with Islamic themes. -This comes from the royal workshop of Madinat al-Zahra, which was one of the wealthiest cities in Umayyad-ruled Spain. -The work is currently located in the Louvre. -The iconography may have had a further specific message to al-Mughira. After the death of his brother, al-Hakam II, al-Mughira may have been a threat to Hisham II and he was executed, along with his supporters.

52. Hagia Sophia. Constantinople Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. 532-537 C.E. Brick and ceramic elements with stone and mosaic veneer.

Function: -The church was built and dedicated to Byzantium Emperor Justinian 1 as well as the city of Constantinople. -It is the symbol of Byzantium. Emperor Justinian 1 reign from 527-565 was known as the First Golden Age of Byzantium and he proclaimed Orthodox Christianity as the only lawful religion. Therefore, he wanted the Hagia Sophia to be built so that it could rival all the other churches in the world. -The original purpose was for the church to be the seat of the patriarch of Constantinople and the head of Eastern Orthodox Church. However, over the years its purpose has changed. -In 1453. The Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque by the Ottomans. -In 1935, it was converted into a museum and most recently in 2020, the Turkish Court revoked its museum status and has reopened it as a place for Muslim prayers. Content: -It is widely believed that the church is named after the Saint Sophia, but in Greek Hagia Sophia means "Church of the Holy Wisdom of God. It sits atop an earthquake fault and has been severely damaged three times with repairs still going on today. -Inside the Hagia Sophia, there is a mosaic which depicts each emperor offering his monument to the Virgin Mary holding the Christ Child. -The memory of Emperor Justinian and Constantine the Great (who built Constantinople) lives on in the church. -It was not only the center of liturgical life, but also political as it was the location where each patriarch crowned the new emperor. Also, the church was used as a way to express Byzantine power to foreign countries and their ambassadors Context: -Anthemius of Tralles and Isadore of Miletus were Justinian's architects who had the goal of surpassing Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem with the Hagia Sophia. -It was known as the "jewel" of Christian churches and inspired many future architects and their endeavors. -Constantinople built the first cathedral in 360 which was burned to the ground during the riots that occurred in 404. -The second one was built by Emperor Theodosis II in 414 and was burned to the ground again in the "Nika Revolts". -The third and final Hagia Sophia was commissioned in 532, completed in 537, and is still standing today.

84. Mosque of Selim II. Edirne, Turkey. Sinan (architect). 1568-1575 C.E. Brick and stone.

Function: -The city Edirne was seen first by European travelers so the Mosque was built to use architecture to impress them. -One Madras served as a college for studying the traditions of the prophet Muhammed. -Built to surpass Hagia Sophia -> demonstrating Islam's triumph. Content: -Consists of 18 domes dominated by a huge central dome; the main dome is supported by 8 columns placed close to the walls -A mosque, two madras, a row of shops, and a school for learning the recitation of the Quran. -The Mosque:-Nearly square prayer hall with an ethereal dome seems to float above. -Dome supported by eight muqarnas-corbelled squinches which are supported by eight large piers. -The muqarnas stepping out opens up more space below. -Exterior buttresses support the east and west piers and do the most work to hold up the dome.-Artfully hidden in exterio porticos and galleries -The Qibla Wall (faces Mecca) projects outward and showcases openness of the space. -The Muzzin platform (place to lead prayers) is directly under the dome, creating an interesting geometric vertical alignment of square, octagon, circle. -Placement could also reflect Sinan's interest in surpassing Christian architecture. Context:-Considered the great masterwork of Sinan, an Ottoman architect. -Dome's octagonal shape was influenced by the tomb of Öljeitü but much larger. -The city of Edirne had been the capital of the Ottoman Empire before Istanbul, and it was effectively the second city of the Empire. -Also it was one of Semin II's favorite citiesEntire complex designated as a UNESCO World Heritage sight in 2011The interior has been repainted throughout the centuries. -The polychrome Iznik tiles remain largely untouched.

65. Alhambra. Granada, Spain. Nasrid Dynasty. 1354-1391 C.E. Whitewashed adobe stucco, wood, tile, paint, and gilding.

Function: -The complex was both a palace and a fortress built during the Nasrid dynasty -Served as a residence for the ruler and the close family to the ruler. -The citadel within the complex was a barracks for the elite guard. -An area called the Medina was where court officials lived and worked. Content: -Four main gates of the complex. -The complex contains many pools and fountains, along with palaces and courtyards with gardens. -The Comares Palace -Comares façade - served as an outdoor stage for the ruler -Court of Myrtles focal points - covered patio surrounding courtyard with pool -Hall of Ambassadors - throne room with diverse decorative and architectural art -Palace of the Lions -Contains a fountain with a complex hydraulic system in a basin on top of statues of lions situated at the intersection of two water channels -Muqarnas Chamber - antechamber with muqarnas ceiling -Hall of Kings - vaulted muqarnas ceiling with paintings representing courtly life -Hall of the Two Sisters- residential apartment with carved and painted stucco with star motifs -The Partal Palace -One of the oldest structures -Portico formed by five-arched arcade Generalife -Built outside of Alhambra walls -Many water channels, fountains, and greenery Context: -Alhambra is an abbreviation for Qal'at al-Hamra, or red fort, thought to be derived from the red color of the exterior walls. -Built during the reign of Ibn al-Ahmar of the Nasrid dynasty and his successors as a fortress and palace. -In 1492 the Spanish took control of Moors, converting all Muslims to Christianity, and effaced the interior of the palace. -Charles V of Spain rebuilt much of the palace in Renaissance style, destroying much of Alhambra to create an Italianate palace in 1526. -In 1812 French forces blew up parts of the palace during the Peninsular Wars. -In 1821 an earthquake further damaged the complex. -José Contreras undertook a restoration of the palace in 1828 which was continued by his son until 1890. The restoration process was continued into the 21st century.

68. The Arnolfini Portrait. Jan van Eyck. c. 1434 C.E. Oil on wood.

Function: -The function of the painting is still uncertain, there are a variety of theories proposed by historians. -They believe that a sacred event is taking place due to them taking off their shoes, their hands joined together, the man putting one had up like he is swearing an oath, and a dog who is a symbol of fidelity, which serves to bless this marriage. - Imagery of religion is seen such as a candle in the chandelier, which is God's presence, roundels on the mirror showing biblical scene, and prayer beads on the wall. -Van Eyck was hired in order to create the work, as was common during his period. -The event represented in the work could be many things, among them a marriage, or an already married couple posing for a portrait, -The work displays the wealthiness of the couple, both in their clothing and in the objects that make up the room. Content: -It is almost definite that the man in the painting is the merchant Giovanni di Nicolao di Arnolfini, and the woman is his wife or wife-to-be. -They are standing in an expensively decorated room. -There is also a well-groomed dog in the room, beneath the couple. -The event portrayed has something to do with the couple. -Surrounded by token symbols of their life such as a dog, oranges, removed shoes, prayer, beads, biblical imagery in the decorative roundels surrounding the mirror, lavish drapery, carpets, and clothing. Context: -Jan van Eyck painted the work, he is considered one of the greatest dutch painters. -In his time he was successful, as evidenced by the vast number of works commissioned from him. -This work was created during the Northern Renaissance period, which saw a development of detail in paintings. -Much of van Eyck's work contains christian religious symbolism. -It is one of the most important European paintings ever made, notable for its complexities and perspective.

91. Las Meninas. Diego Velázquez. c. 1656 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Function: -The work is for the personal pleasure of the King and his guests. Philip was a collector and patron of European art, and tasked Velázquez in both creating artworks for him, and with helping the King in other tasks related to the management of art. -The work was originally meant to be put up in the King's personal palace, not unlike the paintings shown in the background of the work. Content: -The work depicts a significant number of people. -First and most importantly, the Infanta Margarita Teresa, the King's daughter. Beside the Infanta are her two girl assistants. To the right of the three girls are two dwarves, and below the dwarves there is a Mastiff. To the left of the girls is the painter, Velázquez himself who looks ahead towards the viewer. To the upper right of the girls are a couple of people, who are also attendants to the Infanta. In the far background, a mirror shows the King and his wife. -Also, from behind the door in the background is the chamberlain Jose Nieto. -Many aspects of the painting, such as what is ahead of the foreground, are debated. Velázquez is shown painting on another canvas, and the King & Queen are shown in the mirror, so the perspective may be from the royal couple. -The Infanta and her attendants are clearly moving about doing something, and the dwarves are clearly agitating the Mastiff. Velázquez is also clearly painting something out of view as well, as he holds his tools on hand. -Iconography can be more difficult to determine, and is more unclear. While the Infanta is given the clearest attention, there is not clear symbolism of her presence in the painting. She is portrayed as very important and noble. Context: -The work was created by Velázquez for the King of Spain at the time, Philip IV. Philip can be seen in the painting as a reflection in the mirror in the background. Velázquez had been working as the court painter for Spain for quite some time at the time he had painted the work. -The work was probably seen by the more important figures in Spain at the time. The nobility, the rich, friends of the King. It is unlikely that any common person would have the joy of seeing the painting around the time it was finished, as it was held privately in the palace. -The work was probably produced where the painting was set, in a chamber of the King's palace, meant for the holding and making of artworks. -The work is considered to be a masterpiece, and one of the most complex and loved works of art in European & Hispanic history.

59.Bayeux Tapestry. Romanesque Europe c. 1066-1080 C.E. Embroidery on linen.

Function: -This tapestry was used as a way to remember and commemorate the win of the Normans. -This is also a semi- accurate description of war when during these times writing down information was not common; important visual sources for eleventh century textiles that have not survived in the twenty first century. -Provides information about civil and military architecture such as castle mounds, armour such as a nasal helmets and oblong shields, and seafaring. Content: -There are 75 scenes filled with latin inscriptions: tituli. -Presents a continuous narrative to the events leading up to the Battle of Hastings and the battle itself. -From the first meal, dining practices and battle preparation is seen. Examples of armor used, servants serving the food such as preparing bread over a fire, a stew being cooked is all there. -William and his nobles sit down to enjoy a feast as Bishop Odo says grace. -Servants load the food on their shield and then serve it to the people. -The scene with the war: calvary, which means sending in men on horseback is seen with William. -Using calvary allowed the soldiers to easily retreat or advance quickly. -Scattered the defense, so it was easier to invade. The men wore conical steel helmets with a protective nose plate, mail shirts, and carried shields and spears. -The foot soldiers carried spears and axes. -The horses had no armor. -There are wounded men and horses along the tapestry's mid and bottom. -The English soldiers are on foot as they protect themselves with a line of shields. The Normans attack from both of the sides. The lower boarder of the tapestry is filled with dead and injured soldiers. Context: -Was probably made in Canterbury around 1070 Shows the Battles of Hastings in 1066, but shows the events leading up to that. -Begins in 1064 when Edward the Confessor, King of England, instructs his brother- in- law, Harold Godwinson to travel to Normandy to offer his cousin, William, the succession to the English throne In 1064, Harold's ships sail towards the coast of Normandy. After many difficulties, he sends a message to William Duke of Normandy that the King of England has designated him as his heir to the throne. When the old king dies though, Harold has himself crowned instead. -William decides to cross the channel to reclaim his throne. -On October 14th, 1066, the decisive battle between Norman and Anglo- Saxon troops begin: Many people die. -In the end, Harold is hit in the eye by an arrow and dies in battle. The English troops retreat -The textile is missing, probably showing William as king.

48. Catacomb of Priscilla. Rome, Italy. c. 200-400 C.E. Excavated tufa and fresco.

Function: -Thought to be an area of land donated by a wealthy Roman woman named Priscilla to be used for family burial and later a massive number of the Christian community. -It was initially to escape the summer heat... Literally, this was built for religious purposes as a means of burial. Wealthy people would buy out enough space for a sarcophagussarcophocus covered by marble, the poor would not have as much space, covered over by layers of tile and plaster. -Some believe it was a place where Christians could escape persecution, though this may not be all that true. -Overall it has a practical religious function, as well as a social function. -It represents, in modern times, the beginnings of Christian iconography... Content: -Consists of a series of underground passageways, going as deep as three 3 levels underground in some areas. On either side of the walls are horizontal niches called to hold bodies, wealthy people would have larger spaces to fit a sarcophogas. They would be covered by marble or tile and then plaster. There are cubiculum (wealthy) and loculi (poor) throughout the catacomb. -The first images found date to 3rd c from the 200s. Earliest known representation of Madonna and child. Within these walls is the earliest known representation of Madonna and child (Virgin Mary and Jesus). -Also contains some of the earliest of Christian iconography painted and carved. This includes inscriptions that speak to the people buried, relating to their lives and hopes for blessed afterlife. Also includes carved symbols like the anchor, which speaks to safe harbor and salvation. Also use of a fish, a representation of Christ. -Themes of salvation are seen throughout, and reference to content of both the Old and New Testament. For example, the Greek chapel. This had nothing to do with the greeks it was only called this because both latin and greek writing is seen throughout. Consists of Roman first style wall painting, which is when palaster is built and painted to imitate marble to look rich. -It is assumed to be the oldest part of catacombs. It is lavish yet small. Meals could be eaten in this place so as to honor the dead. -Divine intervention scenes are present, the Book of Daniel (three youths in a fiery furnace, story is that they are asked to worship pagan idols but refuse, so they are sentenced to be burned alive but are saved). Pieces like this relate to the struggle of Christian persecution. -Ressurrection of Lazurus, and other miracles of christ. -Sacrifice of Isaac is shown, depicts Abraham in the center and Isaac off to the right carrying wood. We normally see Abraham depicted as about to kill Isaac with his wrist grabbed by an angel. -Breaking of the Bread depcited, looks like a last supper (long table, still life, seven men. Meals). It is really just a reference to the story of multiplication of loaves and fishes, another miracle of Christ, typical in early Christian Iconaology. -Cubiculum of the Veil, has images of a woman married, dressed as a bishop, and as a mother. Refers to the woman buried there. She is in a prayer pose, (referred to as an orant figure) representing the hopes of family that she will enjoy a blessed afterlife. She is looking up to heaven. -Largest painting in this cubiculum is Christ as the Good Shepherd. Depicts three goats, one over shoulders. He is in a contrapposto stance, looks young, no beard, trees with doves next to him. Shows that he will care for his followers like a good shepherd for his flock. Also depicts peacocks, a symbol of eternal life. Quail, a symbol of the earth. -It is all the first tentative steps of what would become christian art. Context: -A wealthy Roman woman named Priscilla gave this land for family burial and later the burials of a massive amount of the Christian community. Grave robbing would occur over time, as well as hunting for relics, which has left some tombs uncovered and empty. -Holds over 40,000 tombs. Christian Martyrys buried here, had spiritual importance and power. -Episodes of persecution were major concerns of Chirstian life until the Edict of Milan officially called for toleration, which slowly softened these tensions. Earliest Christian art can be seen here ( Perhaps not earlier because of the prohibition of such by the Second Commandmen. Or it didn't survive. Or a Christian vocuabulary hadn't been developed yet. -The Catacombs of Priscilla is mentioned in many ancient documents on Christian topography/liturgy in Rome. -There is, as mentioned, a great number of martyrs buried within, so it is called "regina catacumbarum" or the queen of the catacombs. -Priscilla is spoken as a benefactor of the Christian community in Rome. -It was rediscovered in the 16th century.

85. Calling of Saint Matthew. Caravaggio. c. 1597-1601 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Function: -To portray the moment that Matthew became Christ's disciple. -Portrayed this moment in a realistic, relatable, human way (in the dark room, the look of disbelief when Christ calls Matthew). -A commission for this chapel by Cardinal Matthieu Cointerel left a stipulation in his will that he wanted the chapel to be decorated with paintings of Matthew (who he shared a name with) This painting was one of three of Saint Matthew he did for the chapel. -The fact that Matthew began as a sinful, greedy tax collector is also meant to inspire hope in the viewer that they too can reach salvation through faith. Content: -This painting depicts the conversion of Levi into Matthew, a gospel of the Lord (Matthew 9:9) Jesus (figure on the right with his arm extended) is shown entering the room and pointing at Matthew (the bearded man with the black hat pointing to himself). -He says "Follow me."- saving Matthew from his life of greed and calling upon him to become one of his disciples. -The light follows his gaze and point, suggests his divinity along with his halo. -His hand is painted in an imitation of Adam's in Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam. -Jesus is sometimes referred to as the second Adam because he too is a creation of God, his second son This hand bridges the gap between Christ and Peter (the divine) with the tax collectors (the human and mundane). -Matthew was a tax collector and is depicted around a table counting money with other men. -The scene is rather shady- some illegal business seems to be going on in a rather grimy, dark backroom with gruff looking, overdressed men (contemporary clothing- the time of Caravaggio, not biblical times), one even has a sword. -A strong contrast between the tax collectors' clothing and the humble garb of Jesus and Peter who are both barefoot. -He is pointing to himself, almost in disbelief as if he is saying "Me?" like he can not believe that Christ is looking for him. -A stark juxtaposition between the disbelief and uncertainty of Levi (Matthew) with the divine call and strength from Christ. -Peter (a disciple of Jesus) is shown in front of Jesus also pointing towards Matthew and the group of men. -Various theories as to why this is, one of which is that in order to reach Christ, we must first go through the church, represented by St. Peter. -Aside from Jesus and Peter, there are five men, two of whom seem rather young and out of place, another who is hunched over still counting the money, almost unfazed that Christ just walked into the room. -The window pane is also in the shape of a cross, acting as yet another religious symbol. Context: -Was one of three paintings of Saint Matthew that Caravaggio was commissioned to make in this chapel by Cardinal Matthieu Cointerel. -His patron Cardinal del Monte helped secure this commission for him which was his first big public work. -Made during the Counter Reformation, which was a response to the Protestant Reformation, where the church emphasized martyrdom and commissioned various paintings in an attempt to regain church followers. -This painting was rather controversial when it was first made due to its unique style and setting- not a divine background or Heaven that Christ is usually portrayed in.

86. Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de' Medici, from the Marie de' Medici Cycle. Peter Paul Rubens. 1621-1625 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Function: -To serve as a propaganda to glorify and justify the life and accomplishments of Marie de'Medici, Queen and Regent of France. -To depict Marie de'Medici's life in 24 defining paintings. -To compare Marie de'Medici's right to rule, wisdom, and beauty to the ancient mythological gods. -To establish Marie's power and her lasting legacy in France. -To depict Marie and Henry IV's marriage as divinely sanctioned, financially intelligent and an act of love and adoration. Content: -There seen are winged Gods of Marriage, Hymen, Cupid, presenting a portrait of Marie de'Medici to King Henry IV of Navarre. -Hymen is holding a flaming torch to symbolize the passion of love. -Cupid points towards Marie de'Medici and hypes up her beauty. -Smitten Henry IV looks on in adoration. -Zeus and Hera look down from above in approval. They are a satisfied couple for their hands touch lovingly. They also are leaning towards one another. -The are surrounded by their animal symbols, which is an eagle with a thunderbolt for Zeus and a Peacock. -Personification of France is behind Henry, encouraging him to marry for political reasons. -She looks on approvingly at his adoration of Marie. -The Lady France is wearing a plumed helmet and blue robe with an embroidered fleur-de-lys. -She is whispering into King Henry's ear to tell him to ignore his battles and marry Marie because it's smart political move. -Domestic matters at this time are just as important as military ones to preserving the monarchy. -The remains of Henry's battle, which shows a burning town are in the right background. Context: -The king and queen's faces were painted by Rubens. The other parts he designed, but had members of his workshop paint for him in his style. - This was his sixth painting in a series of twenty four works on the life of Marie de'Medici. -She is the orphaned daughter of the Duke of Tuscany. -King Henry, her husband was assassinated in 1610, so Marie served as Regent until her son, Louis XIII, was old enough to rule. -Divisions in the French court and her disrepute among nobles led Marie to be exiled in 1617. T-he 24-painting biographical series in 1622 marked a restored relationship with her son Louis XIII and marked her return to Paris. -Marie commissioned the series in 1622 to decorate 1 of the 2 galleries in the Tuileries Palace. -Marie manipulated and controlled the images Rubens produced. -The art was used as propaganda and it over-idealizes her actual life and accomplishments. -For example, her marriage to Henry IV was wrong for the King didn't even show up to the wedding ceremony. She did this to make her life seem peaceful, perfect and prosperous. -The presentation of the portrait is a depiction of the agreement in April 1600 of marriage negotiations between Florence and Henry IV. -Henry IV recognized the political and financial advantage of marrying a Medici. -Henry IV was under attack by French Catholics for being Protestant, so marrying the Catholic Marie de'Medici fixed this tension. -Henry IV had a large debt to the Medicis because they funded his military campaigns, but Marie's dowry lessened his debt. -Henry IV was also almost 50 years old, and needed to produce a heir. -Marie died in exile in 1631 and her truce with her son Louis XIII was short-lived.

97. Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo. Juan Rodríguez Juárez. c. 1715 C.E. Oil on canvas.

Function: -Although there is not much information on casta paintings, it can be inferred that the people who commissioned these paintings are elite people who found the dilution of pure-bloodedness and inter-ethnic mixing alarming. -They were also possibly commissioned for viceroys. Content: -The indigenous mother is dressed in a huipil dress which is a traditional woman's garment worn by indigenous women from Central Mexico to parts of Central America. -The husband is wearing a French-style European clothing including powdered wig, gazing down at the children with his either resting on the back of the child or the mother. -The young boy looks up to the father and the family looks very loving. -The pure-blooded Spaniards which would be the father in this instance are always seen at a hierarchical position in paintings. -They also typically have the finest clothing and these paintings contain the notion that your status is tied to your racial makeup. Context: -The painting was created 1715 and belongs to a larger series of paintings that document mestizo families. -A mestizo is a child between an Indigenous woman and a Spaniard father. -The children also become darker as they become more and more "mixed" because they are seen as "less attractive".

55. Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Matthew, cross-carpet page; St. Luke portrait page; St. Luke incipit page. Early medieval (Hiberno Saxon) Europe. c. 700 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (ink, pigments, and gold on vellum).

Function: -Monks read from it during rituals at their Lindisfarne Priory on Holy Island. -Made to honor God and St. Cuthbert. Content: -Copy of gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John in latin. -The St. Matthew Cross- Carpet page contained a series of knots and spirals. -Ribbons contained abstract animals that would form twists; snake- like creatures. - Not too stylized and straightforward. -It was the cover and opening of St. Matthew's gospel. -A cross made of stacked wine cross is in the center of this page. -Luke Incipit page was the opening of Luke's gospel. -Blue- pinned whales are rotated in repetitive circles in the shape of a large Q that forms Luke's opening sentence. - One knot enclosed in a rectangle unravels into a blue heron's chest like a large comma. -A feline is pressing off this to turn its body into a 90 degree angle. -Spiraled forms and swirls; knots all around to reveal themselves as snakes moving along the confines of a letter's boundaries. -Luke's Portrait page reveals a a curly -headed, bearded evangelist sitting on a red- cushioned stool. -The robe he has one is reminiscent of late Roman philosophers. -Their feet hover above a tray and is holding a quill; he is seen writing on a scroll of some sort. -He has a gold halo, which symbolizes divinity. -Above the halo is a blue- winged calf, which is a sacrifice on the cross. The halo around his head parents his divinity as he transcribes his gospel. The cow flying above him is from a popular tale in the gospel. -Luke is represented as the ox (Christ's sacrifice), Matthew the man (the human aspect of Jesus), Mark the lion (the triumph of christ) and finally John as the eagle (the second coming). -The calf's eyes are reverted towards the viewer and it's holding a green parallelogram signifying the gospel. Context: -An example of Insular or Hiberno-Saxon art. These are works produced in the British Isles between 500-900 C.E.. At this time, devastating invasions and political upheavals occurred. -Illuminated by the Bishop Eadfrith. -Made in Italy. -The book was rewritten from an Italian book around 500-900 C.E.. -The isles that it was made on during this time suffered from invasions. -This book was found in a small Christian community in the isles of the UK.

60. Chartres Cathedral. Chartres, France. Gothic Europe. Original construction c. 1145-1155 C.E.; reconstructed c. 1194-1220 C.E. Limestone, stained glass.

Function: -Popular pilgrimage site. -The dimensions allowed for a large amount of people to flow through. -Aisles surround the nave and go behind the altar meant that people could walk all the way around the church, see the relic, and exit, without ever having to walk in front of the altar. -People in the Middle Ages embarked on pilgrimages. They did this in order to gain health, divine goodwill, or to ensure their place in heaven during the afterlife. -The guardian jamb-figures and the stories told in the stained glass were constructed to aid in the pilgrims' journey. -The jamb figures reminded the pilgrims of the merciful eyes of God and the angels. -The stories in the stained glass were telling scenes from the Old and New Testament, which was helpful for many at the time because they were illiterate. -Chartres was huge for Gothic architecture because it was the first cathedral in which the flying buttresses determined the overall exterior aesthetic plan of the building. Content: -Everything about the church was chosen by architects in the effort to create "heaven on Earth". -Part of the old Romanesque cathedral remains intact on the west-facing facade. Some of the walls are much thicker, with small windows, and is organized according to the golden ratio. -The jamb figures are carved into either side of the portals or doorways. -They are king and queen of the Old Testament and each is attached to a column. -They have a Gothic style: not naturalistic, look like they are levitating, stretched out vertically, and drapery obscures their body. -Meant to represent gatekeepers: remind people entering the church kindly that God has his eyes on you. -There are "floating planes of light" so that the people inside feel surrounded by light; feels like the holy spirt is around them. -Light was a divine symbol of beauty and immaterial, so this was the closest thing people could get to the divine realm. -Vivid, rich colors were used in the glass. -The large rose window is bordered on the bottom by additional lancet windows that create almost a full wall of stained windows. -The rose window images correspond with the structural program surrounding the portals of the church. -The middle has the Virgin Mary with her son, Jesus. Above her are four throne is angels and King Judea (Mary's ancestors). Other prophets surround the rest of the program. -Overall shows how God foretold all the events of wanting Jesus on this Earth to save mankind from sin. -Some of the jamb figures are from pre-fire while others are from post-fire, which is the marked difference between Romanesque and Gothic structural style. -The Romanesque style shows God speaking to the world, then the world becoming material all before Christ. There is also an emphasis on Mary and shows her through the stages of life. -The Gothic style are much more elongated and show a bunch of different prophets who foresaw the coming of Christ. -There used to be a chancel screen that sported an astrological clock that told the day of the week, month, year, time of sunrise and sunset, the phase of the moon, as well as the current zodiac sign, but it sadly was destroyed in the 18th century. Context: -A legend states that the church was built on the site of a Druidic temple. -This space was long used for Christian worship since around 200 C.E.. -Chartres has always been associated with the worship of the Virgin Mary. -In the 9th century, the church received a relic from Constantinople: the tunic of Mary. This relic made the church a hugely popular pilgrimage site, which also made the church very wealthy. -The Romanesque church on the original site burned down in 1194, but the tunic turned up unharmed. -The people of the town took this as a sign that they should rebuild the church, so that it would live up to its potential. It would be a deserving worship place of Mary. -Work on the reconstruction of the cathedral started around 1220.

72. Birth of Venus. Sandro Botticelli. c. 1484-1486 C.E. Tempera on canvas.

Function: -The artwork was a commission for the Medici family portraying the myth of the goddess' birth as an addition to Betticelli's mythological series. -Mythological and educational purposes. -Also testing Renaissance ideas out. Content: -Venus is prominently depicted in the center, born out of the foam as she rides to shore. -On the left, the figure of Zephyrus carries the nymph Chloris as he blows the wind to guide Venus. -On shore, Pomona ,or as the goddess of Spring, waits for Venus with mantle in hand. The mantle billows in the wind from Zephyrus' mouth. -Venus is portrayed nude. This was not usually seen, but Botticelli did it modestly for she tries to cover her body parts. Context: -The theme of the Birth of Venus was taken from the writings of the ancient poet, Homer. -According to the tradition, after Venus was born, she rode on a seashell and sea foam to the island of Cythera. -Venus is the Roman goddess of love and romance. -Botticelli paid attention to Venus' hair and hairstyle, which reflects the way he likes women to wear their long hair in the late fifteenth century. -This also heading in the Renaissance direction for there is nothing about religion here.

83. Hunters in the Snow. Pieter Bruegel the Elder. 1565 C.E. Oil on wood.

Function: -This painting was created to show the triumphs and hardships of life in the severe winter of 1565. -The hunters which are the largest figures on the painting had an unsuccessful hunt as seen by their body position leaning forward in a look of defeat. -They only have caught a small fox which shows how difficult it could be to find food in the dead of winter during this time. -This is a sharp contrast to the people down below enjoying a fun winter day skating on the ice. -The distant mountains represent Bruegel's travels to Northern Europe against the backdrop of typical winter activities in the Netherlands. -He shows the world on a large and small scale while wanting to show everyday activities while expressing the beauty and magnitude of the world at the same time. Content: -This painting was a part of a six part series that Bruegel did representing seasonal changes with each painting representing a few months and not just a single season. -The landscape is drawn as much from his imagination as it is from his surroundings. -The figures and the homes are all depicted in very warm colors and tones whereas the sky and surroundings are in very cool tones. -He focuses on the depiction of peasant life and represents the months of December/January. -He wants to represent a solemn mood with the group on the left desperate for warm and huddling around a fire. However, there is also a mood of happiness at a life down below that those up on the hill could only yearn for. Context: -Hunting rights and dogs were often associated with the Northern Renaissance. -Bruegl was from Holland, but Bruegel did not set his scene there since Holland is a flat country without any mountains. -This leads the viewer to believe that the painting takes place somewhere in the alps. -Nicaels Jonghelinck was a merchant and art collector in Antwerp who commissioned this painting to be done by Bruegel. -You can see the painting today in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.

49. Santa Sabina. Rome, Italy. c. 422-432 C.E. Brick and stone, wooden roof.

Function: -This was an early Christian Church used my the Romans. -Sabina, who supposedly died on the location and was an emperor in Rome from the 300s and Christian convert. -Martyr for Christianity. -The hope was to influence others to join Christianity. Content: -The mosaics with the glass tiles shimmered from the natural light to create the illusion that they were almost floating on the walls. -Light was a symbol of Christ and divinity, which is why it is believed the architects positioned the windows and mosaics that way. -Windows made of celenite, not glass. -Has a domed coffered ceiling like the Pantheon in Rome . -The walls presently are bare, but they used to be filled with the mosaics. -The original paneled, wooden doors are still on the church. -On the door, biblical scenes are depicted. This is possibly the first Crucifixion in the upper left panel. -Walls are broken up into entablatures, like the Pantheon. Context: -In Rome, Italy on top of a hill. -It used to be a Roman administrative building. -This is an example of an ancient Constantinian basilica. -The architects transformed this building from being used for government reasons now to religious reasons. -Constantinian architects were the first Roman Christians. The architects changed the windows, so the natural night could ignite more of the space.

61. Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France, Scenes from the Apocalypse from Bibles moralisées. Gothic Europe. c. 1225-1245 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum).

Function: Made for King Louis IX -Made to teach him religion and morality as he steps up to be the new, young king. Through visual interpretation and cultural connections, he can learn. Content: -In 1226, a French king died and left his kingdom to his wife, Blanche of Castile. Rebelling barons wanted to get their land back that was previously stolen from by the deceased king. They rallied troops and defamed her character. -She ended up negotiating and persuading her enemies after King Louis VII passed. When their son, Louis IX took his place in 1234, inherited at the time, a peaceful kingdom. -A manuscript illumination depict Blanche of Castile and her son, Louis. A cleric and a scribe are seen underneath them. Each figure is set against a ground of burnished gold. -Stylized and colorful building are seen just above their heads, which suggests a sophisticated, urban setting. Context: -The last page of this manuscript has the majority of it housed at the Cathedral Treasury in Toledo, Spain. -Moralized bibles made expressley for the French royal house, include illustrated abbreviated passages from the Old and New Testaments. -Explanatory texts that allude to historical events and tales accompany these literary and visual readings, overall conveying a moral. -If historians correctly identified the two rulers, viewer are looking at the four people involved in the production of this manuscript. -As patron and ruler, Queen Blanche of Castile would have financed its production. -As ruler-to-be, Louis IX's job took its lessons to to distinguish those from the other biblical and ancient texts. -In the upper register, there is an enthroned king and queen wearing the traditional medieval open crown topped with a stylized iris or lily. This symbolizes a French monarch's religious, political, and dynastic right to rule. -The queen is veiled in a white widow's wimple as a blue mantle is draped across her shoulder. All visuals of an enthroned figure. She points her left hand in the direction of her son. Her pose and facial expression indicates that she is dedicating this manuscript with morals and lesson to the young king. -Then is her son, Louis IX, wearing an open top crown. He is holding a scepter, showing his kingly status. It's topped by the characteristic fleur-de-lys. A four-pedaled brooch also clips his cloak. -Louis holds a small golden ball or disk in his hand -During the mass that followed coronations, French kings and queens would traditionally give the presiding bishop of Reims 13 gold coins. This could reference Louis' 1226 coronation three weeks after his father's death. - The queen and her son echo a gesture and pose just like the Virgin Mary and Christ enthroned as celestial rulers of heaven. -Viewers immediately made the connection between this earthly Queen Blanche and the new king, anointed by God with the divine right to rule. This is just Mary, Queen of heaven and her son, figures who offer salvation. -The illumination's bottom register depicts a tonsured cleric left, and an illuminator, right. -The cleric wears a sleeveless cloak, an educated man and is a scholar. -He tilts his head forward and points at the artist across from him; possibly giving them instructions. -On the right, the artist, a knife is in one hand and stylus in the other. He is looking down at his work. Context: -This bible was a heavily illustrated bible commissioned by wealthy patrons to interpret and show select bible stories.