EARTH 2 Quizzes + Mini quizzes Week 8-10, EARTH 2 quiz + mini quiz Qs Week 5-7, Earth 2 Quizzes week 1-4
Which of the following are possible consequences of permafrost thaw? (By "possible consequences", I mean extremely plausible as a direct effect) Select one or more: a. Landscape degradation b. Release of pathogens c. Decreased erosion rates d. Methane release e. Increased erosion rates f. Release of harmful chemicals g. Wildfires h. Oxidation of organic material and CO2 release i. Sea level rise j.Formation of eskers
- Landscape degradation - Release of pathogens - Methane release - Increased erosion rates - Release of harmful chemicals - Wildfires - Oxidation of organic material and CO2 release - Sea level rise
Which two of these are key to understanding why the northern hemisphere is warmer in the boreal summer (May-Sept) Select one or more: a. Sun is brighter b. Ice/snow melts c. More hours of daylight d. Sun shines more perpendicularly on the surface e. Northern hemisphere is physically closer to the Sun
- More hours of daylight - Sun shines more perpendicularly on the surface
Match the following definitions to the terms that you learned in the lecture: Region of water-saturated pore space above a local aquitard → A layer with high porosity and permeability → Region around a wellhead where the water table is drawn down due to pumping of water → A layer with low porosity and permeability → Texture of dissolved limestone rock → Source of water at the surface that taps a confined aquifer →
- Region of water-saturated pore space above a local aquitard → Perched water table, - A layer with high porosity and permeability → Aquifer, - Region around a wellhead where the water table is drawn down due to pumping of water → Cone of depression, - A layer with low porosity and permeability → Aquitard, - Texture of dissolved limestone rock → Karst, - Source of water at the surface that taps a confined aquifer → Artesian spring
Which of these is a positive climate feedback and which is a negative climate feedback? 1. Colder -> CO2 more soluble in ocean water -> less CO2 in atmosphere -> lesser greenhouse effect -> colder 2. Warmer -> more weathering of silicate rocks -> more CO2 sucked out of atmosphere - lesser greenhouse effect -> colder 3. Warmer -> less snow/ice -> higher albedo -> more solar energy absorption -> warmer 4. Warmer -> CO2 less soluble in ocean water -> more CO2 in atmosphere -> greater greenhouse effect -> warmer 5. Colder -> more snow/ice -> lower albedo -> less solar energy absorption -> colder 6. Colder -> less weathering of silicate rocks -> less CO2 sucked out of atmosphere - greater greenhouse effect -> warmer
1. Positive feedback 2. Negative feedback 3. Positive feedback 4. Positive feedback 5. Positive feedback 6. Negative feedback
How old is the universe
13.7 Ga
Match the following events in the paleoclimate record to their timing
150-450 years ago → Little Ice Age, 600-1100 years ago → Medieval Warm Period, 12,000-13,000 years ago → Younger Dryas, 20,000 years ago → Last Glacial Maximum (height of most recent ice age), ~135,000-~190,000 years ago → Penultimate Glacial Period (=Illinoian glaciation), 34 Ma to present day (for now) → Ice Age Earth - near permanent Antarctic ice sheets, 55 Ma → PETM (Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, ~700 Ma → Snowball Earth (Cryogenian), 1 Gy in future → Sun bright enough to vaporize Earth's oceans + drive off atmosphere, 7.5 Gy in future → Red Giant Sun will envelop and disintegrate Earth
What is the age of the Earth?
4.5 billion years (4.5 Ga)
During the Pleistocene atmospheric CO2 concentrations varied between approximately 200 ppm (during cold glacials) and 280 ppm (during warmer inter-glacials). 280 ppm is considered the approximate baseline for pre-human atmospheric CO2, as captured by ice cores from ~1800 C.E. To the nearest 5 ppm, what is the atmospheric CO2 concentration today? (give your answer in ppm = "parts per million")
420 ppm
Potassium-40 (K-40) decays to Argon-40 (Ar-40) with a half-life of 1.25 billion years. If the Earth had 10 million kilograms of K-40 when it was first formed (4.56 billion years ago) how much would it have left today? You may want to use the equation: M = M0 × (0.5)^N where "M" is the mass remaining, "M0" is the original mass, and "N" is the number of half-lives elapsed (not necessarily a whole number). The "^" symbol means "to the power of".
8.0 x 105 kg N = 4.56/1.25 = 3.65. Thus, the mass of K-40 left is: M = 1x107 x 0.5^3.65 = 7.98 x 105 ~ 8.0 x 105 kg
Which way was stratigraphically "up" (i.e. younger) for the sediments shown in Figure 4?
A (pointing up)
Which of the below are likely to be impacts of climate change, according to the latest research encapsulated in the 5th IPCC report? Select one or more: a. More intense rainfall events and flooding b. Mass population displacement and associated political unrest c. More intense storms d. Rising sea levels e. Large areas becoming more arid (less rainfall) f. Glacial retreat, permafrost recession g. Ocean acidification and marine extinctions h. More frequent, intense wildfires i. More frequent, intense heat waves
ALL: a. More intense rainfall events and flooding b. Mass population displacement and associated political unrest c. More intense storms d. Rising sea levels e. Large areas becoming more arid (less rainfall) f. Glacial retreat, permafrost recession g. Ocean acidification and marine extinctions h. More frequent, intense wildfires i. More frequent, intense heat waves
Drag and drop the events into their correct order in the Earth's natural history: Most recent (youngest) to Oldest
Age of mammals Age of dinos Permo-Triassic, worst extinctiomn Carboniferous & oxygen pulse Animals on land Plants on land Cambrian explosion Multicellular green algae First Eukaryotes (sophisticated cells) First appearance of bateria
Which of these is an example of ductile deformation? Select one: Asthenospheric flow beneath ice caps Lithospheric flexure beneath ice caps Weathering of granites into small clasts Metasomatic phase transformations An earthquake
Asthenospheric flow beneath ice caps
Which of these most accurately describes the reason for radioactive decay?
Atomic nuclei are unstable because of an imbalance in the number of protons vs. neutrons
Basaltic lava flow textures vary somewhat. The lowest viscosity type is called [ ], which tends to produce [ ] textures. The more viscous type is called [ ], which produces [ ] textures. Of the two, [ ] lava is likely to have *higher* SiO2 content, which is why it is comparatively [ ] viscous.
Basaltic lava flow textures vary somewhat. The lowest viscosity type is called [Pahoehoe], which tends to produce [smooth/ropey] textures. The more viscous type is called [A'a], which produces [angular/rubbly] textures. Of the two, [A'a] lava is likely to have *higher* SiO2 content, which is why it is comparatively [more] viscous.
Fill in the blanks: "Shield volcanoes are mainly composed of _______, which _________."
Basaltic lava; erupts at high temperature
Rank from smallest (1) to largest (4) the following thicknesses of packets of sedimentary rock. (So #4 would encompass #3 which would encompass #2 ... etc.) Unit (aka a member) Group Formation Bed
Bed - 1 Unit (aka a member) - 2 Formation - 3 Group - 4
Which of the following is involved in the field of Taxonomy (select all that apply) Select one or more: a. Fossil collection and curation in museums b. Detailed descriptions of ancient organisms c. Accountancy and filing of taxes d. Classifying organisms into "family trees" e. Working out how a fossil decays and becomes fossilised f. Cleaning and preservation (including stuffing) of fossils or dead organisms
Classifying organisms into "family trees", Detailed descriptions of ancient organisms
Which of the following may cause species extinction on Earth?
Climate change, Appearance/evolution of a new predator, Volcanic eruption (e.g. Large Igneous Provinces), Asteroid/comet impact, Appearance/evolution of a directly competing species
The clear wave-cut platform in the figure below could be a result of which of the following? (select any that apply) Select one or more: a. Coastal uplift b. Coastal subsidence c. Global sea level rise d. Global sea level drop e. The tides
Coastal uplift, Global sea level drop
Which of the following two processes are most important to converting snow into glacial ice as it is buried within a glacier? Select one or more: a. Freeze-thaw b. Recrystalization c. Metamorphic reaction d. Devitrification e. Brittle deformation f. Compaction
Compaction, Recrystalization
Which of these directly result from the Coriolis force? (select all that apply) Select one or more: a. Warm air rises and cold air sinks b. Currents circulate counter-clockwise in the southern hemisphere c. Winds drive shallow ocean currents and waves d. Ocean waters are warmer at the equator e. Currents travelling north turn right in the northern hemisphere f. Large "gyres" rotate in the mid-latitude oceans
Currents travelling north turn right in the northern hemisphere (they also turn right if they are travelling south...!) Currents circulate counter-clockwise in the southern hemisphere Currents circulate clockwise in the northern hemisphere Large "gyres" rotate in the mid-latitude oceans
Which of the following lead to glacial retreat? (select all that apply) Select one or more: a. Decreased snowfall b. Decreased sea level c. Decreased sublimation d. Decreased iceberg calving e. Decreased melting
Decreased snowfall
Which of these are potential consequences of over-pumping at wells? Select one or more: a. Decreased runoff b. Alteration of sub-surface flow patterns c. Depletion and dry wells d. Hydrofracture (hydraulic fracturing) e. Increased runoff f. Slumping of land surface g. Saltwater intrusion h. Faster groundwater replenishment i. Discovery of natural springs
Depletion and dry wells, Saltwater intrusion, Slumping of land surface, Alteration of sub-surface flow patterns
Match the following observations to the brittle deformation features that they are associated with: -Displaced sedimentary beds -Open cracks in the rock close to the surface with no obvious offset across the crack -Linear striations on smooth rock faces -White streaks of sinuous calcite or quartz
Displaced sedimentary beds- [Faults] Open cracks in the rock close to the surface with no obvious offset across the crack- [Joints] Linear striations on smooth rock faces- [Faults] White streaks of sinuous calcite or quarts- [Veins]
What are the three types of load that a stream transports? Select one or more: a. Dissolved load b. Cobble load c. Bed load d. Dry load e. Clast load f. Top load g. Heavy load h. Suspended load
Dissolved load, Suspended load, Bed load
You come across a region that has mainly sedimentary rocks made of gypsum and halite (rock salt). Which of the following was the most likely depositional environment for these rocks? Select one: Deep marine Mountain stream Beach River on a floodplain Dried-up lake
Dried-up lake
What is the name for the feature shown in this photo?
Dropstone
Milutin Milankovic computed the periodicity of the orbital dynamic cycles and showed that their combination helped explain Earth's climate shifting between glacials and inter-glacials. Can you match the orbital dynamics to their cyclical period? Eccentricity Precession Obliquity (/Tilt)
Eccentricity = 100,000 years Precession = 23,000 years Obliquity (/Tilt) = 41,000 years
Where do shorelines tend to erode, and where is new material deposited? Embayments? Headlands?
Embayments → Depositional (sand added), Headlands → Erosional
True or false: Stratigraphic columns in different locations will always show the same succession of geologic units.
False
True or false: the increased seismicity in Oklahoma (for example) is a direct effect of fracking episodes ("episode" = an injection of high pressure fluid to hydraulically fracture rock for oil/gas extraction). Select one: True False
False
True or false: The length of one day (a complete revolution about the planet's spin axis) is not constant through time and has actually decreased through Earth's history (the days are shortening!) Select one: True False
False - Indeed. It's true that the length of one day is not constant, but as we learned in lecture, the length of the day has increased through Earth's history, as the planet loses some of its rotational momentum to internal frictional dissipation caused by the Moon's tidal force on us. The days are getting longer...
True or false: Climate science predicts that with increasing global warming, we will only see hotter and hotter days. Select one: True False
False - There will always be variation of weather around the long-term (>30 yr) average climate. It will still be cold on some days! As the average gets warmer and warmer, however, we will see more and more "unusually" hot conditions and extreme storms, and fewer and fewer cold temperature records.
True or false: Fossils provide absolute ages, not relative ages.
False - Without radiometric dating, fossils can only really provide relative ages. That said, now that we have tied fossil species to absolute ages using other data, we can actually make a good estimate - but it's only an estimate - of a rock's absolute age from the fossils we find in it.
Which of these are likely effects of damming a river? (Select all that apply) Select one or more: a. Beach sediment starvation and increased coastal erosion b. Less control on irrigation supply c. Disruption to migration patterns d. Habitat destruction e. Increased river pollution f. Decreased rainfall g. Flood prevention h. More flooding downstream
Flood prevention, Habitat destruction, Beach sediment starvation and increased coastal erosion, Disruption to migration patterns
Fill in the blanks: Fracking, or [ ] is accomplished by pumping a mixture of [ ] (mostly) into a confined well section with enough pressure to cause fracturing of the rock. This increases the [ ] of the rock, such that hydrocarbons ([ ]) can be extracted. The contaminated wastewater from this process must then be dealt with, either by treatment or injection. Fracking itself [ ] cause earthquakes. Wastewater injection [ ] cause earthquakes.
Fracking, or [hydraulic fracturing] is accomplished by pumping a mixture of [water and sand] (mostly) into a confined well section with enough pressure to cause fracturing of the rock. This increases the [permeability] of the rock, such that hydrocarbons ([oil and/or gas]) can be extracted. The contaminated wastewater from this process must then be dealt with, either by treatment or injection. Fracking itself [does not directly] cause earthquakes. Wastewater injection [can and does] cause earthquakes.
Fill in the blanks: Global climate is dictated by [ ] of the surface and atmosphere. The main drivers are: Insolation - which depends on [ ] and [ ] Albedo - which has a [ ] control on climate The greenhouse effect - which has a [ ] control on climate Rock weathering - which has a [ ]control on climate
Global climate is dictated by [the energy budget] of the surface and atmosphere. The main drivers are: Insolation - which depends on [the Sun's activity] and [the Earth-Sun distance & orientation] Albedo - which has a [positive feedback] control on climate The greenhouse effect - which has a [positive feedback] control on climate Rock weathering - which has a [negative feedback] control on climate
Volcanic eruptions can have profound effects on local and even global climate. Select all the potential climate impacts of volcanic eruptive products from the list below. Select one or more: a. Global cooling due to reflectance of sunlight by ejected particles b. Global warming due to greenhouse effects of ejected gases c. Ocean acidification d. Increased global temperatures due to hot ejected material e. Stronger Santa Ana (a.k.a. sundowner) winds f. Strengthening of trade winds g. Shortening winters h. Wildfires i. Decreased rainfall
Global cooling due to reflectance of sunlight by ejected particles, Wildfires, Ocean acidification, Global warming due to greenhouse effects of ejected gases
Fill in the blanks: Groundwater contamination can come from a variety of sources. Because of limited rock [ ] and fluid [ ], it can take a long time for "plumes" of contaminant/pollution to flow through the subsurface. Humans can also affect sub-surface groundwater flow paths by pumping that modifies [ ]. In some cases humans [ ] to force flow towards pumping wells that can extract pollutant.
Groundwater contamination can come from a variety of sources. Because of limited rock [permeability] and fluid [viscosity], it can take a long time for "plumes" of contaminant/pollution to flow through the subsurface. Humans can also affect sub-surface groundwater flow paths by pumping that modifies [the shape of the water table]. In some cases humans [inject steam or high‑pressure water] to force flow towards pumping wells that can extract pollutant.
Marine organisms that live (and hence build their shells) during glacial periods will have shells with δ18-Oxygen (ratio of 18-Oxygen/16-Oxygen compared to average) that is:
High (relative to non-glacial)
Marine organisms that live (and hence build their shells) during glacial periods will have shells with δ18-Oxygen (ratio of 18-Oxygen/16-Oxygen compared to average) that is: Select one: a. High (relative to non-glacial) b. Low (relative to non-glacial) c. Zero (relative to non-glacial)
High (relative to non-glacial)
Match the following aspects of the orbital dynamics to their names How elliptical (round vs. oval) the Earth's orbit around the Sun is. The angle of the Earth's spin axis relative to the orbital plane. The wobble of the Earth's spin axis in a revolution around the perpendicular to the orbital plane (aka why northern hemisphere summer will be in December in a few thousand years)
How elliptical (round vs. oval) the Earth's orbit around the Sun is. = Eccentricity The angle of the Earth's spin axis relative to the orbital plane. = Obliquity/tilt The wobble of the Earth's spin axis in a revolution around the perpendicular to the orbital plane (aka why northern hemisphere summer will be in December in a few thousand years) = Precession
In the context of earthquakes, S - P time tells us what?
How far away an earthquake was
Fill in the blanks: In order to reduce the amount of Carbon Dioxide in the atmosphere, some geologists have proposed pumping CO2 into [ ] where it will [ ] , binding the carbon in solid form. This process is known as [ ].
In order to reduce the amount of Carbon Dioxide in the atmosphere, some geologists have proposed pumping CO2 into [rocks (e.g. serpentine)] where it will [react to form new minerals], binding the carbon in solid form. This process is known as [carbon sequestration].
Which among the following is NOT a stratigraphic law? Select *all* that apply. Select one or more: a. Law of lateral continuity b. Law of angularity c. Law of crossbedding d. Law of cross-cutting relationships e. Law of original horizontality f. Law of superposition Feedback
Law of angularity + Law of crossbedding
Which of the following are attributes of a location that can allow a glacier to accumulate there? (select all that apply) Select one or more: a. Lots of snowfall b. Close to sea level c. Wind shielded d. Gentle slope e. Low summer temperatures f. Steep/craggy slope g. Low latitudes Feedback
Lots of snowfall, Low summer temperatures, Gentle slope, Wind shielded
Which of these depositional environments is likely to give a fossil the best chance of preservation Select one: a. High energy, oxidizing, rapid sedimentation b. Low energy, anoxic, slow sedimentation c. Low energy, oxidizing, rapid sedimentation d. Low energy, oxidizing, slow sedimentation e. High energy, oxidizing, slow sedimentation f. Low energy, anoxic, rapid sedimentation g. High energy, anoxic, slow sedimentation h. High energy, anoxic, rapid sedimentation
Low energy, anoxic, rapid sedimentation
Match the following events with their timing in Earth's history: 4.567 Ga - 2.4 Ga - 200 Ma - 65 Ma -
Match the following events with their timing in Earth's history: 4.567 Ga - [Age of the Earth] 2.4 Ga - [Great Oxidation Event] 200 Ma - [Breakup of Pangea] 65 Ma - [Extinction of (non‑avian) Dinosaurs]
Fill in the blanks: Meandering streams form due to the fact that water travels [ ] around the outside of bends in the stream and [ ] at the inside of bends. The faster moving water [ ] and the slower moving water [ ]. This process [ ] the stream's curvature/sinuosity, sometimes eventually leading to pinch-outs that form [ ].
Meandering streams form due to the fact that water travels [faster] around the outside of bends in the stream and [slower] at the inside of bends. The faster moving water [erodes the stream bank] and the slower moving water [deposits in point bars]. This process [exaggerates] the stream's curvature/sinuosity, sometimes eventually leading to pinch-outs that form [oxbow lakes].
What kind of fault is shown in the figure below? (Person standing on right side) Select one: Reverse fault Your fault Strike Slip Normal fault Thrust fault
Normal fault
Match the following types of fault to the dominant stress environment that causes them:
Normal faults are caused by horizontal tension. Thrust/reverse faults are caused by horizontal compression. Strike-slip (transform) faults are caused by shearing motion
Match the following types of fault to the dominant stress environment that causes them: Normal faults Strike-slip faults Thrust/reverse faults
Normal faults- [tensional stress (e.g. continental extension)] Strike-slip faults- [Shear stress (e.g. one plate moving sideways past another)] Thrust/reverse- [Compressional stress (e.g. continental collision)]
One particularly distinctive sedimentary structure we observe is a deposit produced by repeated underwater landslides, which is called a [ ]. These deposits are laid down at the [ ]. The deposits take the form of repeated sequences of [ ] in a [ ] pattern. This pattern is created because the flow gradually [ ] depositing first the [ ] clasts, and then the [ ] clasts. In the time periods between these flows [ ] is deposited.
One particularly distinctive sedimentary structure we observe is a deposit produced by repeated underwater landslides, which is called a [turbidite]. These deposits are laid down at the [bottom of a submarine canyon]. The deposits take the form of repeated sequences of [pebbles, sand, and silt] in a [fining‑up] pattern. This pattern is created because the flow gradually [becomes less turbulent] depositing first the [larger] clasts, and then the [smaller] clasts. In the time periods between these flows [fine mud] is deposited.
Stick-slip behaviour describes what?
Periods of stress buildup (stick) separated by abrupt motion on the fault in earthquakes (slip). -- Stick-slip behaviour describes periods of stress buildup(stick) on locked (=unmoving) faults separated by abrupt motion on the fault in earthquakes (slip).
For each of the pyroclasts below, state whether they are generally produced from a basaltic or an andesitic/rhyolitic volcano:
Pumice lapilli → Andesitic/rhyolitic, Lava fountains → Basaltic, Pahoehoe lava → Basaltic, Pyroclastic flow → Andesitic/rhyolitic, Pelee's hair → Basaltic
Match the following drainage networks with the cartoons.
Rectangular (looks like bricks) Dendritic (looks like veins) Trellis (looks like cracks) Radial (extends outward from a center) Parallel (looks like a scratch)
Which of these is responsible for waves reaching the beach almost head-on, even if they approach at an angle far from the shoreline? Select one: a. Diffraction b. Hydrofracture c. Reflection d. Refraction e. Contraction f. Distraction
Refraction
Match the following sedimentary rock descriptions with their environments of deposition: Rounded pebbles and cobbles to sand sized, poor sorting Biogenic limestone, lots of broken up shells Grey/yellow, well sorted sand-sized grains, occasional shells 2-meter-sized to gravel-sized angular clasts, very poor sorting, highly variable clast lithology Inter-bedded, thin mudstone and siltstone layers Gravels and arkose sand, medium sorting, red/orange color
Rounded pebbles and cobbles to sand sized, poor sorting → Mountain stream Biogenic limestone, lots of broken up shells → Shallow marine/reef Grey/yellow, well sorted sand-sized grains, occasional shells → Beach/inter-tidal zone, 2-meter-sized to gravel-sized angular clasts, very poor sorting, highly variable clast lithology → Glacial moraine Inter-bedded, thin mudstone and siltstone layers → Lake Gravels and arkose sand, medium sorting, red/orange color → Alluvial fan
Match the different seismic waves with their relative speeds:
S-waves (shear) → Second-fastest, Surface waves (two types: Rayleigh and Love) → Slowest, P-waves (compressional) → Fastest
Which of the following are techniques used to monitor possible volcanic activity? Select all that apply. Select one or more: Satellite imaging of inflation/deflation Gas probes Heat probes Magnetic resonance imaging VLZ scans and probes Seismic (listening for earthquakes and other rumbles) Barometers (air pressure sensors)
Seismic (listening for earthquakes and other rumbles), Satellite imaging of inflation/deflation, Gas probes, Heat probes
Decide if the following are relevant to short-term responses to an earthquake, long-term preparation for an earthquake, or neither.
Slowing car/train traffic in response to earthquake early warning → Short-term response, Mapping Earth's amplification and attenuation responses to shaking → Long-term preparation, Ducking, covering, and holding on → Short-term response, Constructing buildings to rigorous code → Long-term preparation, Predicting when and where an earthquake will happen → Not applicable, Shutting down gas and electricity lines → Short-term response, Mapping out fault locations → Long-term preparation
The figure below shows drumlins near Auburn, New York. If the figure view is looking towards the southeast, which direction was the ice that formed these drumlins flowing?
South
Which of these volcanoes is more likely to produce a pyroclastic flow?
Stratovolcano
Which two of these, on average, cause the most fatalities and destruction in earthquakes worldwide?
Structure collapse/falling masonry, Fires
Match the following volcano types with their tectonic settings - Subduction zones (i.e. arc volcanoes) - Oceanic hotspots - Mid-ocean ridges - Continental hotspots - Continental rifts
Subduction zones (i.e. arc volcanoes) → Stratovolcanoes, Oceanic hotspots → Shield volcanoes, Mid-ocean ridges → Submarine basalt flows, no large edifices due to spreading, Continental hotspots → All kinds, but potential for supervolcanoes, Continental rifts → All kinds of volcanoes
Match the following ripple shapes to the type of flow that produces them: Symmetric ripples Asymmetric ripples
Symmetric ripples → oscillating flow direction Asymmetric ripples → consistent flow direction
Which of the two following factors are the most important for driving thermohaline circulation of the global oceans? Select one or more: a. Wind direction b. Global sea level c. Biospheric productivity d. Temperature e. Salinity f. Wind speed g. Dissolved carbonate h. Tidal forces
Temperature Salinity
What regional-scale horizontal stress environment is implied by the presence of the fault in the figure below? (Normal fault, person standing on right) Select one: Uniform Pressure Tension Thermal contraction Thermal expansion Compression
Tension
The "size" of an earthquake - defined by its energy release - is described by its [ ]. The Richter scale measures this property, but has two main limitations: it [ ] and it [ ]. This scale is [ ], meaning that a 1 unit increase corresponds to a [ ]-fold increase in seismic wave amplitude. A separate, but related, quantity is [ ], which describes how strong the earthquake shaking is at some location.
The "size" of an earthquake - defined by its energy release - is described by its [magnitude]. The Richter scale measures this property, but has two main limitations: it [was designed for Californian crust] and it [saturates at high values]. This scale is [logarithmic], meaning that a 1 unit increase corresponds to a [10]-fold increase in seismic wave amplitude. A separate, but related, quantity is [intensity], which describes how strong the earthquake shaking is at some location.
Why does the Earth have seasons? Select one: a. Heat from the Earth pulses on an annual cycle b. The Earth is tilted on its axis c. Earth's elliptical orbit means the distance from the Sun (and hence insolation) changes on an annual cycle. d. Heat from the Sun pulses on an annual cycle
The Earth is tilted on its axis
Which of these are seismic waves?
The four types of seismic waves are: P-waves (primary/compressional) waves [not an option for this question] S-waves (secondary/shear) waves Rayleigh waves Love waves
Fill in the blanks: The fundamental difference between oceanic-type plates, that have [ ] elevations, and continental-type plates, that have [ ] elevations, is the [thickness] of the crust. Oceanic plates have [ ] crust, while continental plates have [ ] crust. This leads to a bimodal distribution of elevations, where the average elevation of the continents is approx. [ ], and the average elevation of the oceans is approx. [ ] (both relative to sea level). The boundary between oceanic and continental lithosphere is [ ] a plate boundary.
The fundamental difference between oceanic-type plates, that have [low] elevations, and continental-type plates, that have [high] elevations, is the [thickness] of the crust. Oceanic plates have [thin] crust, while continental plates have [thick] crust. This leads to a bimodal distribution of elevations, where the average elevation of the continents is approx. [~800 m], and the average elevation of the oceans is approx. [‑3700 m] (both relative to sea level). The boundary between oceanic and continental lithosphere is [not necessarily] a plate boundary.
Which law of stratigraphy can you use to determine the relative age of the lava flows shown in the figure below? (A package of three lava flows (shaded region to right) and the angles of magnetic inclination measure from each of these flows (shown to left) Select one: The law of original horizontality The law of lateral continuity The law of cross cutting relations The law of faunal succession The law of superposition
The law of superposition
Which of the following statements is NOT true? Select any that apply Select one or more: a. The mouth of the stream is at higher elevation than the head of the stream. b. Water flows fastest at the edges of a stream, slowest in the center. c. Drainage networks form due to positive feedback between erosion and channelization. d. Rough stream beds can cause turbulence in stream flow. e. Stream discharge generally increases downstream. f. Water will not flow across a drainage divide. g. Water flows upstream.
The mouth of the stream is at higher elevation than the head of the stream., Water flows upstream., Water flows fastest at the edges of a stream, slowest in the center.
The principle of fossil succession uses [ ] of fossils to identify the age of a rock. Most species are found [ ] time. [ ] are particularly useful for narrowing down the specific age of a rock in which they are found. These species are [ ].
The principle of fossil succession uses [assemblages] of fossils to identify the age of a rock. Most species are found [over some range in] time. [Index fossils] are particularly useful for narrowing down the specific age of a rock in which they are found. These species are [short‑lived, common, and easily preserved].
Match the following terms to their definitions The way the atmosphere and surface are behaving over a short time scale (minutes-days) at a particular location An annual cycle of atmospheric and surface conditions at a particular location The average atmospheric and surface conditions at a particular location over a 30-year period (accounting for annual cycles)
The way the atmosphere and surface are behaving over a short time scale (minutes-days) at a particular location = Weather An annual cycle of atmospheric and surface conditions at a particular location = Seasons The average atmospheric and surface conditions at a particular location over a 30-year period (accounting for annual cycles) = Climate
What is the usual relationship between crustal thickness and volcanism? Select one: Thicker crust means more mafic magma because the magma ponds and undergoes fractional crystallisation. Thicker crust means less explosive magma because volatiles do not make bubbles at high pressure. Thicker crust means less felsic magma, because the pressure is higher in the magma chamber. Thicker crust means more felsic magma because the magma evolves more on its way through. Feedback
Thicker crust means more felsic magma because the magma evolves more on its way through.
Fill in the blanks: Tides are primarily caused by the [ ]. This causes an elliptical bulge of water that travels round the planet as Earth spins. [ ] also exerts a measurable tidal force, albeit a smaller one. When these two tidal effects are in-phase (additive) we get a large [ ] tide. When the two effects are out of phase (cancelling out) we get a small [ ] tide. The vertical distance between high and low tide is called the [ ]. In addition to easily visible tides in the oceans, there is a [ ].
Tides are primarily caused by the [gravitational pull of the moon]. This causes an elliptical bulge of water that travels round the planet as Earth spins. [The sun] also exerts a measurable tidal force, albeit a smaller one. When these two tidal effects are in-phase (additive) we get a large [Spring] tide. When the two effects are out of phase (cancelling out) we get a small [Neap] tide. The vertical distance between high and low tide is called the [tidal reach]. In addition to easily visible tides in the oceans, there is a [solid‑Earth tide].
Drag and drop the labels onto the appropriate points that describe the features of this mountain glacier.
Top to bottom: Horn Cirque Arete Crevasse Lateral moraine Medial moraine
Considering the picture below, which direction is the predominant long-shore current?
Top-to-bottom
It is possible to anticipate most volcanic eruptions before they occur. Select one: True False
True
True or false: Ice is a mineral Select one: True False
True
True or false: Immediately before a fault ruptures in an earthquake, it is storing elastic energy.
True
True or false: Nearly all fossils are found in sedimentary rocks, because they accumulate at the Earth's surface.
True
True or false: Ripples are basically the same sort of bedform as dunes, but smaller. Select one: True False
True
True or false: When scientists discuss fossils, they include preserved ancient organisms AND/OR those organisms' burrows/tracks/dung.
True
Which of the following statements are true about the formation and occurrence of tsunamis? (Select all that apply.)
Tsunamis occur when large volumes of water are displaced. , Tsunami waves can reach more than 15 meters (50 feet) in height, If an earthquake occurs and there is a tsunami alert, you should head to high ground immediately
Unconformities represent [ ]. The boundary between one set of layers (younger) and another set of truncated (i.e. older) layers that are tilted/folded is called a(n) [ ]. A(n) [ ] is a flat contact between sediments that are actually separated by a large gap in time, perhaps because of marine regression and transgression. A(n) [ ] describes the boundary between sedimentary layers deposited atop older metamorphic or igneous rocks. When the unconformity results from removal of some amount of rock by surface processes, it is a(n) [ ].
Unconformities represent [a gap in time]. The boundary between one set of layers (younger) and another set of truncated (i.e. older) layers that are tilted/folded is called a(n) [angular unconformity]. A(n) [disconformity] is a flat contact between sediments that are actually separated by a large gap in time, perhaps because of marine regression and transgression. A(n) [nonconformity] describes the boundary between sedimentary layers deposited atop older metamorphic or igneous rocks. When the unconformity results from removal of some amount of rock by surface processes, it is a(n) [erosional unconformity].
What three qualities/phenomena need to be present for evolution to take place?
Variation of traits Heritability of traits Selective pressure/differential survival and reproduction/"survival of the fittest"
Fill in the blanks: [ ] magma is [ ] and so generally effusive, and so produces [ ] volcanoes. [ ] magma is [ ], explosive, and associated with [ ] volcanoes.
[Basaltic] magma is [low viscosity] and so generally effusive, and so produces [shield] volcanoes. [Felsic/rhyolitic] magma is [high viscosity], explosive, and associated with [strato/composite] volcanoes.
[ ] magma is [ ] and so generally effusive, and so produces [ ] volcanoes. [ ] magma is [ ], explosive, and associated with [ ] volcanoes.
[Basaltic] magma is [low viscosity] and so generally effusive, and so produces [shield] volcanoes. [Felsic/rhyolitic] magma is [high viscosity], explosive, and associated with [strato/composite] volcanoes.
[ ] refers to a natural phenomenon that can cause harm. [ ] is the probability that humans will incur loss to ourselves or our built environment as a result of this natural phenomenon. We [ ] mitigate this loss/damage by choosing where and how to build and settle.
[Hazard] refers to a natural phenomenon that can cause harm. [Risk] is the probability that humans will incur loss to ourselves or our built environment as a result of this natural phenomenon. We [can] mitigate this loss/damage by choosing where and how to build and settle.
[ ] is the term for a widespread and rapid decrease in the number of species on the planet. There have been [ ] of these events since the development of multicellular animals on the planet in the Cambrian (not counting the last few hundred years, when humans have arguably triggered one of these events, which is ongoing)
[Mass extinction] is the term for a widespread and rapid decrease in the number of species on the planet. There have been [5] of these events since the development of multicellular animals on the planet in the Cambrian (not counting the last few hundred years, when humans have arguably triggered one of these events, which is ongoing)
Fill in the blanks: [ ] is the fraction of the ground (rock or soil) that is not solid, but can be filled with air or water. [ ] describes how easy it is for fluid to flow through the spaces in a rock. It depends on the following: the [ ], the [ ], and the [ ].
[Porosity] is the fraction of the ground (rock or soil) that is not solid, but can be filled with air or water. [Permeability] describes how easy it is for fluid to flow through the spaces in a rock. It depends on the following: the [number of available conduits], the [size of the conduits], and the [sinuosity of the conduits].
True or false: We can predict earthquakes.
false. -- Prediction, in the context of Earthquakes, is defined as the fore-telling of the location, timing, and magnitude of an earthquake. We cannot robustly predict any of these.
Drag the numbers so as to order the different geologic events shown in this cartoon from earliest (1) to latest (7).
the correct order is: 1.Deposition and folding of bedrock 2.Fault B 3.Pluton intrusion 4.Deposition of deeper sediments (there was actually an erosional period first, to flatten out the surface) 5.Dyke intrusion 6.Deposition of shallow sediments 7.Fault A
Complete the following phrase that encapsulates the idea of Uniformitarianism: The present is the key to
the past
True or false: "Pyroclastic debris" and "Tephra" are synonymous terms for material from a volcanic eruption that falls out of the air.
true
