Earth Science Regents review 2

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James Hutton

" the father of geology" Coined the phrase "the present is the key to the past"

Mesozoic Era

"age of reptiles" 3 Periods Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous

Material is "ductile"

"bends" typical under high heat and pressure, long periods of stress

faulting material

"breaks" typical near the surface, due to short, abrupt periods of stress

Criteria for index fossils, in order to be an index fossil, the fossil must

Be scattered over a large geographic area (widespread) Have features that distinguish it from other fossils Have lived during a (geologically) short period of time (short lived) (millions of years) Be widely distributed within a rock layer

Life of the Paleozoic era (oldest to youngest)

Cambrian explosion of animals with skeletons Ordovician first invertebrates appear

Index fossil

Can be used to correlate sedimentary rock layers relative age to one another

why is color an unreliable clue to the identity of a mineral

Color alone is not usually reliable for identifying minerals because many minerals are similar in color and very small amounts of certain elements can greatly affect the color of a mineral

silicate

Combination of silicone and oxygen

Mineral Hardness Field Tests

Fingernail scratches <2.5 Copper Coin scratches < 3.5 glass scratches < 5.5 Steel scratches <6.5

Jurassic

First birds First placental mammals

Triassic

First dinosaurs Pangaea begins to break up Earliest mammals

Cretaceous

First flowering plants Extinction of dinosaurs ammonoids and many land plants

special properties that may help identify certain minerals

Fluorescence and Phosphorescence Chatoyancy (Cat's- eye effect) Asterism Double refraction Magnetism Radioactivity

Intrusive

Form inside the Earth Coarse grained Form from pressure inside the Earth Granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite

Extrusive

Form outside /on the Earth's surface Fine grained Come from volcanoes or cracks in the Earth Obsidian, basalt, pumice, scoria, vesicular rhyodite

Metamorphic rocks

Formed from other rocks through metamorphism caused by heat and pressure

Precambrian time

Fossils are rare in Precambrian rock mostly b/c Precambrian life lacked exoskeleton Stromatolites are one of the few Precambrian fossils discovered

Felsic

Generally light in color Lower in density

atoms change from unstable to stable this happens over a specific period of time called

Half-life This assumption allows us to date rocks

Mafic

High density Dark color

Causes of regional metamorphism

High tectonic activity from plates colliding, splitting apart, or gliding past each other The more heat and pressure you add to the rock, the more it metamorphoses When rock is subducted into the Earth's crust, the entire area gets heated up and placed under greater pressure as rocks collide and as some dive into the Earth.

characteristics that are necessary to classify a substance as a mineral

Inorganic not made up of living things or the remains of living things Occurs naturally Crystalline solid Consistent chemical composition

To verify a mineral

Is it organic? Does it occur naturally? Is the substance a solid in crystalline form? (Is it a crystalline solid?) Does it have a consistent chemical composition?

Felsic

Lighter color less dense Si and Al rich

Paleozoic era

because of the rich fossil record, the has been divided into 7 periods the periods are named after geographic locations

Fracture

break unevenly into pieces that have curved or irregular surfaces.

Color

but color alone is not usually very reliable

Contact

caused mostly by heat rocks can be either high or low grade metamorphism

Intense heat from magma source

changes the structure and mineral composition of the surrounding rock

Bioclastic

chemical sedimentary rocks

Mafic

darker color more dense Fe and Mg rich

When sediment transport stops this is called

deposition

Color

determined by the elements that make up the mineral and how they interact with light

non-silicate

does not contain silicone and oxygen

Non-metallic

doesn't appear as a polished metal

The majority of Earth is made up of 2 elements

oxygen and silicon. Oxygen and silicon make up silicate minerals

earliest grasses

paleogene

Slaty foliation

parallel alignment of minerals into layers

Relative dating

qualitative (ie numbers) age determination of rock or events relative to other rocks or events

humans, mammoths, mastodonts

quarternary

Geiger counter is used to measure

radioactivity in a mineral

Two different types of metamorphism

regional contact

Paleontologists can use fossils to determine

relative age of a rock

Different kinds of bonds

have different strengths

Regional

heat and pressure over large areas

Strain

how a material responds to stress

Hardness of a mineral is determined by

how strong the bond between the atoms is

Superposition

in undisturbed layers of rock the youngest layer is found on top and the oldest is found on the bottom.

Intrusive

injected and cooled underground as magma

3 different types of sedimentary rocks

inorganic (clastic) chemical organic

Two types of igneous rocks

intrusive extrusive

Mafic

is a word derived from magnesium and ferric (iron) because the minerals from which mafic rocks form are rich in iron and magnesium.

Radiometric Dating

is the name given to the technique for determining the exact (absolute age) age of a rock.

When the water in large lakes evaporates

it leaves behind minerals

Luster

light that is reflected from the minerals surface Cleavage and fracture

Felsic vs. mafic

look at ESRT Sheme for igneous rock identification

Sediment

loose fragments of rock, minerals and organic material resulting from a natural process

Nonfoliated

made mostly of a single individual material causing it to be one color

Clastic (fragmental) sedimentary rocks

made up of different sized particles or sediments that have been compressed and/or cemented together classified by the size of their sediments or grains Shale has the smallest particle (clay) and conglomerate is a mixture of all the different particle sizes

Only rocks can be

mafic or felsic not minerals the minerals on the bottom of scheme/igneous rock ID are neither felsic or mafic because they are minerals Only rocks can be mafic or felsic!!!!

Compression

material is "pressed" together

Tension

material is pulled apart

Shear

material is torn horizontally moving in opposite directions

As heat and pressure increase

metamorphism increases

Luster

the light that is reflected from a minerals surface

what is the ratio of Carbon 14 to Nitrogen 14 after 3 half lives have passed?

12.5/87.5

Multiple minerals make up small rocks

2 + minerals

What is the ratio of U-238 to daughter atoms after 5 half-lives?

3.125/96.875

lithification

After the sediment is compacted the dissolved minerals in between the sediment grains crystallize and cement the grains together

Types of unconformities

Angular Disconformity Nonconformity

The geologic history is marked by major changes in

Earth's surface, climate, and types of organisms

Geologic history is separated into

Eons Eras Periods Epochs

two main types of luster

Metallic luster if the mineral reflects light as a polished metal does Nonmetallic luster includes glassy luster, waxy luster, pearly luster, brilliant luster, dull or earthy luster

Naturally occurring

Minerals form and exist in nature Minerals are not manufactured or man-made

Minerals

Naturally occurring inorganic solid specific chemical composition orderly internal structure characteristic set of physical properties

'inorganic'

Not made of living or once living organisms Doesn't contain the element carbon

Life of the Cenozoic era

Oldest to youngest Paleogene Many modern groups of mammals came to be Earliest grasses Neogene Large carnivorous mammals Abundant grazing mammals Quarternary Mammoths, mastadonts Humans

Naturally occurring

Produced through a process found in nature Not man-made; no manufacturing

Orderly internal structure

Regularly repeating crystalline structure

Grades of regional metamorphism

Shale slate schist gneiss

Identify the elements that are in all silicate minerals

Silicone and oxygen

Paleozoic era

Silurian first jawed fish Devonian first insects, seed plants, land vertebrates Mississippian first reptiles Pennsylvanian first winged insects Permian largest mass extinction Invertebrates dominant Early insects, plants, forests

Cenozoic Era

The "age of mammals" Mammals including humans, thrive during this period Divided into 3 periods Paleogene Neogene Quarternary

Consistent chemical composition

The same elements are being used as it grows Whenever you examine the mineral, it has or is the same composition

how do you determine the hardness of an unidentified mineral sample

To determine the hardness of an unknown mineral you would scratch the mineral against those on the Mohs hardness scale. To determine the hardness of an unknown mineral for hardness you must determine the hardest mineral on the scale that the unknown mineral can scratch. If it can scratch a mineral with a hardness of 2 but not a mineral with a hardness of 3 then the unknown mineral has a hardness between 2-3. If two minerals do not scratch each other - they have the same hardness.

Gneiss

a coarse grained rock in which bands rich granular minerals alternate with bands in which schistose minerals predominate

Formation of sedimentary rocks

a cycle weathering erosion deposition compaction lithification weathering...

Law of cross-cutting relationships

a fault or igneous intrusion is younger than any of the bodies of rocks that it cuts through

silicone-oxygen tetrahedron

a four sided structure In silicates each crystalline structure starts with the same building block of 4 oxygen atoms arranged in a pyramid with one silicon atom in the center

Keybed

a layer of sedimentary rock that was laid down over a large area at the same time

Mineral

a naturally occurring, usually inorganic solid that has a characteristic chemical composition, an orderly internal structure and a characteristic set of physical properties

Absolute age

a quantitative (ie - # in years) age determination of a rock or events using radiometric dating

Unconformity

a representation of time when no rock was preserved the rock was either Eroded away or Never deposited in the first place

Felsic

a term derived from the mineral feldspar. Both kinds of feldspar are rich in the minerals silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al).

Foliated

alternating colored bands of different materials

Angular unconformity

an erosional surface between folded and unfolded sedimentary rock

Metallic luster

appears as a polished metal

Sedimentary Rocks

are created by the process of compaction and cementation

Organic sedimentary rocks

are formed from the accumulation of plant and animal remains usually rich in fossils examples of this group of rocks are, coal, which is made from plant remains and fossil limestone, which is made from cemented shell fragments and skeletal remains.

Chemical sedimentary rocks

are formed from the evaporation of seawater or chemical activity also called evaporties The particles or minerals that form these rocks precipitate (settle) to the bottom of the ocean Rock salt is the most common chemical sedimentary rock.

Index fossils

are fossils that are found only in rock layers of a particular age

All sedimentary rocks

are made from sediment

Isotopes

atoms of the same chemical element, each having a different number of neutrons.

3 different textures of sedimentary rocks

clastic crystalline bioclastic

3 types of sedimentary rocks

clastic organic chemical

seven properties that help distinguish one mineral from another

color streak luster cleavage fracture hardness density

After sediment is deposited, more and more sediment is deposited on top of it and this leads to

compaction

Rocks change shape due to three motions

compression tension shear

Increasing grades of metamorphism

crystal size increases

Extrusive

ejected and cooled on the Earth's surface as lava

Once rock is broken down the sediment under goes

erosion

Nonconformity

erosional surface between sedimentary and igneous rocks

Disconformity

erosional surface between unfolded sedimentary layers

Index fossil

evidence of preexisting life that occurs in a rock layer of a particular age

Extrusive

fast cooling lava on the surface small to no crystal fine grained glassy

Metamorphic Rocks

foliated nonfoliated

Metamorphic rocks

form from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary or even other metamorphic rocks through a process called metamorphism

Chemical

formed from minerals that have precipitated out of solution from water

Igneous rocks

formed from the melting and solidification of rock

Organic

formed in layers from the remains of living things

Limestone

forms when microscopic shelled creatures accumulate on the deep ocean floor mostly calcium carbonate shells.

Inorganic substances

not made up of living things or the remains of living things Do not contain the element carbon

Crystal shape

minerals crystals form in one of 6 shapes a certain mineral always has the same general shape because the minerals crystals always combine in the same geometric pattern

Mineral

naturally occurring usually an inorganic substance has a characteristic chemical composition orderly internal substance characteristic set of physical properties

All minerals in nature are/have

naturally occurring inorganic solid a uniform chemical composition an orderly internal structure

abundant grazing mammals

neogene

large carnivores, mammals

neogene

Carbon-14 decays into

nitrogen-14

As you go into the Earth

rocks become progressively older.

Minerals make up rocks

rocks do not make up minerals

Clastic

sedimentary rock formed from pre-existing fragments

Evaporates

sediments made of particles that crystallize as a result of evaporation

Intrusive

slowly cooling, magma underground large crystals coarse grained

Crystals

solids whose atoms and molecules are arranged in a regular repeating pattern

Extrusive rocks

take less time to cool so the crystals grow smaller (ie: fine grained)

Intrusive rocks

take more time to cool, so the crystals grow larger (ie: coarse grained)

Hardness

the ability of a mineral to resist its surfaces from being scratched Doesn't mean "the resistance to being broken" implying that harder minerals are harder to crack

Stress

the amount of per unit created

Uniformitarianism

the assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe (including the Earth) have never changed and are the same no matter where you are in the universe

Crystalline solid

the atoms are put together in an orderly way and are grown in that way Can never be a liquid or gas. EVER

Magnetism

the attraction of iron (Fe) containing materials to a minerals surface Usually non-sillicates are magnetic Used to make compasses

Weathering

the breakdown of rock through its exposure air, water, wind, heat, and ice

Regional metamorphism

the changing of rocks due to an increase in heat and pressure in a very large area the degree or the extent of metamorphism depends on the conditions the rock is subjected to

Streak

the color of a mineral in powdered form More reliable than just using the color of the mineral alone

Streak

the color of the mineral in powdered form which you can obtain by rubbing a piece of the mineral against a piece of unglazed ceramic tile

Phosphorescence

the continual glow of a mineral even AFTER the UV light is taken away

Fluorescence

the glow of minerals when under UV light

Lithification

the gluing of sediment grains together to form a rock.

Radioactivity

the increase of energy due to the breakdown of atomic nuclei in the mineral

The longer it takes the rock to cool down

the larger the size of the crystals

Hardness

the measure of the ability of the mineral to resist scratching

The greater the heat and pressure

the more a rock will metamorphose

Metamorphism

the process by which heat, pressure or chemical processes change one type of rock into another.

Density

the ratio of the mass of a substance to the volume of the substance A minerals density depends on the kinds of atoms that the mineral has and how closely the atoms are packed.

Deposition

the setting or precipitation of sediment onto an area

Compaction

the squeezing of sediments together because of all the weight above it

Cleavage

the tendency of a mineral to break along predictable planes (ie - places) of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces Cleavage planes are parallel to the planes of weakness

Fracture

the tendency of a mineral to break unevenly If the mineral doesn't cleave, it must fracture

Cleavage

the tendency of a mineral to split along specific plains of weakness to form smooth flat surfaces

Erosion

the transport of sediment from one location to another by water, wind, ice, or gravity. Eventually the sediment stops being transported

Sedimentary rocks are formed

through a long process that begins with an already formed rock becoming destroyed The process of destroying a rock is called weathering.

Isotopes

unstable and they decay (half-life)

Schistose foliation

variety of foliation in coarse grained metamorphic rock

Contact metamorphism

when magma touches existing rock, causing it to change. (ie- metamorphose)

Walking the outcrop

when scientists follow a layer of rock from one end of the outcrop to the other

Regional metamorphism

when tectonic plates collide to create tremendous heat and pressure ultimately causing the rock to metamorphose.

If we know the isotopic ratio (remaining parent divided by remaining daughter)

you can use this to determine the age of the rock.


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