Earth Science 1101 set 2
Waning Slope
(Deposition) a concave surface along the base of the slope that forms a pediment
Waxing Slope
(physical and chemical weathering) near the top (waxing means increasing) a convex surface that curves downward
Free Face
(physical and chemical weathering) the portion of the slope below the waxing slope that is almost vertical. consists of resistant rock (forms steep scrap/cliff)
karst topography
-certain areas of the world with extensive limestone formations , chemical weathering involving dissolution of carbonates entire landscape. -are the hallmark features and landforms of this named after Krs Plateau in Slovenia , where karst processes were first studied. -Approximately 15% of Earths land area has some karst features. pg 405
Groundwater
-lies beneath the surface, beyond the soil moisture root zone -tied to surface supplies through pores in soil and rock (recharge) -largest potential freshwater source in hydrologic cycle -free of sediment, color, and disease organisms -tends to move towards areas of lower pressure and elevation
Fluvial deposition landforms
...
Fluvial erosion landforms
...
Human Interaction
...
debris slides
...
shearing stress is counteracted by shear strength (aka friction)
...
slope angle
...
Differentiate among the four main classes of mass movement (consider rate of movement and climate).
1. Fall - straight down, mountains 2. Slide - rock slides 3. Flow - earth flow, mudflow, debris avalanche form rain 4. Creep - slow movement from frost expansion
Describe the four types of stream channel patterns.
1. Straight 2. Sinuous 3. Meandering 4. Braidedstreams
Freshwater
3%
Groundwater
30%
How much do temperatures drop in a cold front?
5 to 15 degrees
How many major climate groups are in the Koppen Climate System?
6
Glaciers
69%
Oceans
97%
Lakes/Rivers
<1%
A head scarp and hummocky toe are characteristics of a(n) A) slump B) heave C) talus D) rockfall
A
A slope that looks stable but has bent trees, tilted fence posts, and cracked walls may actually have A) soil creep. B) occasional mudflows. C) modest landslides. D) frequent rock fall.
A
Clays that are deposited in a marine environment A) are susceptible to quick conditions B) are never susceptible to quick conditions C) are the strongest, most stable type of clay deposit D) are stronger when wet than when dry
A
In granular soils, soil strength A) is best when the soil is moist B) is best when the soil is saturated C) is best when the soil is dry D) is not related to moisture content.
A
Talus forms a steep slope because it is A) coarse grained and angular B) subject to soil creep C) fine grained and rounded D) usually saturated
A
What process is mainly a result of soil expansion and contraction? A) soil creep B) landslide C) mudflow D) soil flowage
A
Which change can lead to slope failure? A) rise of water table in slope material B) decline of water table in slope material C) removal of material from the top of a slope D) addition of material to the base of a slope
A
Which mass movement consists of the coarsest particles? A) debris avalanche B) earthflow C) soil creep D) mudflow
A
tropical easterlies
A band of easterly winds that exist where northern and southern trade winds converge is called the
Dam
A barrier that blocks or restricts the downstream movement of a stream.
unstable air
A body of air that has a relatively high environmental lapse rate compared to average potential uplifting air.
Unstable Air
A body of air that has a relatively high environmental lapse rate compared to uplifting air within it; thus strong convection can occur
Stable Air
A body of air that has a relatively low environmental lapse rate compared to potential uplifting air; thus, strong convection cannot occur
Stationary Front
A boundary where contrasting air masses are flowing parallel to one another
Cirque
A bowl-like depression that serves as a source area for some alpine glaciers.
Dendritic
A branching, tree‐like drainage pattern evolves in areas of uniform rock resistance and structure, with little distortion by folding or faulting.
Thunderstorm
A brief, but strong storm that contains strong winds, lightning, thunder, perhaps hail
Outwash plain
A broad landscape of limited relief created by deposition of glacial outwash.
Cave
A cavity in rock, produced by the dissolution of calcium carbonate, that is lrge enough for someone to enter.
Upwelling Current
A current that ascends to the surface of the ocean because water temperature warms and salinity decreases
Downwelling Current
A current that sinks to great depths within the ocean because water temperature drops and salinity increases
Crevasse
A deep crack in a glacier.
Glacial trough
A deep, U-shaped valley carved by an alpine glacier.
Deranged
A distinctively chaotic drainage pattern, characterized by irregular direction of stream flow, few tributaries, swamps, and many lakes, that develops in recently glaciated terrain.
Alluvial fan
A fan-shaped landform of low relief that forms where a stream flows out of an area of high relief into a broad, open plane where the gradient is less and deposition occurs.
Cold Front
A frontal boundary where cold air is advancing into relatively warm air. This front is typically associated with intense rain of short duration
Warm Front
A frontal boundary where warm air is advancing into relatively cool air. This front is typically associated with slow, steady precipitation
Hydrologic Cycle
A general model that illustrates the way that water is stored and moved on Earth from one reservoir to another
Aquifer
A geological formation that contains a suitable amount of water to be accessed for human use.
Alpine glacier
A glacier in mountainous regions that flows down pre-existing valleys.
Longitudinal profile
A graph that illustrates the change in stream gradient in cross section along a stream from its source to its mouth.
Climograph
A graphical representation of climate that shows average annual precipitation and temperature characteristics by month
has air flowing out at ground level anticyclonically
A high-pressure system in the Northern Hemisphere
Mudflow
A highly fluid, high velocity mixture of sediment and water that has a consistency of wet concrete. Result from heavy rains in areas where there is an abundance of unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by streams. After a heavy rain streams can turn into mudflows as they pick up more and more loose sediment. Mudflows can travel for long distances over gently sloping stream beds. They are dangerous.
Describe the formation of a knickpoint. How does the knickpoint contribute to valley lengthening?
A knickpoint is a sharp change in channel slope that eventually erodes away the slope to form a waterfall or has a rapids effect. It erodes the top of the valley making it longer
Kettle lake
A lake that forms when a block of ice falls off the glacial front, is buried by glacial drift, and then melts, forming a depression that fills with water.
Roche moutonnee
A landform produced by glacial abrasion and plucking that has a shallow slope on one side and a steep slope on the other side.
What are tower karst and how do they develop?
A landscape covered in steep or vertical sided limestone towers (karst towers) or cones. The towers originate as residual cones and are then steepened by water table undercutting from surrounding alluviated plains.
Air Mass
A large body of air in the lower atmosphere that has distinct temperature and humidity characteristics
Ice cap
A large ice mass in mountainous regions that is approximately circular in form.
Ice field
A large ice mass in mountainous regions that is generally linear in form.
Kame
A large mound of sediment deposited along the front of a slowsly melting or stationary glacier.
Hadley cell
A large-scale convection loop in the tropical latitudes that connects the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the Subtropical High.
Temperature Inversion
A layer of the atmosphere in which the air temperature increases, rather than cools, with altitude
Alluvial terrace
A level, step-like landform that forms when a stream erodes its bed so that an essentially horizontal surface is raised relative to the channel.
Alluvial terrace
A level, step‐like landform that forms when a stream erodes its bed so that a horizontal surface is raised relative to the channel.
Delta
A low, level plain that develops where a stream flows into a relatively still body of water so that its velocity decreases and alluvial deposition occurs.
Soil
A major end product of the process of weathering.
Describe the features of oxbow lake
A meandering stream which cut off and left a large part of the river to be formed into an oxbow lake
Describe the process of downcutting in the formation of an entrenched meander.
A meandering stream will eventually down cut a landscape by erosion
Humidity
A measure of how much water vapor is in the air. The ability of air to hold water vapor is dependent on temperature
Exfoliation
A mechanical weathering process by which concentric layers of rock of various thicknesses are removed from a rock mass. (Like the removal of layers from an onion.)
Horn
A mountain with three or more aretes on its flanks.
Braided stream
A network of converging and diverging stream channels within an individual stream system that are separated from each other by deposits of sand and grave
Braided stream
A network of converging and diverging stream channels within an individual stream system that are seperated from each other by deposits of sand and gravel.
Describe the features of a meander scar
A oxbow lake that dried up
Pillar
A pillar of rock with a resistant rock cap
plateau
A plateau is a flat, elevated landform that rises sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side.
What is the difference between a playa and a salina?
A playa is a dried river bed or lake and a salina is a dried salty bed
Oxbow lake
A portion of an abandoned stream channel that is cut off from the rest of the stream by the meandering process and is filled with stagnant water.
Downdraft
A rapidly moving current of cool air that flows downward in a thunderstorm
Rectangular
A rectangular drainage pattern occurs when joints and faults steer streams at right angles to one another. This pattern occurs because water flows preferentially to these zones of weakened bedrock where the water more freely erodes.
Pedestal.
A resistant rock cap that is larger than the rest of the rock spire
Meandering stream
A river or small stream that curves back and forth across its valley.
Define and describe the origin of balanced rock that result from differential weathering
A rock with a resistant rock on top that had softer rock beneath it that eroded away to leave a large rock on top
High Pressure System
A rotating column of air that descends toward the surface of the earth where it diverges. These systems spin clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Also called an anticyclone.
Low Pressure System
A rotating column of air where air converges at the surface and subsequently lifts. These systems spin counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Also called a cyclone.
Define and explain the process of formation of a Salina
A salt lake, an ephemeral lake in a desert basin
Arete
A sharp ridge that forms between two glacial cirques.
Easterly Wave
A slow moving trough of low pressure that develops within the tropical latitudes
Glacier
A slow-moving mass of dense ice.
Tarn
A small lake that forms within a glacial cirque.
Natural levee
A small ridge that develops along the channel of a stream through the deposition of relatively coarse sediment when flooding occurs.
Tributary
A stream of river that flows into a larger tream or river.
Tributary
A stream or river that flows into a larger stream or river.
Graded Stream
A stream that is capable of transporting the average sediment load provided to it over time.
Describe the features of a meandering stream
A stream with large sinusidal curves that
Drumlin
A streamlined landform created when a glacier deforms previously deposited till.
Disappearing Stream
A surface river or stream that flows into a sinkhole and subsequently moves into an underground river system.
Trellis
A system of streams that develops in areas such as the Ridge and Valley Province in the Appalachian Mountains where rocks are folded. In this area, major streams tend to flow parallel to one another inadjacent valleys within the folded mountain belts. Minor tributaries flow into larger streams at right angles.
Pinnacle
A tall, slender tower or spire of rock.
Sinkhole
A topographic depression that forms when underlying rock dissolves, causing the surface to collapse.
Hurricane
A tropical circulatory system with maximum sustained winds greater than 63 knots (73 mph)
Tropical Storm
A tropical low pressure system with maximum sustained winds between 35 to 63 knots
Tropical Depression
A tropical low-pressure system with central sustained winds ranging between 20 to 34 knots
Artesian well
A well in which water form a confined aquifer rises to the surface through natural pressure.
Midlatitude Cyclone
A well-organized low-pressure system in the midlatitudes that contains warm and cold fronts
Esker
A winding ridge formed by a stream that flows beneath a glacier.
Moraine
A winding ridge-like feature that forms at the front or side of a glacier or between two glaciers.
Oxidation of the sulfide minerals always results in the formation of ____.
Acid
Movement
Advection, Precipitation, Runoff
What is the difference between aeolian saltation and fluvial saltation? Between soil creep and sand creep in the desert?
Aeolian saltation has a hoping effect that jumps only 10cm whereas there is no height limit for fluvial saltation. The aeolian creep shifts entire surface down wind whereas the soil creep is only available with freeze thaw cycles on a slope
Deposition
After material has been eroded and transported, depsition occurs when the movement of the transported material slows down and is deposited
Physical Weathering
Agents are: Water, Plants, & Animals
Geostrophic Winds
Air flow that moves parallel to isobars because of the combined effect of the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force
How does air move in low and high pressure systems?
Air moves in a general circular motion around either a high or low pressure center.
Describe air in a surface low pressure system.
Air rises. The air must be replaced by air from outside the system so the air flows toward the center and then upwards. Int his case, the Coriolis effect causes the system to rotate in a counter-clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere.
Most Productive Soil Order
Alfisols
alf
Alfisols
2 Soil Orders best for Cropland
Alfisols and Mollisols
7 Climate Specific Soil Orders
Alfisols, Gelisols, Mollisols, Spodosols, Aridisls, Oxisols, Utisols
6 Naturally Productive Soil Orders
Alfisols, Mollisols,Aridisols, Histosols, Andisols,Vertisols
12 soil orders
Alfisols, andisols, aridisols, entisols, gelisols, histosols, inceptisols, mollisols, oxisols, spodosols, utilisols, vertisols
Define "alluvium" and explain why alluvial deposits are readily distinguished from other types of sediment deposits.
Alluvium is any type of sediment deposited by water the particles are usually sorted by size
What type of clouds are in a stationary front?
Altocumulus clouds
What kind of clouds are in a warm front?
Altocumulus clouds form and may be associated with rain, snow, or sleet.
Talus
An accumulation of rock fragments at the base of a steep slope such as a cliff or road cut. Can often be an end product of frost action.
Describe the features of a backswamp
An area after a flood that fine silts and clay settle
Drainage Divide
An area of raised land that forms a bordering rim between two adjacent drainage basins
Drainage divide
An area of raised land that forms a seperating rim between two adjacent drainage basins.
Updrafts
An area of rapidly flowing air that is moving upward within a thunderstorm
Hanging valley
An elevated U-shaped valley (with respect to a glacial through) formed by a tributary alpine glacier.
Low Pressure Trough
An elongated area of depressed air pressure in the upper atmosphere that is typically associated with cloudy skies and rain
High-Pressure Ridge
An elongated area of elevated air pressure in the upper atmosphere that is typically associated with sunny skies and calm winds
Artificial levee
An engineered structure along a river that effectively raises the height of the river bank and thus confines flood discharge.
Continental glacier
An enormous body of ice that covers a significant part of a large landmass.
What is an ephemeral stream?
An ephemeral stream is a desert stream, usually subject to flash floods, it only flows for a short period of time, but can accomplish a lot of erosion
Glacial plucking
An erosional process by which rocks are ripped out of the ground by a glacier.
Glacial abrasion
An erosional process caused by the grinding action of a glacier on rock.
What is an exotic stream? Provide an example of an exotic stream/river.
An exotic stream is a stream that come from somewhere else outside of the desert like the Colorado River (comes from the rockies and then to grand canyon then to the gulf of mexico
Aquiclude
An impermeable body of rock that may contain water but does not allow transmission of water through it.
Distinguish between anchored and unanchored dunes.
Anchored dunes are dunes trapped by vegetation and unanchored dunes are dunes that have a lot of space to move around
Volcanic Ash Soil Order
Andisols
and
Andisols
Disintegration
Any process by which a rock is broken into smaller pieces with no change in composition.
Decomposition
Any process that results in either a partial or complete change in the mineral and elemental composition of the original rock.
Definition of Mechanical Weathering
Any process whereby rocks are broken and reduced in particle size with no change in composition.
Weathering
Any reaction between a rock surface and the agents of the atmosphere.
Dry Soil Order
Aridisols
Soil order most susceptible to salinization (due to irrigation)
Aridisols
id
Aridisols
Mature Soil Orders (5)
Aridisols, Mollisols,Vertisols, Spodosols, Alfisols
Exfoliation
As outer layers of rock are stripped away, the pressure is reduced and the rock is able to expand, forming widening long curved cracks
Climate
Average precipitation and temperature characteristics for a region that are based on long-term records
A 1960 flood in the Italian Vaiont River Valley came from a landslide that A) filled the valley. B) splashed into a reservoir. C) hit a dam and broke it. D) filled a nearby wetland.
B
In which type of mass wasting movement does the moving material retain its original shape? A) heave B) slide C) creep D) flow
B
One factor that influences slope stability but which humans can't alter is A) vegetation cover. B) geologic structure. C) slope angle. D) water content.
B
Sandy soil has greatest strength when it is A) dry B) moist C) saturated D) quick
B
The angle of repose indicates the strength of soil when it has which moisture condition? A) saturated B) dry C) quick D) moist
B
The type of mass wasting that involves a rotational failure along a curved surface: A) solifluction B) slump C) debris flow D) debris avalanche
B
Which is the slowest moving mass movement? A) slump B) soil creep C) avalanche D) solifluction
B
he form of mass movement in which materials move in a disorganized, chaotic fashion is A) slide B) flow C) rock fall D) slump
B
Describe the dynamic equilibrium model of landscapes.
Balance between tectonic uplift and reduction by weathering and erosion, Everything is eventually eroded to sea level
Polar Easterlies
Band of easterly winds at high latitudes
Tropical Easterlies
Band of easterly winds that exist where northern and southern trade winds converge
Subtropical High Pressure System
Band of high air pressure, calm winds and clear skies that exists at about 25o to 30o N and S latitude
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)-
Band of low pressure, calm winds and clouds in tropical latitudes where air converges from the Southern and Northern Hemispheres
Barchan dunes
Barchan dunes flow like croissant with the tails pointing wind direction
Which of the following igneous rocks would you expect to have the fastes rate of chemical weathering? Granite, Rhyolite, Basalt, or Granodiorite.
Basalt
Distinguish between absolute and temporary base level. What happens to local base level when a reservoir is constructed?
Base level is the lowest point to which a fluvial body can flow, often referred to as the 'mouth of the river'. Sea level is the absolute base level. When a reservoir is constructed the top of the dam is the location of base level
Why does Ice float on water?
Because it is less dense
Explain why slopes in arid environments appear so much more rugged than slopes in humid environments.
Because of the affect wind and water has on the desert! It has no vegetation to protect it, so everything we see in the desert is at its rawest form
Explain why as the stream ages, the length of the stream valley increases.
Because of the erosion from the stream, it slowly erodes new channels and elongates the valley
Why do angular features and landscapes dominate in arid environments?
Because of wind erosion, the wind erodes landscapes in the direction it is moving
Distinguish among physical, chemical & biological weathering & provide an example of each.
Biological- plants breaking through rocks like tree roots or burrowing animals Chemical - decomposition of rock by the alteration of its minerals, oxidation, hydrolysis and carbonation Physical- is the process that causes the disintegration of rocks without chemical changefreeze-thaw
Dams
Built across a body of water, slows the movement of water behind it, creates large reservoir for water supply, decreases erosion
Landslides can also cause A) earthquakes. B) volcanic eruptions. C) flooding. D) seismic gaps.
C
Rock bolts A) are used to stabilize soil slopes B) were tried once with disastrous consequences C) are used to stabilize potential rock slides D) are placed into rock beneath soil to prevent the soil from sliding.
C
The stability of a slope is increased when A) its slope angle is increased during construction of a roadway B) a building is constructed upon it C) water is drained from the slope D) vegetation is removed from the slope
C
Which is the fastest moving mass movement? A) slump B) soil creep C) avalanche D) solifluction
C
The only rock-forming mineral that undergoes decomposition by the process of dissolution is __
Calcite
The atmospheric gas most responsible for the chemical decomposition of most silicate minerals is?
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon acid
Carbon dioxide combines with water in teh atmosphere, forming a weak carbonic acid that falls to the ground as precipitation and reacts with minerals such as calcite to dissolve rocks like limestone and marble
The two atmospheric gases responsible for chemical weathering are ___ and ___.
Carbon dioxide, Oxygen
Fossil Fuels
Carbon-based energy sources, such as gasoline and coal, which are derived from ancient organisms
"Acid rain" is acidic because of its content of ___.
Carbonic Acid
Carbon dioxide is an important gas that dissolves in water, which reacts to form ____.
Carbonic Acid
Adiabatic Processes
Changes in temperature that occur due to variations in air pressure
Chemical Weathering
Chemical break-down of minerals in rocks
Oxidation
Chemical reaction by which compounds combine with oxygen. (Example: Iron)
Hydrolysis
Chemical reaction involving water.
Define how climate affects the rate of weathering
Chemical weathering happens quickest in warm, moist environments. Mechanical weathering is increased by cool, dry climates.
The major mineral that forms by the chemical weathering of most silicate minerals is __.
Clay
Mineral produced by the chemical wreathing of nearly every rock-forming silicate mineral is_.
Clay minerals
mT and cP
Cold fronts that produce squall line thunderstorms in the U.S. Midwest are associated with which two air masses?
Iron oxides produce by chemical weathering are largely responsible for the ___ of most sedimentary rocks.
Color
What is a triple continental divide? Provide an example.
Columbia Icefield; As the icefield is atop a triple Continental Divide these waters flow ultimately north to the Arctic Ocean, east to Hudson Bay (and thence to the North Atlantic Ocean), and south and west to the Pacific Ocean.
Limonite
Common product of oxidation (Chemical Weathering), which is a variable mixture of iron oxides.
Distinguish between stream competence and stream capacity.
Competence is a measure of the maximum particle size a stream can move, how efficiently a stream carries sediments in its channel where faster currents = higher competence Capacity is a measure of how much solid material a stream can move. The volume of material that passes a point in the stream channel during a time interval it depends on fluctuations in water volume, flow speed, characteristics (size) of the load higher volumes = higher capacity
Define and describe the origin of BORNHARDTS
Composed of very resistant rock, looks like a tuque standing out of a landscape, very stable and last forever and are caused by erosion of softer rocks around the resistant rock, which is eventually left exposed
Spodosols
Conifer forest soils. Spodos means ash in Russian. Infertile, fairly acidic. Found in mountains.
Ephemeral streams
Contain water for only a short time
Water is such an effective agent of chemical weathering because it:
Contains dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide.
when bubble of warm air rise within an unstable body of air.
Convectional uplift is uplift of air that occurs
Equatorial Trough
Core of low pressure zone associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone
What kind of clouds form in a cold front?
Cumulus clouds form and usually grow into thunderstorms.
Clay has no strength when it is A) dry B) moist C) saturated D) quick
D
Rockfalls produce A) mudflows B) heaves C) slumps D) talus
D
Vegetation tends to increase slope stability by A) adding water to the soil. B) removing weight from the slope. C) holding rainwater on the surface. D) holding soil in place with roots.
D
When soil freezes, it can A) slump B) flow C) liquefy D) heave
D
Which mass movement involves material with the highest water content? A) slump B) rockfall C) earthflow D) mudflow
D
Sea Breeze
Daytime circulatory system along coasts where wind flows from a zone of high pressure overwater to a zone of relatively low pressure over land
Glacial grooves
Deep furrows in rock produced by glacial abrasion.
Describe the seven drainage patterns and the conditions that result in their formation.
Dendritic - treelike random Trellis - parallel streams that joint at right angles Parallel - Associated with steep slopes, indicates prescence of major faults Rectangular - kinda square, charts landscapes, joints in limestone Radial - everything moves away from peak Annular - produced by constructed domes Deranged - all over the place
Aridisols
Desert soils. Arid climate. Most common in the US.
What type of weathering dominates in arid environments?
Differential weathering
Explain the process of differential weathering.
Differential weathering happens when softer rocks weathers away and leaves harder, more resistant rock behind. Hard rocks , such as granite, weather more slowly than softer rocks , such as limestone.
Mechanical Weathering
Disintegrates Rocks
Bases for the two modes of weathering
Disintegration & decomposition
Ground ice
Distinct zones of frozen water that occur in permafrost regions.
Mountain Breeze
Down slope air flow that develops when mountain slopes cool off at night and relatively low pressure exists in valleys.
Katabatic Winds
Down slope air flow that evolves when pools of cool air develop over ice caps and subsequently descend into valleys
the warm and cold fronts are fully separated
During the open stage of a midlatitude cyclone,
albic endopedon
E horizon strongly leached of soluble materials, light in color (albino)
What is the name of the phenomenon when the cool Humboldt Current weakens in the southeast Pacific Ocean, and water in the eastern Pacific warms?
El Nino
Trace Element
Elements with crustal concentrations less than 1 weight percent.
Least Weathered Soil Order
Entisols
Most Abundant Soil in World
Entisols
Most Recent Soil Order
Entisols
ent
Entisols
Young Soil Orders (2)
Entisols, Inceptisols
5 Soil Orders that Occur Anywhere (Not Climate Dependent)
Entisols, Inceptisols, Andisols, Vertisols, Histisols
Anthropogenic
Environmental changes caused by humans
Changes in State
Evaporation, Condensation, Sublimation
Distinguish between cavern excavation and cavern decoration and explain the different processes involved.
Excavating limestone cut to find holes beneath bedrock, done with carbonation and acid Decoration is the stalagmites and stalactites created by limestone and deposits
The process whereby layers of rock are removed by various process of physical weathering is called___
Exfoliation or spalling
Mass Movement Types
Fall, Slide, Flow, Creep
Mafic rocks will weather ___ than felsic rocks.
Faster
if a midlatitude cyclone is centered in Kansas on Tuesday, by Wednesday, where will it most likely be centered?
Florida
Solifluction
Flowage at rates measured on the order of centimeters per year of regolith containing water. Solifluction produces distinctive lobes on hill slopes. These occur in areas where the soil remains frozen and is then is thawed for a short time to become saturated with water .
Radiation Fog
Fog that develops at night when a temperature inversion exists
Sea Fog
Fog that develops when cool, marine air comes in direct contact with colder ocean water
Advection Fog
Fog that develops when warm air flows over cooler air
Describe the four types of mechanical weathering processes.
Freeze thaw cycle (cracks form through freezing and melting) Salt Crystallization (cracks from salt drying/pushing) Hydration (minerals that absorb water like clay and expands it and it exerts stress on rock) Pressure-release jointing (batholiths that get exposed and heaves/peels away because of the pressure that moves off the rock)
Major agent of physical/ mechanical weathering is ___
Freezing water
along the boundary of contrasting bodies of air.
Frontal uplift is uplift of air that occurs
Major agents of physical weathering.
Frost wedging, plant roots, and animals
Permafrost and Frost Churning Soil Order
Gelisols
Soil order most susceptible to global warming (due to melting permafrost)
Gelisols
el
Gelisols
What kind of winds are in a warm front?
Gentle
Which erosional agent can carry the heaviest and most dense material over large distances?
Glaciers
Which igneous rock would weather chemically as the slowest rate? Gabbro, Basalt, Peridotite, or granite.
Granite
Describe the forces that act to keep a particle in place on a slope
Gravity, frictional resistance, push of surface, movement of land, weight of rock
Types of forces
Gravity, friction, Inertia (the resistance to movement), cohesion of particles to one another, water
Permafrost
Ground that is permanently frozen.
What are the winds like in a cold front?
Gusty and erratic
granular disintegration
Happens when minerals rock are changed by hydrolysis the interlocking crystal network consolidating the rock breaks down. -such distergration in granite may make the rock appear corroded and even crumbly. pg 402
When do cold fronts occur?
Heavy cold air displaces lighter warm air, pushing it upward.
Anticyclones
High pressure systems
What can increase the rate of chemical weathering?
High temperatures and humidity
Alfisols
High-Nutrient Soils.
Minerals that crystallize first at the highest temperatures will show the ______ rates of chemical weathering.
Highest
Organic Material dominated Soil Order
Histosols
ist
Histosols
Incidental/"Freak" Soil Orders (3)
Histosols, Gelisols, Andisols
in millibars
How is atmospheric pressure measured?
9%
How much does water expand when it freezes?
600 calories
How much energy per gram is absorbed as latent energy when liquid water evaporates?
stationary front
If a city experiences prolonged cool temperatures and light precipitation for days, the weather is most likely influenced by a(n)
Limestone
Important example of rock dissolution by carbonation (chemical weathering)
Radial
In a radial drainage pattern, streams radiate outward from a central point, forming a spoke‐like pattern of rivers. This kind of pattern tends to evolve where streams flow away from rounded upland areas such as a volcano.
Descending Vertically
In the center of a high-pressure system, in what direction does the air flow?
northeasterly
In which direction do surface winds of the tropical northern hemisphere flow?
Relatively New Soil Order
Inceptisols
ept
Inceptisols
Proxy Data
Indirect evidence of an event.
Cumulus Clouds
Individual puffy clouds that develop due to convection
cold fronts
Intense rain of short duration is typically associated with which of the following?
What are basins of interior drainage? Provide an example.
Interior drainage basins are basins that have no ocean outlets and recycle themselves or evaporate within the land area
Oxidation primarily involves the element___.
Iron
Define and describe the origin of inselbergs
Is an island mountain, or a mountain in a sea of desert (think of rock in Australia) it is steep sided and it usually a left over of resistant rock face.
What are the erosional and depositional features and the typical landforms created by a meandering stream?
It creates point bars, cut banks, oxbow lakes and meander scars, back swamps, yazoo tributary
Why is Quartz the most chemically stable mineral?
It does not react w/ either dissolved oxygen or carbon dioxide.
Where does a wave cyclone usually form?
It forms along a stationary front.
Define and explain the process of formation of a playa
It is an interior drainage end zone where water goes to die, aka a temporary lake or a dry salty bed in a desert basin
Why are high pressure systems usually associated with fair weather?
It is difficult for clouds to form when air is sinking.
How is a stationary front represented on a weather map?
It is represented by a combination of short segments of cold front and warm front symbols.
How are occluded fronts represented on a weather map?
It is represented by a purple line with alternating purple semicircles and triangles that point in the direction of the front's motion.
How is a cold front represented on a weather map?
It is represented by a solid blue line with blue triangles that point in the direction of the front's motion.
How is a warm front represented on a weather map?
It is represented by a solid red line with red semicircles that point in the direction of the front's motion.
When do occluded fronts occur?
It occurs when cold air is replacing cool air or vice versa at the surface, with warm air above.
What is a cold occlusion?
It occurs when cold air shoves its way under cool air at the surface.
When do stationary fronts occur?
It occurs when neither warm nor cold air advances. the two air masses reach a stalemate. Neither front is moving.
When do warm fronts occur?
It occurs when warm air replaces cold air by sliding over it.
How does gravity affect erosion?
It powers the erosional agents of flowing water and glaciers
What characteristics of water can be responsible for mechanical weathering?
Its ability to freeze and expand and its ability to flow and carry materials downstream
Meridional Flow
Jet stream pattern that develops when distinct Rossby waves exist and the polar front jet stream flows parallel to the meridians in many places
Zonal Flow
Jet stream pattern that is tightly confined to the high latitudes and is thus circular to semicircular in polar view
Describe the characteristics and development of a karst landscape.
Karst is a unique landscape formed by the underground erosion of rocks such as limestone and marble that dissolve in water.
Glacial erratics
Large boulders that have been plucked and transported a great distance before they are deposited.
Gyres
Large oceanic circulatory systems that form because currents are deflected by landmasses
Define and explain the process of formation of an Erg
Large sea of loose moving sand, formed by wind, has dunes. Sahara is an example
Supercell Thunderstorms
Large thunderstorms that contain winds moving in opposing directions and are associated with strong winds, lightning, thunder, and sometimes hail and tornadoes
Bed Load
Larger particles such as sand and gravel that roll, slide, or bounce along the channel bed in a process called saltation. This form of transport dominates in mountain streams where slopes are steep and stream velocity is high.
Stratus Clouds
Layered sheets of clouds that have a thick and dark appearance
the altitude at which water changes from the vapor to the liquid phase.
Level of condensation is
In which climate is wind erosion the most effective?
Limited precipitation and high temperatures with little vegetation
Define loess, explain the origins of loess materials, and describe the characteristics of loess deposits.
Loess is a clastic, predominantly silt-sized sediment, which is formed by the accumulation of wind-blown dust.
cumulonimbus clouds
Low clouds associated with long-term rain or snow events are called
Cyclones
Low pressure systems
Ultisols
Low-nutrient soils.
What can decrease the rate of chemical weathering?
Lower temperatures and dryness
Minerals that crystalize lase at the lowest temperature rates will show the ___ rates of chemical weathering.
Lowest
What is the primary difference between marine and continental climates?
Marine climates are located at lower latitudes than continental climates.
Backswamps
Marsh floodplain landforms that develop behind natural levees in which fine-grained sediments settle after a flood.
Define how topography affects the rate of weathering
Materials on slopes have a greater tendency to move as a result of gravity. As material moves down a slope, it exposes underlying rock surfaces to weathering
Explain the development of meanders, oxbow lakes and meander scars.
Meandering streams that eventually pinch off create oxbow lakes because they decide on a more efficient path. Meander scars are dried up oxbow lakes.
What are the 2 different types of weathering?
Mechanical, Chemical
The climate zone shown on the map below is
Mediterranean dry-summer.
Describe the mesa-and-scarp landscape found in the southwestern U.S.
Mesa like a table, is a giant sedimentary rock that has resistant rock on top and softer rock on the bottom.
Condensation Nuclei
Microscopic dust particles around which atmospheric water coalesces to form raindrops
move from west to east
Midlatitude cyclones in the United States generally
Westerlies
Midlatitude winds that generally flow from west to east
Dissolved load
Mineral ions that are carried in solution and are invisible during transport.
Metastable
Minerals such as gold, graphite, and diamonds that survive all processes of weathering. Minerals that can exist indefinitely at Earth's surface.
Grasslands, Highly Fertile Soil Order
Mollisols
Most Abundant Soil in USA
Mollisols
oll
Mollisols
which soil order is typical of midlatitude deciduous forests in North America?
Mollisols
Frost Action
Most common mechanical weathering process. Result of a special property of water. Water expands when it converts from a liquid to a solid. Expanding ice will break the strongest rock.
Lahars
Mudflow on a volcano
Entisols
New soils.
Land Breeze
Nighttime circulatory system along coasts where winds from a zone of high pressure over land flow to a zone of relatively low pressure over water
which horizon is uppermost mineral horizon in a soil?
O horizon
layers of a well-developed soil profile from top to bottom
O, A, E, B, C, R
Rotational
Occur when surface material moves along a concave surface, underlying clay doesn't let water penetrate it so it flows along the surface, may rotate a single unit or present a stepped appearance, drier water content than translational, faster movement
Where is the center of Tornado Alley?
Oklahoma and Kansas
Which of the following minerals would you expect to weather at the fastest rate? Olivine, Quartz, albite, or Orthoclase.
Olivine
Describe the features of a point bar,
On the inside of a meandering stream the sediments get deposited on the curve because of the slow nature of the stream side, it leaves a point bar
6 Levels of Soil Classification
Order, Suborder, Great Group, Subgroup, Family, Series.
Histosols
Organic soils. Plant tissue, peat.
when a flowing body of air encounters a mountain range.
Orographic uplift is uplift of air that occurs
Oxidation in ferromagnesian minerals and mafic rocks
Oxidation is especially important in the decomposition of ferromagnesian minerals and mafic rocks, because they contain iron (Fe) which most readily reacts with oxygen.
Acid rain
Oxidized sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released by human activities combine with oxygen and water in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acids
Most Weathered Soil Order
Oxisols
Tropical rainforest, Most Weathered Soil Order
Oxisols
ox
Oxisols
relative humidity
Part 1: When the _________ reaches 100%, the air is saturated and can hold no more water vapor.
What happens when there is an imbalance in temperature, pressure or density?
Part of the stationary front moves south as a cold front and another part moves north as a warm front. This creates a counter-clockwise rotation, with the entire system being pushed by prevailing westerlies.
Distinguish between pediment and piedmont.
Pediment is the sediments at the foot of basin and piedmont is an area at the base of a mountain or mountain range.
Oxygen isotope stages
Periods of time that have distinct 0-18/0-16 ratios, which are used to reconstruct prehistoric climate change.
Gelisols
Permafrost soils.
Mechanical Weathering
Physical break-down of rocks into smaller chunks/ particles.
Mollisols
Prairie soils. Fertile, high in organic matter, grasslands.
Carbonation
Process of chemical weathering whereby rocks and minerals containing calcium, magnesium, potassium, and iron are transformed into carbonates, or bicarbonates, by reacting with carbonic acid. (Example: Dissolved CO2 )
Weathering
Process whereby rocks either disintegrate or decompose.
Clay, Quartz, Feldspar, Iron Oxides
Products of chemical Weathering
Mineral that is the most resistant to chemical weathering.
Quartz
What kind of precipitation can occur in a cold front?
Rain, snow, sleet and hail
Hydrolysis
Reaction of water with other substances. Occurs in the decomposition of silicate minerals to form a fine clay.
Debris Slope (Transportation)
Receives rock fragments and materials from above, condition of debris slope reflects local climate
Which area would frost wedging be most effective?
Regions of temperate, humid climate.
The total accumulates products of weathering refers to
Regolith
Products of Weathering
Regolith, & Soil
What is a residual landscape?
Residual landscapes are the remains of ancient landscapes.
Reasons Inceptisols Resist Development
Resistant Parent Material Erosion (possibly due to Slope/Grade), Recent deposition
Polar Front Jet Stream
River of high speed air in the upper atmosphere that flows along the polar front
Define and explain the process of formation of an Hamada
Rock, baren surface, usually bedrock its super flat
Describe the characteristics of each of the following: rockfall
Rockfall- Rock falls occur when a piece of rock on a steep slope becomes dislodged and falls down the slope. At the base of most cliffs is an accumulation of fallen material termed talus.
Glacial striations
Scratches in rock produced by glacial abrasion.
What does it mean if hurricane Katrina's storm surge is nearly 30 feet at a given location?
Sea level rose temporarily 30 feet higher (vertically) than usual.
Alluvium
Sediment deposited by a stream.
Glacial outwash
Sediment deposited by meltwater streams emanating from a glacier.
Glacial till
Sediment deposited directly by a glacier.
Glacial drift
Sediment deposited indirectly or directly by a glacier.
Suspension load
Sediment that floats along in the stream. This load usually consists of clays and silts that are held up by turbulent flow within the water.
Define how rock type and composition affects the rate of weathering
Sedimentary rocks are more easily weathered that harder igneous and metamorphic rocks
Describe the conditions under which streams will deposit the sediments being transported.
Sediments are usually deposited into deltas or oceans, sometimes to interior basins.
Seif dunes
Seif dunes are formed in a environment with 2 dominant want directions.
Soil taxonomy spans from ______ to _______.
Six categories to over 19,000 soil series
Styles of Slope Retreat
Slope Decline, Parallel Retreat, Slope Replacement
Rills
Small drainage channels that are cut into hill slopes by running water.
Rills
Small drainage channels that are cut into hillslopes by running water.
Hygroscopic water
Soil water held so tightly by sediment grains that it is unavailable for plant use.
Describe the controls on the rates of erosion by streamflow
Speed of water flow, gradient (slope angle of streambed) and the volume of flow Turbulence of water, the volume of flow and the roughness of the streambed Resistance of rock
Splash Erosion
Splash erosion occurs because large raindrops create a small crater when they impact on bare soil. USDA
Coniferous Forest , Acidic Highly Leached Soil Order
Spodosols
od
Spodosols
Define and explain the process of formation of an Reg
Stone or desert pavement, all loose particles get moved or eroded away and a tight packed "pavement" is left. Can appear varnished by oxidization and chemical weathering
Perennial streams
Streams flow all year long and are called perennial streams.
Mesocyclones
Strong updrafts that are rotating within a supercell thunderstorm
mesocyclones
Supercell thunderstorms can produce tornadoes due to large rotating updrafts called
Describe the different ways that streams transport materials.
Suspended Load - particles that are carried along with the water in the main part of the streams. Dissolved Load - chemically weathered of rocks solution Bed Load - refers to coarser materials that are dragged, rolled or pushed along the streamed by traction or saltation, where particles bounce and hop on the bottom
Vertisols
Swelling clay soils. Lots in Texas. Profiles inverted.
Cone of depression
Teh cone-shaped depression of water the water table that occurs around a well.
Rates of most chemical reactions increase with an increase in______
Temperature
Freeze That cycle
Temperature rises and the ice melts, more water enters the expanded crack and penetrates deeper into the rock. The next freeze opens the crack even further. Each cycle enlarges the crack, eventually separating the block of rock from the main rock body.
What kind of temperatures are in a warm front?
Temperatures may warm slightly.
Karst topography
Terrain that is generally underlain by soluble rocks, such as limestone and dolomite, where the landscape evolves largely through the dissolution of rock.
helps predict the path of midlatitude cyclones
The 500-mb pressure surface is important because it
created by the earth's rotation that causes winds to be deflected to the right in northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemishphere
The Coriolis force is the force
polar front jet stream
The __________ is(are) rivers of high-speed air in the upper atmosphere that flows along the polar front.
meridional flow
The __________ is(are) the jet stream pattern that develops when distinct Rossby waves exist and the polar front jet stream flows parallel to the meridians lines of latitude in many places.
equatorial trough
The ___________ is(are) a core of low-pressure zones associated with the ITCZ. A Option A:
talus
The accumulation of rubble at the bottom of the slope
mP
The air mass that mostly influences the weather of the Pacific Northwest including Washington and Oregon is the
cT
The air mass that originates over northern Mexico, New Mexico, and Arizona is the
mT
The air mass that originates over the Gulf of Mexico is the
Level Of Condensation
The altitude at which water changes from vapor to liquid phase
What is the geomorphic threshold and what happens when it is exceeded?
The amount of change a landform can take before it suddenly moves rapidly into new system state.
Bankfull discharge
The amount of discharge at which the stream channel is full.
Base Flow
The amount of stream discharge at any given place and time that is solely the product of groundwater seepage.
Field Capacity
The amount of water remainig in the soil after the soil is completely drained of gravitational water.
Unsaturated zone
The area between the soil water belt and the water table where pore spaces arenot saturated with water.
updraft
The area of rapidly flowing air moving upward within a thunderstorm is called a(n)
Occluded Front
The area where a cold front begins to overtake a warm front and thus lift warm surface air aloft
Rain Shadow
The body of land on the leeward side of a mountain range that is relatively dry and hot (compared to the windward side) due to adiabatic warming and drying
rain shadow
The body of land on the leeward side of a mountain range that is relatively dry and hot due to adiabatic warming.
Oxidation
The chemical reaction of oxygen with other substances, forms rust
The process by which nearly all rock-forming silicate minerals decompose.
The chemical weathering process of carbonation/ hydrolysis.
cumulonimbus
The cloud type of a thunderstorm is
occluded front
The collision of two fronts that trap and lift warm air from the surface creates a(n)
Evapotranspiration
The combined process of evaporation and transpiration
Firn
The compact, granular substance that is the transition stage between snow and glacial ice.
Laurentide Ice Sheet
The continental glacier that covered eastern Canada and parts of northeastern United States during Pleistocene Epoch.
Dendrochronology
The dating of past events and variations in the environment and climate by studying the annual growth rates of trees
Definition of Chemical Weathering
The decomposition of rocks and minerals by the processes of dissolution, oxidation, and carbonation/hydrolysis.
Hook Echo
The diagnostic feature in Doppler radar that indicates strong rotation is occurring within a thunderstorm and tornado development is thus possible
Pressure Gradient Force
The difference in barometric pressure that exists between adjacent zones of low and high pressure that result in air flow
Dissolution
The dissolving of a solid by a solvent.
Landslide
The down-slope movement of material, whether it be bedrock, regolith
the rate at which an unsaturated body of air cools while lifting or warms while descending.
The dry adiabatic lapse rate is
the average change in temperature of still air with altitude.
The environmental lapse rate is
Describe the features of a floodplain:
The flat low-lying area flanking many stream channels that is often flooded.
track
The following diagram is showing the _______ of hurricanes in August in the Atlantic Ocean.
Coriolis Force
The force created by the Earth's rotation that causes winds to be deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
Air Pressure
The force that air molecules exert on a surface due to their weight
Most important agent of physical weathering is?
The freezing and thawing of water
Drainage Basin
The geographical area that contributes groundwater and runoff to any particular stream. Another term frequently used to define the same area is watershed
Drainage basin
The geographical area that ocntributes groundwater and runoff to any particular stream.
Zone of accumulation
The geographical region where snow accumulates and feeds the growth of a glacier.
Saltation
The geological process of dune building. Gentle wave action brings sand and sediment ashore causing beach accretion. Winds blowing at > 10 miles per hour will pick up fine particles of sand depositing them on the dune. This is also why dune sand is finer then beach sand.
Thermohaline Circulation
The global oceanic circulatory system that is driven by differences in salinity
Stream hydrograph
The graphical representation of stream discharge over a period of time.
Describe the flow characteristics of a meandering stream. What is the pattern of flow in the channel?
The greatest velocities are at the centre of the channel called a thalweg, velocities decreases close to the streams sides because of frictional drag. The outer portion of each curve is subject to the fastest water velocity which creates undercut banks and the inner portion gets the slowest water and fills with sediment and this is called the point bar.
Advection
The horizontal transfer of air
Cordilleran Ice Sheet
The ice cap that covered much of the mountains in the northwestern part of North America during the Pleistocene Epoch.
dynamic equilibrum model
The idea of landscape formation as a balancing act between uplift and reduction by weathering and erosion . pg 395
Sheeting
The kind of exfoliation that is associated with exposed igneous rock bodies.
Regolith
The layer of unconsolidated material accumulated above bedrock. The loose material atop the bedrock; it combines the products of both mechanical and chemical weathering and consists primarily of rock fragments, clay minerals, and quartz.
Flood Stage
The level at which stream discharge begins to spill out of the channel into the surrounding area.
Flood stage
The level at which stream discharge begins to spill out of the channel into the surrounding area.
Base level
The lowest level at which a stream can no longer lower its bed, because it flows into the ocean, a lake, or another stream.
Maximum Humidity
The maximum amount of water vapor that a definable body of air can hold at a given temperature
maximum humidity
The maximum amount of water vapor that a definable body of air can hold at a given temperature
Specific Humidity
The measurable amount of water vapor that is in a definable body of air
specific humidity
The measurable amount of water vapor that is in a definable body of air
Drainage density
The measure of stream channel length per unit area of drainage basin.
Define how surface area affects the rate of weathering
The more surface area there is, the more weathering can occur
Sandy
The most intense storm ever recorded in the Atlantic Ocean was
Describe the formation of a delta. Why do some large rivers not form a delta?
The mouth of a river where is reaches base level. Rivers without deltas usually lack sediment or if they discharge into strong erosive currents
Zone of ablation
The part of a glacier where melting exceeds snow accumulation.
Transpiration
The passage of water from leaf pores to the atmosphere
frost wedging
The physical action of water when it freezes (expands) and thaws (contracts)breaks rocks apart its process. pg 400
Define mechanical weathering
The physical disintegration of rock material without any changes in its chemical composition
Disintegration
The physical reduction in particle size of rocks
Equilibrium line
The place on a glacier where snow accumulation and melting are in balance.
Confluence
The place where two streams join together
Confluence
The place where two streams join together.
Soil
The portion of the regolith that supports plant life out doors.
Trunk Stream
The primary stream of a drainage basin.
trade winds
The primary wind system in the tropics that flows toward the ITCZ on the equatorial side of the Subtropical High-Pressure System is known as the
Trade Winds
The primary wind system in the tropics that flows toward the Intertropical Convergence Zone on the equatorial side of the Subtropical High pressure system. These winds flow to the southwest in the Northern hemisphere and to the northwest in the Southern Hemishere
Deposition
The process by which water vapor changes directly to ice without first becoming a liquid
Dissolution
The process of dissolving
Sublimation
The process through which water changes directly from ice to the vapor phase
Freezing
The process through which water changes from liquid to solid phase
Evaporation
The process through which water changes from the liquid to the vapor state
Condensation
The process through which water changes from the vapor to the liquid state
Capillary Action
The process through which water is able to move upward against the force of gravity
Aggradation
The progressive accumulation of sediment along or within a stream.
Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate
The rate at which a saturated body of air cools as it lifts. The average rate is about 5oC per 1000 m (2.7o F per 1000 ft
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DAR
The rate at which an unsaturated body of air cools while lifting or warms while descending. This rate is 10oC per 1000m (5.5oF per 1000 ft)
relative humidity
The ratio between the measurable amount of water vapor that is in a definable body of air and the maximum amount of water vapor that a definable body of air can hold at a given temperature
Relative Humidity
The ratio between the specific and maximum humidity of a definable body of air
Carbonation
The reaction between a mineral and dissociated carbonic acid.
Exfoliation
The removal of rock in concentric layers
Spalling
The removal of rock in sheets or flakes
Frost wedging
The repeated freezing and thawing of water in the cracks of rocks
Hail
The repeated pull of ice crystals back into the upper part of a thunderstorm until they become too large to be supported produces
monsoon
The seasonal change in wind direction that occurs in subtropical locations due to the migration of the ITCZ and STH is known as
Monsoon
The seasonal change in wind direction that occurs in subtropical locations due to the migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the Subtropical High (STH) pressure system
Cyclogenesis
The sequence of atmospheric events that develops along the polar jet stream that produce midlatitude cyclones
Leeward Side
The side of a mountain range that faces away from prevailing winds
Windward Side
The side of a mountain range that faces oncoming winds
Explain how differential erosion resulted in the mesa-and-scarp terrain that characterises the landscape in portions of the American Southwest.
The softer sedimentary rock underneath the resistant rock layer on top of the mesa is eroded away after time, but the resistant rock stays creating the cool canyons.
Describe the formation of a natural bridge in mesa-and-scarp terrain.
The start walled by cliffs, become narrower from erosion, with a softer rock under the cliff rock, usually rivers erode away underneath
Define angle of repose and provide the typical angle for rock materials and for snow.
The steepest angle a material can be piled without falling. 30-40 Degrees, snow 38 deg
Saffir-Simpson
The storm in the following diagram would be measured using which scale?
Subsidence
The sttling or sinking of a surface as a result of the loss of suport fom underlying water, soils, or strata.
Periglacial processes
The suite of processes involving frost aaction, permafrost, and ground ice that occurs in artic enviornments or along the margins of ice sheets.
Explain how weathering increases the surface area of rock, which then increases the rate of weathering.
The surface of the rock expands more than its interior by temperature increasing and this stress will eventually cause the rock to rupture.
dew point
The temperature at which an air mass reaches water vapor saturation.
Dew Point Temperature
The temperature at which condensation occurs in a definable body of air
Milankovitch theory
The theory that best explains Pleistocene glacial interglacial cycles through long-term variations in the Earth's orbited eccentricity, tilt, and axial precession.
Water Table
The top of the saturated zone.
Degradation
The topographic lowering of a stream channel by stream erosion.
Definition of a cold front
The transition zone where a colder air mass overtakes and replaces a warmer air mass
Hydrosphere
The water realm on Earth
Drainage Pattern
The way that the various streams within a drainage basin are spatially organized.
Define "landscape denudation."
The wearing away and removal of rock, it lowers continental surfaces:
Erosion
The wearing away of any part of Earth's surface by natural processes. Where the Earth's surface is loosened, dissolved, and worn away, and simultaneously moved from one place to another, by natural agents.
the rate at which a saturated body of air cools as it lifts.
The wet adiabatic lapse rate is
westerlies
The winds that prevail in the Mid-latitudes are the
Saturated zone
The zone of rock below and including the water table where pores spaces are completely filled with water.
Debris Avalanche
These are very fast flows of large volume mixtures of rock and regolith that result from complete collapse of a mountainous slope. They move down slope and then can travel for considerable distances along gentle slopes. They are often triggered by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
How are isobars used in meteorology?
They are used to define cyclones (low-pressure regions) and anticyclones (high-pressure regions) and are given in millibars. Isobars can also be used to predict future weather patterns.
Cirrus Clouds
Thin wispy clouds that develop high in the troposphere
Of the major rock-forming silicate minerals, those that exhibit the fastest rates of chemical weathering are_
Those that crystallize at the highest temperatures.
latent heat of condensation
Thunderstorms, midlatitude cyclones, and hurricanes are fed by
Interfluves
Topographic high points in a drainage basin that separate one tributary from another.
Interfluves
Topographic high points in a drainage basin that seperate one tributary from another.
Enhanced-Fujita scale
Tornado rankings use the
Slides have two basic forms
Translational Slides and Rotational Slides
Transverse Dunes
Transverse dunes are uniform parallel lines to wind direction.
Oxisols
Tropical forest soils.
Soil taxonomy
US system for classifying soils. Emphasizes physical and chemical properties; organized on basis of observable characteristics
Highly Leached, Acidic Dark Red Soil Order
Ultisols
ult
Ultisols
4 Less Productive Soil Orders
Ultisols, Oxisols, Spodosols, (due to intense weathering) Gelisols (cold)
Rossby waves
Undulations that develop in the Polar Front jet stream when significant temperature differences exist between tropical and polar air masses are called the
Rossby Waves
Undulations that develop in the polar front jet stream when significant temperature differences exist between tropical and polar air masses
Frontal Uplift
Uplift of air that occurs along the boundary of contrasting bodies of air
Convectional Uplift
Uplift of air that occurs when bubbles of warm rise within an unstable body of air
Convergent Uplift
Uplift of air that occurs when large bodies of air meet in a central location
convergent uplift
Uplift of air that occurs when large bodies of air meet in a central location.
Orographic Uplift
Uplift that occurs when a flowing body of air encounters a mountain range
Valley Breeze
Upslope air flow that develops when a mountain slope heats up due to re-radiation and conduction over the course of the day
Old/Highly Weather Soil Orders (2)
Utisols, Oxisols
The Hydrologic Cycle
Vasts currents of water, water vapor, ice and energy are flowing about us continuously in an elaborate, open global plumbing system. The cycle involves the circulation and transformation of water throughout Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.
High Activity Clay Soil Order
Vertisols
Soil order most problematic for construction
Vertisols
ert
Vertisols
Hydrolysis / Carbonation
Very important process for the breakdown of feldspars into clay minerals.
Soil Creep
Very slow, continuous movement of regolith down slope. Creep occurs on almost all slopes, but the rates vary. Evidence for creep is often seen in bent trees, offsets in roads and fences, and inclined utility poles.
Andisols
Volcanic Soils. In Japanese Ando means dark. Developed on pyroclastics
Nearly all processes of weathering require___
Water
____ dissolves more materials than any other known solvent.
Water
Play major roles in all processes of chemical weathering
Water and Temperature. Very few chemical reactions go on w/o the intervention of water.
Explain the three types of erosion caused by streamflow.
Water becomes more concentrated, so more erosive Hydraulic action (water power) - water grinds other rocks away Abrasion (grinding by rocks) - rocks and water grind one another Corrosion (chemical action) - solution action & hydrolysis
Slope Elements
Waxing Slope, Free Face, Debris Slope, Waning Slope
Describe the principal elements of an ideal slope
Waxing slope, free face, debris slope, waning slope,
First in a series of processes collectively called Erosion
Weathering
Describe the five processes involved in landscape denudation.
Weathering Mass movement Erosion Transportation Deposition
Input
Weathering (physical/chemical), water, wind, waves, ice
Explain how weathering along joints in limestone leads to the development of caverns.
Weatherings on Karst landscapes will eventually erode with weathering by sinkholes or by disappearing streams and expose cavern created by water.
cumulus stage; mature stage; dissipation stage
What is the correct order for the life cycle of a thunderstorm?
cumulonimbus
What is the name given to clouds that are producing rain in convection-cell thunderstorms?
stratus
What is the name given to layered clouds?
cumulus
What is the name given to puffy clouds?
anvil
What is the name given to the windblown top of the thunderstorm in the following picture?
cirrus
What is the name given to thin and wispy clouds?
When is water erosion at its greatest?
When it is traveling swiftly down a steep slope
Describe what happens to each of the forces acting on a particle on a slope that result in the following types of movements: fall, slide, slump, flow.
When the sheer stress becomes greater than the combination of forces holding the object on the slope, the object will move down-slope. Water adds weight to the material, reduce the friction, change the angle of repose.
latent
When water changes its physical state, _________ heat energy is either lost or gained.
Describe the formation of stalactites, stalagmites and columns in limestone caverns.
When water drips from the cave ceiling it builds up calcite, this creates piles, and also ceiling cones, and piles and cones that meet make a column
mT
Which of the following air masses would not be considered a stable air mass?
the Sub Tropical high
Which of the following is not associated with a mid-latitude thunderstorms?
Which erosional agent can carry the lightest and least dense material over large distances?
Wind
What geomorpohological agent is responsible for the formation of the majority of landforms in arid environments? Explain.
Wind! Wind shapes the landscape around it by picking up minerals and grinding it into the landscape
Inceptisols
Young soils. Inception.
Polar High
Zone of high atmospheric pressure at high latitudes
Aquiclude
a body of rock that does not conduct water in usable amount
Front
a boundary between two air masses with differing characteristics. Fronts can stretch thousands of kilometers across Earth's surface.
Pediment
a broad, gently sloping erosional surface
Occluded Front
a combination of two fronts that forms when a cold front catches up to and overtakes a warm front
waning slope
a debris slope grades into this. A concave surface along the base of the slope. You can identify these slopes components and conditions on the actual hillslope. pg 398
What is the main characteristic of a front?
a difference in air densities, usually due to differences in temperature, pressure and humidity. The interaction between these colliding air masses can bring dramatic changes in weather.
Zone of Saturation
a groundwater zone below the water table in which all pore spaces are filled with water. Subsurface water accumulates here.
Wave Cyclone
a large area of low atmospheric pressure, characterized by inward-spiraling, counter-clockwise winds. Also called a depression. It is a circular weather cyctem.
Isobar
a line drawn on a weather map connecting points of equal pressure
Describe the features of a cut off
a meandering stream will often "cut off" to become more efficient will leave behind a stream path for a quicker one.
Soil Creep
a persistent, gradual mass movement of surface soil, dry, slow, individual soil particles are lifted and distributed by the expansion of soil moisture as it freezes, the cycles of moistness and dryness, diurnal temperature variations, and grazing livestock or digging animals
mass movement
a process that transports earth material down slopes, from high places to low places by the pull of gravity
Aquifer
a rock layer that is permeable to groundwater flow adequate for wells and springs
Describe the major landforms that characterise a typical bolson.
a semiarid, flat-floored desert valley or depression, usually centred on a playa or salt pan and entirely surrounded by hills or mountains. It is a type of basin characteristic of basin-and-range terrain.
creep
a slow, downward movement of unstable surface material
column
a stalctite and stalagmite grow until they connect and form a continuos. pg 408
Describe the features of a yazoo stream
a stream that parallels a meandering stream but can never be a part of the meander because of the topographic elements in the way
Landslide (slide)
a sudden rapid movement of cohesive mass of regolith or bedrock that is not saturated with moisture. large amount of material falling simultaneously
mudflows
a swift flowing slurry of regolith mixed with water, typically composed of sand-size and finer materials. since they're normally saturated with water, they tend to flow through topographic low spots, like valleys and canyons.
Defintion of a stationary front
a transition zone between air masses, with neither advancing upon the other represented by a line with cold and warm front symbols
Rockfalls (Fall)
a volume of rock that falls through the air and hits the surface, pieces fall independently, form talus slope (cone shaped pile of irregular broken rocks) at base of steep incline, dry, fast
Zone of Aeration
a zone above the water table that has air in its pore spaces and may or may not have water. Soil and rock are less then saturation.
Arid
accumulation
Spodosols
acid, sandy forest soils, highly leached - under coniferous forests - highly acidic - contain albic epipedons and spodic endopedons
anthropogenic movement triggers
adding water reduces friction, removing vegetation steepens slopes and disturbs their equilibrium, oversteeping slopes, vibrations shake loose grains of sediment, forcing them apart and reducing/eliminating the friction between them
steepness of the slope
affects the equilibrium between the forces: the steeper the slope, the greater the component of gravity parallel to the slope
What happens in the mid-latitudes?
air masses with different characteristics sometimes collide forming a front.
the force that air molecules exert on a surface due to their weight
air pressure is
Moisture Oversupply
amount of moisture that exceeds potential evapotranspiration, when moisture storage is full
Moisture Shortage
amount of unsatisfied potential evapotranspiration; the demand not met by either Precipitation Input or by soil moisture
lahar
an Indonesian word referring to mudflows of volcanic origin, moved rapidly down the Lagunilla River toward the villages below. pg 410
Soil-Water Budget
an accounting system for soil moisture using inputs of precipitation and outputs of evapotranspiration and gravitational water.
karst valley
an elongated depression up to several kilometers long. Such a valley may have bogs or pounds in sinkhole depressions and unusual drainage patterns. pg 406
Describe the features of levees
an elongated naturally occurring ridge of sediments
slip plane
an identifiable plane of weakness
the soil formed from at least half volcanic ash
andisols
cavern
any large cave formed y chemical processes. pg 408
yellowish on the map soils found in most of australia, europe, southwest U.S. or great plains, southwest south america
ardisols
slopes or hillslopes
are curved , including surfaces that from the boundaries of landforms . pg 395
Slope
are curved, inclined surfaces that form the boundaries of landforms
Joints
are fractures or speartions in rock that occur without displacement of the rock either side (in contrast with faulting). pg 398
flowstones
are sheet - like formations of calcium carbonates on cave floors and walls. pg 408
dripstone
are speleothems form as water containing dissolved minerals slowly drips from he cave ceiling. pg 408
cockpits
are steep-sided , star shaped hollows in the landscape with water drainage occurring by percolation from the bottom of the cockpit to underground water flow. pg 408
Earthflow
are usually associated with heavy rains and move. They generally tend to be narrow tongue-like features that begin at a scarp or small cliff
what are the soils from west to east across the U.S?
aridisols, mollisols, alfisols
Which are associated with midlatitude climates?
atmospheric jet stream greatly influences the climate in these areas
Residence Time
average amount of time that a particle spends in a system; if short like the time spent by water int rasit through atmosphere (10 days) it plays a role in the temporary fluctuations in regional weather patterns. Long residence times like those in deep-ocean circulation, groundwater aquifers, and glacial ice, act to moderate temp and climatic changes
sensitive clays
behave the same way as quick clays, but they have a different origin.
prevention methods:
bridges removing and re-grading the angle retention structures (low walls) fluid removal techniques hardened with heat injected with cement diverting mudflows
solution channels
bumpy surface topography , poor surface drainage and well developed .It dissolved openings and conduits. pg 405
What is the air mass that originates over northern Mexico, New Mexico, and Arizona?
cT
petrocalcic
caliche, hardened accumulation of calcium carbonate, solid rock (common in Southwestern desert)
lahars
catastrophic mudflow produced by volcanic eruptions. lahars develop when tephra melts snow or glacial ice or when the rainfall that commonly accompanies an eruption saturates fresh tephra and the accumulated soil and tephra layers from previous eruptions. lahars rush downslope at very high speeds.
types of movement
classified by the type of material and rate of movement
quick clays
clay sediments of glacial origin deposited under the sea; they acquired a honeycomb structure caused by the dissolution of the sodium chloride. The honeycomb structure is easily broken by vibrations, so slopes containing quick clays are prone to collapse.
What are the factors that affect the rate of weathering?
climate, rock type and composition, surface area, and topography
A rectangular graph that shows the mean monthly temperatures and total monthly precipitation is a(n)
climograph
What kind of weather is associated with low-pressure systems?
clouds and precipitation
thunderstorms
cold fronts are typically characterized by
Gelisols
cold, frozen soil order with a layer of permafrost - hard, ice cemented layers of soil - cryoturbation (frost churning) present
on an infrared image, what do bright white clouds represent?
cold, high clouds
what is a clump of soil called?
colloid
Runoff
comes from surplus surface water runoff, subsurface through fall, and groundwater
debris flows
common in sparsely vegetated mountains in semi-arid climates. they're typically triggered by the sudden introduction of large amounts of water, and tend to follow topographic low spots. consist of particles that are generally coarser than sand-size. requires a steeper slope than any other type of flow to trigger its movement.
Polar Front
contact in the midlatitudes between warm tropical air and colder polar air
slow movement
creep: slowest form of mass movement. generally moves unconsolidated materials solifuction: form of creep that occurs in cold regions when the brief warmth of summer thaws only the upper meter or two of regolith, which becomes waterlogged because the underlying ground remains frozen and therefore the water cannot drain down into it rock glaciers:
What type of clouds for occluded fronts?
cumulus clouds
mollic epipedon
dark colored surface horizon, high in organic matter NOT acidic
Steepness of a slope
depends on size and texture of the grains
Describe the features of valley walls/bluffs,
depression between uplands, hills, or mountains, especially one following the course of a stream.
what biome is most likely to have xerophytic vegetation?
desert
epipedon
diagnostic horizon at or near the soil surface Usually O or A classified based on organic matter
endopedon
diagnostic horizon below the soil surface. Usually B or E classified based on clay content
Gravity
driving force of mass movements. works in conjuncture with weight, size, and shape of surface material; the degree to which the slope is over-steepened (how far it exceeds angle repose) and the amount and form of moisture available (frozen or fluid)
Aridisols
dry arid soils - water deficiency a common condition - accumulation of solube materials in lower horizons - calcic endopedons, petrocalcic horizons - ochric epipedon
geomorphic threshold
during or following a destabilizing event , a landform system . Its a tipping point , where the system lurches to a new operation level. pg395
solifluction
during the summer when the upper layers of soil thaw and become satured , below down slope movement occurs. pg 412
talus slope
durning a rockfall individual pieces fall cone-shaped piles of irregular broken rocks known as talus cones that coalesce. pg 411
What do tropical cyclones (hurricanes) begin as?
easterly wave
transitional zone between two biomes that contains elements of both plant communities
ecotone
initial landscape
endogenic processes , such as tectonic uplifting and volcanic activity , build landforms . pg 394
soils that are very weakly developed and have no horizons
entisols
water and clay can weaken rocks and make them prone to landslides. give an example
ex. Montmorillonite, a mineral of the clay group, has the property of absorbing twenty times its own weight in water, dramatically increasing the weight of the material (and therefore the component of gravity parallel to the slope), exacerbating potential for movement.
sequential landscapes
exogenic processes tears landforms down . Its characterized by lower relief , gradual change, and stability . pg 394
rockfalls
fast movements where the material falls through the air off a very steep slope
rock falls
fastest type of rapid mass movement. occurs when loose rock or sediment breaks free, typically at a plane of weakness, and drops through the air from very steep or vertical slopes.
Forces
for material to move downslope, the forces of erosion must overcome other forces. Potential energy becomes kinetic energy
solution sinkholes
forms by the slow subsidence of surface materials along joints or at an interaction between joints. - there typically have depths of 2-100m (7-330ft) and diameters of 10-10000m (33-3300ft ) -they can have dramatic features not all associated with karst processes . pg 406
plinthite
forms under Ultisols with fluctuating wetness conditions - horizons of iron rich mottled material that hardens irreversibly when dried.
Carbon-based energy sources such as gasoline and coal that are derived from ancient organisms are called
fossil fuels
parent rock
from which weathered regolith and soils develop . Wherever a soil is relatively young its parent rock is traceable through simiaritlites in composition. pg 398
cryoturbation
frost churning, physical disturbance of soil due to freezing processes , causes swirling and convoluted horizons in soil
What are the types of mechanical weathering?
frost wedging (temperature) and exofliation (pressure)
turquoise on the map soils found in upper canada and russia
gelisols
what is the soil best associated with tundra?
gelisols
What kind of winds go with occluded fronts?
gentle
What kinds of winds are in a stationary front?
gentle to none
mass wasting (movements)
gravity pulling geological materials downward
polypedon
group of pedons closely associated in the field, used as the basic classification unit
what does the repeated pull of ice crystals into the upper part of a thunderstorm until they become to large to be supported produce?
hail
the side of a mountain range that faces prevailing winds.
he windward side of a mountain range is
Vertisols
high activity clays, dark, swelling and cracking clays - partial inversion of the soil - fertile soils, due to more than 30% clay
What is associated with sinking air?
high pressure
The climate of western Peru, central Ethiopia, Switzerland, and Nepal is
highland
Ultisols
highly leached soils with argillic horizons - form in warm humid climates - highly leached, usually reddish brown in color - have high clay content, argillic horizons
oxic horizon
horizon that takes on a red coloration due to high oxidization
Advection
horizontal movement of air or water from one place to another (Atmospheric Advection of Water Vapor)
scarification
human impacts that move sediments, soil, and rock material. ex: Black Mesa , Arizona pg 412
The climate of Minneapolis, Minnesota, shown below, is
humid continental mild-summer
Which of the following only have monthly mean temperatures above freezing?
humid subtropical hot-summer
The climate zone shown on the map below is
humid subtropical hot-summer.
udic
humid, adequate soil moisture regime
partially decomposed organic matter in soil
humus
What are the types of chemical weathering?
hydrolysis (water), oxidation (oxygen), carbonic acid (carbon dioxide), acid rain
The climate zone shown on the map below is
ice cap
Select all of the following that are used to reconstruct past climates.
ice core analysis, the work of palynologists, and dendrochronology
south
if you are experiencing winds that are described as "southerlies," the winds are flowing form which direction?
driving force
in a mass movement is gravity. It works in conjunction with the weight , size and shape of the surfaces material; the degree to which the slope is oversteepened (how far it exceeds the angle of repose) and the amount and form of moisture available (frozen or fluid ) pg 410
where is the densest layer of vegetation found in a tropical rainforest biome?
in the canopy
cockpit karst
in the tropical karst where there is wet weathering in these wet climates where thick beds of limestones are deeply jointed (exposing a large surface area for dissolution processes). It resembles the shape of an egg carton. pg 408
translational slide
involve movement along a planar (flat) surface roughly parallel to the angle of the slope , with no rotation . pg 412
Translational
involve movement along a planar (flat) surface roughly parallel to the angle of the slope, no rotation, flow and creep patterns are also translational in nature, medium water content, slower than rotational
Describe the development and characteristics of alluvial fans and bajadas
is a fan- or cone-shaped deposit of sediment crossed and built up by streams. Fans are typically found where a canyon draining from mountainous terrain emerges out onto a flatter plain, and especially along fault-bounded mountain fronts.
debris avalanche
is a mass of falling and tumbling rock, debris and soil traveling at high velocity owing to the presence of ice and water that fluidize the debris. pg 411
solifluction
is a type of mass wasting where waterlogged sediment moves slowly downslope, over impermeable material
Butte
is an isolated hill with steep, often vertical sides and a small, relatively flat top; its the smallest feature
Denudation
is any process that wears away or rearranges landform . This principal affects surface materials include weathering, mass movement, erosion , transportation and deposition as produced by moving water, air, waves and ice all influenced by the pull of gravity. pg 394
chemical energy
is available from the atmosphere and various reactions within the crust. pg 395
spheroidal weathering
is chemical weathering that soften and rounds the sharp edges and corners of jointed rock. It resembles exfoliation but does not result from pressure - release jointing. pg 402
rockfall
is simply volume of rock that falls through the air and hits a surface. pg 411
weathering
is the breakdown of materials pg 394
hydrolysis
is the decomposition of a chemical compound by reaction with water. Is the interest as a process that breaks down silicates minerals rocks. by the chemical reaction of water with a mineral. pg 402
Physical weathering or mechanical weathering
is the disintergration of rock without any chemical alteration. by breaking up rock, physical weathering produces more surface area on which all weathering operate. pg 400
weathering
is the process that breaks down rock earths surface and slightly below , either disintegrating rocks into mineral particles or dissolving it into water. pg 398
resisting force
is the shear strength of the slope material that is , its cohesiveness and internal friction , which work against gravity and mass wasting. to reduce shear strength is to increase share stress reaches the point at which gravity overcomes friction . pg 410
biospeleology
is the study of cave organisms. pg 408
erosion
it includes the transport of weathered materials to different locations . pg 394
water
it is more likely than any other factors to cause slopes to fail and slide. a small amount binds materials together and stabilizes them and helps with vegetation growth, but too much water causes landslides
Define and explain the process of formation of a desert varnish
it is the thin red to black coating found on exposed rock surfaces in arid regions. Varnish is composed of clay minerals, oxides and hydroxides of manganese and iron.
What is a warm occlusion?
it occurs when cool air rises over cold air.
soil creep
its a persistent , gradual mass movement of surface soil. - Individual soil particles are lifted and disturbed , whether by the expansion of soil moisture as it freezes by cycles of moistness and dryness, by diurnal temperature variation. pg 412
landside
its a sudden movement of a cohesive mass of regolith or bedrock that is not saturated with moisture. -a large amount of material failing simultaneously. pg 412
different weathering
its an assortment of weathering processes have worked in combination with the differing resistances of the rocks to produce this delicate sculpture. in where a mass resistant cap rock projects supporting start below . pg 394
mountaintop removal
its an controversial from of mining is done by removing ridges and summts and dumping the debris into stream valleys , thereby exposing the coal seams for mining and burying the seams for mining and burying the stream channels. pg 416
oxidation
its another type of chemical weathering occurs when certain metallic elements combine with oxygen to from oxides. ex: you find this when you leave nails outside the reddish brown substances its rust color visible on the surface of rock in heavily oxidized soils. pg 403
Thunderstorms, midlatitude cyclones, and hurricanes are fed by
latent heat of condensation
Overall, the most important climatic influence is:
latitude
microscale
levels revels a more complex relationship between climate and weathering than previous thought. pg 400
What is associated with rising air?
low pressure
What is the air mass that is the main source of precipitation in the eastern United States?
mT
Plutons
magma rises into the crust and then remains deeply buried under high pressure forms intrusive igneous rocks . pg 401
The climate of Seattle, Washington, shown below, is
marine west-coast
flows
mass movements that occur in a chaotic fashion; different kinds: avalanches of snow or debris, mudflows and lahars, nuées ardentes (pyroclastic flows), and earthflows. All but the earthflows are fast.
Debris Avalanches (Fall)
mass of falling and tumbling rock, debris, and soil. Very fast due to ice and water that fluidize the debris, tremendous speed, lack of warning, medium water content
angle of repose
maximum slope angle at which material is stable (not going to slide); angle varies with material
supercell thunderstorms can produce tornadoes due to large rotating updrafts called
mesocyclones
The study of short-term atmospheric phenomena is part of the field of
meteorology
Describe the types of openings into surface bedrock.
microscopic spaces (small opening where freeze thawing can begin to occur) joints (is a fracture dividing rock into two sections that have not moved away from each other) Faults (Cracks in bedrock due to movement, easy for water to penetrate) lava vesicles (holes left over from gases that cant escape lava then cooled) solution cavities (chemical weathering from resolved solution that makes holes in the rock)
the interaction of mT and cP air along the polar front frequently occurs during a
midlatitude cyclone
Alfisols
moderately leached soils -form under deciduous forests - have argillic Bt horizons with large deposits of clay (formed through illuviation) -highly fertile, high in nutrients - do not have mollic epipedon (very rarely)
aridic
moisture almost always inadequate in this soil moisture regime (most of Arizona Sonoran desert)
ustic
moisture often inadequate, usually comes in the SUMMER in this soil moisture regime
xeric
moisture often inadequate, usually comes in the WINTER this soil moisture regime (Tucson area)
green on the map soils found in russia/europe, central U.S., southern parts of south america
mollisols
Mudflows (flow)
more fluid, when the moisture content of moving material is high the suffix is flow is used, fast, wet
Oxisols
most highly weathered soil - form under tropical rainforest - relatively uniform appearance due to intense weathering and leaching - generally high clay content , yellow or red in color - low natural fertility -oxic endopedon
Entisols
most recent soil order - weakly developed mineral soils without natural B horizons - usually just A horizon over C or R - ochric epipedon - very diverse group with little in common
slumps
movements of rocks or unconsolidated materials that occur along a curved surface over a short distance; there is a rotational component to the movement.
caves
natural underground area large enough for humans to enter. they form in limestone because it is so easily dissolved by carbonation . pg 408
waxing slope
near the top (waxing means increasing ) . this convex surface curves downward and may grade into a free face below . pg. 395
Rotational slides or slumps
occur when surface material moves along a concave surface. Frequently, underlying clay presents an impervious barrier to percolating water. pg 412
rock slides
occurs when rock, sediment, or unconsolidated material breaks loose and moves in contact with the underlying slope along a preexisting plane of weakness, such as a fault, fracture, or bedding plane. a slide moves as a single, intact mass.
isobars
on a map, lines of equal air pressure are called
bedrock
on a typical hillside losse surface material such as gravel , sand , clay or soil overlies consolidated or solid . pg 398
Histosols
organic soils - form under wet and cold conditions (wetlands) - peat and muck - saturated with water, high water holding capacities
Explain the three significant chemical processes involved in chemical weathering.
oxidation - RUST hydrolysis - Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. carbonation and solution - acid rain ruining graveyards
tropical rainforests are best associated with what?
oxisols
what are the predominant soils of the tropical rainforests?
oxisols
what is the sediment or weathered bedrock in which the soil forms?
parent material
Freeze-thaw cycle (creep)
particles are lifted at right angles to slope by freezing soil moisture, when ice melts, particles fall straight down in response to gravity, as the process repeats soil gradually creeps downslope
soil temperature classes (coldest to hottest)
pergelic, cyric, frigid, mesic, thermic, hypothermic
Moisture Demand
potential evapotranspiration if moisture is available
hazard mitigation
prediction: look at past mass movements (talus slopes, landslide scars, and jumbles of slide and flow debris), terrain analysis zoning: don't build on sensitive slopes early warning & evacuation prevention: understand subsurface geology and identify its potential trigger mechanisms, determine how to enhance the forces that resist mass movement or reduce the forces that promote it. planting fast growing trees and other vegetation. reducing the water content of a slope. freeze slopes to stabilize temporarily. bolts or pins can hold a potential rockslide in place.
mechanical weathering
process by which rocks and minerals break down into smaller pieces- does not involve a change in the rock's composition, only size and shape
chemical weathering
process by which rocks and minerals undergo changes in their composition as a result of chemical reaction
low strength
promotes flatter slopes
High strength
promotes the development of a free face
gravity
pulls materials on an incline downslope. promotes downslope movement
What type of precipitation goes along with occluded fronts?
rain or snow
Precipitation
rain, sleet, snow, hail
natural movement triggers
rainfall: the slope can't withstand the downslope force of gravity earthquakes: can dislodge massive blocks of bedrock and enormous volumes of unconsolidated material. can also cause wet, unconsolidated materials to liquefy. volcanic eruptions: propel large quantities of hot ash onto snow/glacier-covered slopes which produces a lot of meltwater. the water, ash, and surface debris mix and form a lahar and flows rapidly down the volcanic slopes
Levees
raised banks along a stream channel that increase velocity, upstream risks and create false security to live by bodies of water likely to flood
landslide
rapid mass movements
Transport Limited
rate of transport is lower than regolith formation; weathering and soil formation rates are faster than rate of removal. Slope form is greatly controlled by creep, solifluction, and similar mass movement processes
Weathering Limited
rates of regolith formation is slower than transport: erosional processes, such as mass-wasting, slope wash, fluvial activity are faster than weathering (soil forming) processes. Slopes are steep and have little to no soil.
Carbonation / hydrolysis of almost any common silicate mineral except olivine and quartz will
reduce the original mineral to clay minerals and a variety of soluble materials that are carried off in solution.
Hydration
refers to as" combination with water" involves little chemical change (it does not form new chemical compounds ) but does involve a change in structure. Water becomes part of the chemical composition of the mineral , forming a hydrate. pg 402
chemical weathering
refers to the chemical breakdown always in the presence of water, of the constituent minerals in rock. The chemical decomposition and decay become more intense as both temperature and precipitation increase. pg 401
Distinguish between parent material and regolith.
regolith covers bedrock and parent material is the underlying geological material (generally bedrock or a superficial or drift deposit) in which soil horizons form.
earthflows
relatively dry masses of clayey or silty regolith. high velocity causes them to move slowly. faster than creep, slower than mudflow.
ochric epipedon
relatively light colored surface horizon, low in organic matter common in desert soils
what is the most important factor in soil development?
relief
rapid movement
rock falls, rock slides, slumps, earthflows, debris slides, debris flows, mudflows, lahars
List and explain the various factors that influence the rate of weathering.
rock type (hardness) jointing (places of weakness) water (hydrological cycle) climate (areas of precipitation) slope orientation (gravity, north or south facing slopes) vegetation (chemical influences of plants, and plants taking over rocks) time (things break down over time)
What are the major erosional agents?
running water, wind, glaciers, plants, animals, humans
rank clay, silt, and sand from largest to smallest
sand, clay, silt
Earthflows (flow)
sandstone formations resting on weak shale and siltstone, which becomes moistened and soft, offering little resistance to overlying strata, fast, less wet than mudflow
Hadley Cell
scale convection loop in the tropical latitudes that connects the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the Subtropical High (STH)
umbric epipedon
similar to mollic epipedon , organic surface horizon - but lighter and ACIDIC
Chinook Winds
slope airflow that results when a zone of high pressure zone exists on one side of a mountain range and a low pressure zone exists on the other side
Parallel Retreat
slope angle and lengths remain uniform as the slope retreats to itself. Occurs when underlying strata are protected by a resistant cap rock, such as a layer of sandstone, limestone or lava. Failure of cap rock occurs only when erosion has removed the weaker rock supporting it. Parallel Retreat is responsible for the classic stepped topography and the formation of flat-topped buttes, mesas, and pinnacles.
Slope Development
slope is controlled by rock strength and structure
angle of equilibrium
slopes are open systems and seek among the forces described here. establish compromise incline the balances these forces optimally . pg 398
What kind of temperature fluctuations go with occluded fronts?
small
pedon
smallest unit that can be called a soil- 1-10m2 cross sectional area
Mollisols
soil with dark surface horizons -formed under grassland or hardwood forests - characterized by thick mollic epipedon -productive, highly fertile soil
diagnostic horizons
specific horizons that are used to differentiate soil classes and used for classification (endopedons and epipedons)
a body of air that has a relatively low environmental lapse rate compared to potential average uplifting air.
stable air is
What kind of temperatures are in a stationary front?
stagnant
Slope Replacement
steep slope is progressively replaced by shallower lower slope deposits. The upper slope retreats parallel to itself while replacement of the lower slope forms pediment
Inceptisols
still relatively recent soil order - beginning (inception) of B horizon is present - profile is not well developed
Undercutting
streams eroding their banks or surf action along a coast can undercut a slope making it unstable. (Waterfalls)
argillic endopedon
subsurface horizon of clay accumulation (to a pole pushed through feels like a layer of sticky resistance)
calcic endopedon
subsurface horizon with accumulation of CaCO3, calcium carbonates - white precipitates form at bottom. BASIC and effervescent.
spodic endopedon
subsurface horizon with an accumulation of organic matter, Fe, Al below an E horizon
leeward side
the _______ is (are) the side of a mountain range that faces away from prevailing winds.
Describe air in a surface high-pressure system.
the air sinks, so that when it reaches the Earth's surface, it spreads away from the center. Because of the Coriolis effect, this spreading air A(wind) is deflected to the right, creating an air circulation that moves in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere.
Dynamic Equilibrium
the balancing act between tectonic uplift and reduction by weathering and erosion, between the resistance of rocks and the ceaseless attack of weathering and erosion
Gradient
the change in y over the change in x. Or the change in height divided by the change in horizontal distance
hydration
the chemical decomposition of rock by water can occur by a simple combination of water with a mineral. pg 402
why are deciduous forest biomes found in the midlatitudes?
the climate has a distinct seasonal cycle, including cold winters
cA and cAA
the coldest air masses are the
liquefaction
the conversion of loose sediment into solid sedimentary rock
tower karst
the dissolution weathering in the tropics also leaves isolated resistant limestone blocks that form cones. pg 408
debris slope
the downslope from the free face is this . pg 398
stalagmites
the dripstone building from the floor pg 408
stalactites
the dripstones are deposition growing from the ceiling. pg 408
exfoliation domes
the exfoliation created arch-shaped and dome-shaped features on the exposed landscape. Are probably the largest weathering features, in areal extent earth. pg 401
speleology
the exploration and scientific study of caves . pg 408
friction
the friction between a slope and the loose material at its surface provide resistance to mass movement. while gravity promotes downslope movement, friction resists it.
Angle of a slope
the inclination of a line in a plane, where the angle is measured from the positive x axis to the line in the counterclockwise direction
talus
the large pile of rocky boulders that accumulates at the foot of a cliff, typically by the mechanical-weathering process of frost-wedging
master horizons
the levels of a soil that make up its profile: ex. O A E B C R
slope composition
the materials that make up the slope affect the likelihood of mass movent. solid bedrocks tends to be highly stable. it can be fractured or unfractured. loose sediment remains only if the friction between its components and underlying materials exceeds the downslope component of gravity
angle of repose
the maximum angle at which unconsolidated material is stable is known as that material's (this). loos sediment's angle of repose ranges from 30-35 degrees
climate
the precipitation and temperature . Warmer environements speed up chemical weathering processes , cooler ones have frozen pg 399
exfoliation
the process whereby rock peels or slips off in sheets instead of breaking up into grains. Refers to the removal or shedding of an outer layer pg 401
Slopes are shaped by
the relation between the rate of weathering and breakup of slope materials and the rate of mass movement and erosion of those materials
erosion
the removal and transport of weathered material from one location to another
What causes the formation of rotating low and high pressure systems in the atmosphere?
the rising or sinking air, combined with the Coriolois effect.
Angle of Repose
the steepness and represents a balance of driving force (gravity) and resisting force (friction and shearing). The greater the slope angle, the more susceptible the surface material is to mass wasting processes
angle of response
the steepness of the resulting slope. depends on the size and texture of the grains. This angle represents a balance of the driving force (gravity ) and resisting force (friction and shear ) pg 410
Which of the following describes climatology?
the study of the geographic distribution and character of the average weather elements and their extremes
Definition of a warm front
the transition zone where a warm air mass overtakes and replaces a colder air mass
where are easterly waves found?
the tropics
the unequal heating of land surfaces
the ultimate cause for all wind patterns on earth is
potential energy of position
the uplift of the land by tectonic processes creates this and rises above sea level. pg 395
regolith
the upper surface of bedrock undergoes continual weathering , creating broken-up rock . pg 398
Water Table
the upper surface of groundwater; that contact point between the zone of saturation and the zone of aeration in an unconfined aquifer. The slope of the water table, which generally follows the contour of the land surface, controls groundwater movement.
sinkholes or dolines
the weathering by dissolutaions of limestone landscape, which are circular depressions in the ground surface that may reach 600m (2000ft) in depth. pg 406
Define and describe the origin of pediment.
they are gently inclined bedrock platforms that are found along lower slopes of desert mountains
Which are characteristics of tropical climates?
they experience a period of drought during some time of the year.
carbonation
this type of chemical weathering breaks down minerals that contain claim , magnesium , potassium , or sodium . pg 404
Weather
to day changes that occur with respect to temperature and precipitation
The climatic effect that influences precipitation and air flow locally is
topographic effects
what pedogenic process includes the vertical movement of materials such as nutrients, percolation, and eluviation?
translocations
Output
transportation
how are tropical cyclones (hurricanes) distinct from midlatitude cyclones?
tropical cyclones have no fronts or contrasting air masses
The climate of Darwin, Australia shown below is
tropical savanna
stunted shrubs, sedges, mosses, and lichens are associated with which type of biome?
tundra
The climate zone shown on the map below is
tundra and ice cap
slumps
type of slide that separates along a concave slip surface, moving in a downward and outward motion. slumps generally create their own slip plane within a body of unconsolidated material.
Slope Decline
upper slope weathers and erodes at faster rate so there is progressive decline of slope angle occurs
Moisture Savings
use (-) or recharge (+) of soil moisture
vegetation
vegetation stabilizes loose, unconsolidated material. without vegetation, there are landslides
aquic
very wet and anaerobic soil moisture regime (very important for some microbial and biological functions)
Andisols
volcanic ash based soil orders -dark, organic matter -rich, fertile -not very common -may have diagnostic epipedon
what are andisols most noted for?
volcanic origins
internal heat builds mountains
vs. gravity which pulls mountains down
Humid
water carries materials, lower debris slope
Capillary water
water in soil accessible to plant roots that remains in soil is available water in soil moisture storage
The statement "It will be 87 °F today" is an example of which term?
weather
what are vertisols most noted for?
weathering of iron minerals
it results in lower atmospheric pressure
when a mass of air is forced to rise quickly,
there are strong surface winds
when isobars are close together, it means
Pressure-release jointing
when the granite slowly responds with an enormous physical heave , initiating. To which the rock cracks into joints. pg 401
mudflows
when the moisture content of moving material is high earth flows or more fluid. pg 412