ecology

sources of oxygen in aquatic environments

-absorption and diffusion from atmosphere -photosynthesis -turbulence, mixes O2 poor and rich water -temperature is important -cold water holds more O2 than warm water

spatial scale in ecology

-continental, North America -regional, Florida -local/landscape, Lover's Key -patch, a stand of trees

What "Ecology" is not

-ecology is not environmentalism

history of ecology

-environmental observation as old as human history

scales of study

-levels of ecological organization -scale influences our spatial/temporal perspective and approach to ecological studies

key elements

-relationships -interactions -patterns -functions

history of general ecology

-started with plant geographers in the 1800s who traveled the globe collecting plant specimens -1859 "On the Origin of Species" a landmark book that changed the field of ecology -population genetics in the 1930s -early ecology was largely observational -now ecology has become largely empirical or experimental -there are also theoretical ecologists who come up with theories or hypotheses that need to be tested by experimental ecologists -field experiments have become very important in understanding nature

models in ecology

-statistical models are mathematical descriptions of data, example like a linear regression -models are used to predict the value of a dependent variable on an independent variable

What "Ecology" is

-study of the relationships among organisms and with their biophysical environments -different scales from molecules to the biosphere -the name of one of the key scientific journals in this field

Scope of ecology, general definitions

-study of the structure and function of nature, Odom 1971 -scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms, Krebs 1985 -study of the relationship between organisms and their physical and biological environments, Ehrlich and Roughgarden 1987 -studying mechanisms that affect biological diversity

science of ecology

-term ecology first used by German zoologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869 -became entrenched in early-to-mid 20th century -expansion of ecological thought -1930s, concepts of land ethic, wildlife management (Leopold), ecosystem (Tansley), biosphere, succession -1950s, first textbook in Ecology (Odum), university courses -1960s, awareness of pollution, (Carson, Silent Spring)

scale

-the spatial, temporal, quantitative, or analytical dimensions used to measure and study any phenomenon -patterns and processes change across the different levels of ecological organization, individual to biosphere

levels

-the units of analysis -organisms interact with one another on many different levels

scope of ecology

-vast breadth of organisms, approaches -ecology connects to other disciplines -new frontiers, even in common areas of research, ex. Nadkarni's rainforest canopy work -ecology is a young broad science that draws on many disciplines, using diverse approaches -emphasis, connections among organisms and their environments

mechanisms

-where do organisms occur? -which, how man, & why? -how do they interact, with each other and their environments? -what function does that perform?

process of science

1. make observations, you need to observe nature to come up with a question 2. question-how does this work, why does this happen 3. hypothesis-a tentative explanation for your question 4. conduct experiment or further observations; well conducted experiments are the most powerful scientific tools 5. make a conclusion-conclude whether data support hypothesis or not; you must be able to disprove a hypothesis for it to be valid; data must be published and repeated

Can you have a control group in the field?

A field experiment applies the scientific method to experimentally examine an intervention in the real world (or as many experimentalists like to say, naturally occurring environments) rather than in the laboratory. Field experiments, like lab experiments, generally randomize subjects (or other sampling units) into treatment and control groups and compare outcomes between these groups. Field experiments are so named in order to draw a contrast with laboratory experiments, which enforce scientific control by testing a hypothesis in the artificial and highly controlled setting of a laboratory. Often used in the social sciences, and especially in economic analyses of education and health interventions, field experiments have the advantage that outcomes are observed in a natural setting rather than in a contrived laboratory environment. For this reason, field experiments are sometimes seen as having higher external validity than laboratory experiments. However, like natural experiments, field experiments suffer from the possibility of contamination: experimental conditions can be controlled with more precision and certainty in the lab. Yet some phenomena (e.g., voter turnout in an election) cannot be easily studied in a laboratory.

Ernst Haeckel

Active in the field 1866-1905 Germany Biologist, naturalist, physician, artist, philosopher, and professor Published book 1895 "The Riddle of the Universe" Created biological concepts: ecology, stem cells, phylogeny, recapitulation

Robert MacArthur

Active in the field 1955-1972 Toronto, Canada Professor of biology, Princeton and University of Pennsylvania Niche differentiation, competing species; different organisms use the environment id differendt ways that alows them to coexist He changed ecology from an observe and describe field to a an experimental field

Energy Conservation:

All species require energy whether light, radiation, nutrition etc. Poor understanding of ecology is seeing the destruction of the energy resources e.g. Non renewable sources like oil, coal, natural gas and also pollution and destruction of the Ozone layer.

Resource allocation:

All the plants and animals need to share limited natural resources such as air, minerals, space and environment. Lack of ecological know-how has led to deprivation and looting of these natural resources leading to scarcity as well as exploitation and competition.

Alexander Von Humboldt

B 1769, D 1859 Berlin, Germany Explorer, Biologist 1790 first expedition 1799 expedition to Americas Helped create the basic concepts of plant ecology by formulating the theory of geographic conditioning of plant distribution De Teira, "The Life and Times..." Sachs, "The Humboldt Currents"

Alfred Russell Wallace

B 1823, D 1913 Wales Active in field 1837-1907 Field biologist ranging from geology, evolution, and anthropology Surveyed and observed nature in Malay Archipelago Developed theory of natural selection around the same time Darwin but ARW convinced Darwin to publish "Origin of the Species" Camerini, "The ARW Reader"

Arthur Tansley

B 1877 D 1955 London Active in the field 1902-1937 Founding member of first professional society Botany professor Introduced the concept of ecology into biology Editor for the "New Phytologist" from 1902-1931

Jane Lubchenco

B 1947 68 yrs old Denver, Colorado Harvard Professor Active since 1969 1995 President of the American Association for Advancement of Science Current Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Led effort with the Ecological Society of America to identify scientific research priorities in areas such as biodiversity, climate change, and sustainability, sustainable biosphere initiative

Rachel Carson

B1907 D1964 Pennsylvania Marine biologist Active in field 1950s Discovered detrimental effects of pesticides in the environment "Silent Spring" published 1962; helped initiate environmental movement in the uS against the use of DDT

Branches of ecology

Based on levels of organization

Levels of organization of matter aka emergent properties

Biosphere Ecosystem Community Population Organism Organ system Organ Tissue Cell Organelle Molecule Atom Subatomic particles

Environmental Conservation:

By studying ecology, emphasis is put on how each species needs the other for peaceful coexistence. Lack of understanding ecology has led to degradation of land and environment which is home to other species thus leading to extinction and endangerment of species because of lack of knowledge e.g. dinosaurs, mammoth, white shark, black rhinos, sperm whales, etc.

Seasonal differences in temperatures and dissolved oxygen patterns

Dissolved oxygen levels often stratify in the winter and summer, turning over in the spring and fall as lake temperatures align.

Eco Friendliness:

Ecology helps to appreciate harmonious living among the species; this will ensure natural order of things is followed.

Levels of organization in ecology

Ecosystem Community Population Organism

a. coexistence

In the figure, what is the expected outcome of the competition? a. coexistence b. species 1 wins c. species 2 wins d. either species could win

a. species 2 wins

In the figure, what is the expected outcome of the competition? a. species 2 wins b. species 1 wins c. coexistence d. either species could win

Why study ecology?

It is paramount to study Ecology because: Ecology is featuring as the key talk in world forums as the world tries to mitigate the destruction that is already rife in the ecosystem. Talks and forums are held to push for the world to embrace ecology, reserve and conserve the ecosystem. Kyoto protocol, green energy, Energy star appliances, Renewable energy, animal and energy conservation, anti poaching, equitable mineral allocation, good and ethical mining practices have become norm in the current ecosystem.

Carl Linneaus

Lived from 1707-1778 Born May 23rd 1706 Sweden Botany professor 1730-1731 Published "Systema Naturae" in 1735 First book in 1732 "Flora Lapponica" He standardized the bionmial system of scientific nameng considered flower king to chidlred and considered a great biologist of naming living things Lectured 1742-1772 on diet Continued research, taxonomy, classification biologist, author, until he passed away Blunt, "Linnaeus -- The Complete Natualist"

Why is O2 less in hypolimnion in summer?

Mainly 2 factors, separation of layers, and high rate of bacterial growth and decomposition

Ecology define

Odum: "the study of structure and function of nature" Andrewartha: "the study of the distribution and abundance of animals" We need a broad definition since ecology is comprehensive and interdisciplinary in scope.

hypolimnion

The bottom, and most dense layer of a stratified lake. It is typically the coldest layer in the summer and warmest in the winter. It is isolated from wind mixing and typically too dark for much plant photosynthesis to occur.

metalimnion

The middle or transitional zone between the well mixed epilimnion and the colder hypolimnion layers in a stratified lake. This layer contains the thermocline, but is loosely defined depending on the shape of the temperature profile.

Epilimnion

The upper, wind-mixed layer of a thermally stratified lake. This water is turbulently mixed throughout at least some portion of the day and because of its exposure, can freely exchange dissolved gases (such as O2 and CO2) with the atmosphere.

a. phase 1

Where in the figure of the Calvin Cycle would photorespiration occur (A, B, C, or D)? a. phase 1 b. phase 2 c. phase 3 d. neither

a. an indirect interaction between species A and species C

Which of the following best represents what the figure represents in the illustration? a. an indirect interaction between species A and species C b. an indirect interaction between species A and species B c. an indirect interaction between species B and species C d. direct interaction between species A and species C

ecosystem

a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment

community

a group of organisms living in the same place or having a particular characteristic in common

Which of the following are benefits to being an endotherm? a. ability to live in cold climates if plenty of food available b. they don't need to feed very often in general c. they don't need to maintain relatively high body temperatures d. lactic acid builds up fast in their muscles, so they don't need to chase prey very far or long

a. ability to live in cold climates if plenty of food available

Circadian rhythms are a. daily patterns of activity (ex. diurnal or nocturnal) b. seasonal patterns of activity (ex. summer or winter) c. spatial patterns of activity (migration) d. melodic Caribbean beat that developed into salsa

a. daily patterns of activity (ex. diurnal or nocturnal)

If you were measuring the density of gopher tortoises over all the types of habitat (including parking lots, dorm rooms, etc.) across the campus what would you be measuring? a. ecological density b. absolute density c. relative density d. crude density

a. ecological density

Which of the following is not true concerning monogamy in nature? a. it is common among mammals b. it is common among birds c. it is a behavior that probably arouse due to the need for both parents in caring for the young d. extra-pair copulation is common in primary monogamous relationships

a. it is common among mammals

Low levels of CO2 in the leaf of C3 plants causes which of the following to occur? a. more photorespiration and less sugar production b. more photorespiration and more sugar production c. less photorespiration and less sugar production d. less photorespiration and more sugar production

a. more photorespiration and less sugar production

dx/dt = ax - Bxy In the Lotka-Volterra competition equations what is B? a. per capita inhibitory effect of species 1 on species 2 b. per capita inhibitory effect of species 2 on species 1 c. the population size of species 1 d. the population size of species 2

a. per capita inhibitory effect of species 1 on species 2

An animal starts its life as a male and later develops into a female. Which of the following would best describe this tpe of animal? a. sequential protandrous hermaphrodite b. sequential protogynous hermaphrodite c. simultaneous protandrous hermaphrodite d. simultaneous protogynous hermaphrodite

a. sequential protandrous hermaphrodite

Which of the following is not an assumption for the Mark-Recapture Method? a. there should be at least some emigration of animals out of the area of interest b. samples must be random c. there is no change in ratio of marked and unmarked animals d. marked animals distribute themselves homogeneously throughout the population

a. there should be at least some emigration of animals out of the area of interest

Which of the following terms describes a short term response of an endotherm to colder temperatures (think hummingbirds)? a. torpor b. hibernation c. aestivation d. migration

a. torpor

A really small endotherm needs to eat more in proportion to its body size than a really big endotherm. a. true b. false

a. true

populations

all the inhabitants of a particular area

region

an area of division having definable characteristics but not always fixed boundaries

nonstatistical models

analytical models can be solved mathematically examples, a Paramecium population in laboratory culture, a Daphnia population in a laboratory culture, or a fur seal, Caliorhinus ursinus, population on St. Paul Island, Alaska

agriculturalists

as today, the earliest farmers would have tracked variations in weather, soils, crops, livestock, etc.

You initially capture 100 snakehead terrors and mark them with a tag and then release them back into their lake. A few weeks later you put the newts out and capture a total of 200 snakehead terrors and of those 200, 20 were tagged. What is the closest estimated population size of snakehead terrors in the lake? a. 100 b. 1,000 c. 2,000 d. 200

b. 1,000

The evolution of the C4 and CAM pathways in photosynthesis by plants came about because of problems related to a. CO2 gain through stomate is limited in hot/dry climates because of water loss issues b. O2 gain through stomate is limited in hot/dry climates because of water loss issues c. water vapor gain through stomata is limited in hot/dry climates d. nutrient gain through stomata is limited in hot/dry climates

b. O2 gain through stomate is limited in hot/dry climates because of water loss issues

Size of endotherms can be an adaptation to climate. Which of the following is the best description for why animals of the same species tend to be smaller at lower latitudes (hotter climates)? a. none of these are correct b. as size increases, the surface area to volume ratio decreases c. as size increases, the surface area to volume ratio increases d. as size increases, the surface area to volume ratio does not change

b. as size increases, the surface area to volume ratio decreases

When using the quadrat method for determining the density of an organism you should always use a square quadrat. a. true b. false

b. false

Which of the following is a benefit to developing a cohort life table for a population? a. the exact ages of the organisms are known b. individuals are followed throughout their lives c. individuals must be aged through some physical method d. individuals must be marked for identification

b. individuals are followed throughout their lives

If a single female has multiple male mates, this is referred to as a. lek behavior b. polyandry c. polygyny d. negative feedback

b. polyandry

Which of the following environmental cues is the most predictable for organisms to respond to concerning seasonal adaptations? a. photoperiod b. temperature c. rainfall d. cloud cover

b. temperature

Branches of ecology

based on applicatin (applied ecology) -restoration ecology -conservation biology -resource management

Branches of ecology

based on organisms studied -cetacean ecologist -meiofauna ecologist -fish ecologist -vertebrate ecologist

Branches of ecology

based on systems studied -marine ecologist -aquatic ecologist -forest ecologist -wetland ecologist

If you use a square quadrat that is 1/2 meter by 1/2 meter and you count 50 individuals of a plant species, what is your density estimate in terms of number per square meter? a. 100 b. 50 c. 200 d. 400

c. 200

Counter current heat exchange is an adaptation for a. minimizing body heat loss in ectotherms b. minimizing body heat loss in endotherms c. maximizing body heat loss in ectotherms c. maximizing body heat loss in endotherms

c. maximizing body heat loss in endotherms

Some young are born "ready-to-go" and require little parental care. Which of the following terms best describes this adaptation? a. altricial b. superficial c. precocial d. hypertrophic

c. precocial

The term semelparous means that a. reproduction is primarily asexual b. reproduction is only between one male and one female c. reproduction occurs once in an organisms' lifetime d. reproduction occurs many times in an organism's lifetime

c. reproduction occurs once in an organisms' lifetime

Which of the following are examples of C4 plant adaptations? a. storing CO2 in organic acids b. only opening their stomata at night c. running the Calvin Cycle in specialized cells called bundle-sheath cells d. both choice a and c are correct

c. running the Calvin Cycle in specialized cells called bundle-sheath cells

simulation models

conceptual model and exposure pathways in reef community or deep sea community

hypothesis testing

control group vs experimental group The difference between a control group and an experimental group is one group is exposed to the conditions of the experiment and the other is not. An experimental group is the group in a scientific experiment where the experimental procedure is performed. This group is exposed to the independent variable being tested and the changes observed and recorded. A control group is a group separated from the rest of the experiment where the independent variable being tested cannot influence the results. This isolates the independent variable's effects on the experiment and can help rule out alternate explanations of the experimental results. While all experiments have an experimental group, not all experiments require a control group. Controls are extremely useful where the experimental conditions are complex and difficult to isolate. Experiments that use control groups are called controlled experiments.

CPOM

course particulate organic matter

Which of the following symbols represents interspecific competition? a. (-,+) b. (+,+) c. (0,+) d. (-,-)

d. (-,-)

A genet is a. derived from a clone b. derived from a ramet c. derived from a root d. derived from a zygote

d. derived from a zygote

For which of the following situations would it be best to use the mark-recapture method? a. trees in a forest b. barnacles attached to a piling c. scale insects on a leaf d. mice in a field

d. mice in a field

Which of the following would not be a characteristic of a "K-selected or K-strategist" organism? a. long-life span b. much parental care c. great competitors d. small size

d. small size

Which of the following is not an assumption for the Lotka-Volterra Competition equations? a. environment is homogenous b. effect of competition is instantaneous c. K is constant d. no immigration or emigration e. coexistence requires an unstable equilibrium point

e. coexistence requires an unstable equilibrium point

three layers of thermally stratified freshwater

epilimnion, metalimnion, and hypolimnion

the dawn of preservation

ex, Main Ridge Forest Reserve, Tobago, oldest protected area in the Western Hemisphere; preserved in a 1765 Act, "for Attracting Rains" start of the North American parks systems such as Yellowstone NP in Wyoming, 1872, or Banff NP in Alberta, Canada, 1885

FPOM

fine particulate organic matter

landscape

heterogeneous area consisting of distinctive patches organized into a mosaic-like pattern

Holism vs reductionism

holisitc approach: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; you can only understand an ecosystem by considering the whole thing reductionist approach: the whole is the sum of its parts

from explorers to Victorian naturalists

huge knowledge expansion about the natural world, 16th - 19th centuries, ex. the age of Maritime exploration, European botanists, shipboard naturalists like Darwin and Wallace

early humans

hunters and gatherers would have evaluated relationships between animals, landscapes, climate, etc.

two main types of freshwater ecosystems

lentic-standing water systems, lakes and ponds lotic-running water systems, rivers, streams

null hypothesis

no difference between control and experimental groups

Science vs Politics

objective vs targeted mission quantitative vs value-laden exploratory vs may use ecology goal is knowledge vs goal is action -people are part of the ecology equation -ecology is a powerful approach to understanding how the natural world works ex. energy cycles, micro-worlds within soils, within the body

organismal vs individualistic approaches to ecology

organismal ecologists viewed communities of organisms acting as a whole organism

physical characteristics of oxygen

oxygen rarely limiting in terrestrial environments, but in aquatic environments it can be limiting

early philosophers, scholars, theologians

pondered linkages among plants, animals, their environments, and people

major functional groups of consumers

shredders-feed on CPOM, detritus collectors-filter or gather FPOM produced by the shredders grazers-scrapers feed on periphyton predators-feed on all of the above most of these critters are only in the stream as larvae

individuals

single organisms being as distinct from a group or class

temperature and freshwater systems

temperature can become thermally stratified in the summer months

biosphere

the regions of the surface, atmosphere, and hydrosphere of the earth, or analogous parts of other planets, occupied by living organisms

Limnology

the study of freshwater ecosystems