Econ Homework Study

in 2014, what was the percent female for all the employed people? what was the % female of persons employed in the following occupations:

% female of employed: financial managers==53.4 tax preparers=67.8 computer programmers=21.4 mechanical engineers=8.8 lawyers=32.9 dentists=29.1 tellers=81.6 machinists=4.5 bus drivers=45 flight attendants=75.8

An employer wants to hire workers for a job that begins with a 1-year in-the- workplace training program. Those enrolled in the training program will acquire substantial firm-specific skills that will make them much more valuable to the employer who provides the training. The employer incurs substantial expense by providing the training program. In order to make it worthwhile to incur the training costs, the employer wants to hire workers who will remain with the firm for 5 years. The employer believes that women have higher turnover rates than men so that 60% of men and 40% of women will remain with the firm for 5 years.

(1) If the employer decides to limit this job to men only, is the employer discriminating? Explain. (Use a graph if you wish.) ANSWER: This is statistical discrimination just as described in question D above. Eliminating all women from consideration for the job because the employer believes that more men than women have the desired qualification (5 year tenure with the firm) is statistical discrimination against those women who have the desired qualification. The graph is similar to the answer graph for D above (except with ' % remaining for 5 years' on the horizontal axis). (2) Explain how the employer's behavior (based on beliefs about a gender difference in turnover rates) will affect actual turnover rates? ANSWER: Jobs with firm-specific training have steeper tenure-earnings profiles. That is, earnings increase more with additional years of experience with the same employer than do earnings in jobs with firm-general skills. If the employer puts men into jobs with firm-specific skills, this will increase the incentive for the men to have lower turnover (i.e., longer tenures). If the employer puts women into jobs with firm-general skills (with flatter tenure-earnings profiles), women have less incentive to remain with the firm for long tenures. As a result of such behavior by the employer, women will be induced to have shorter tenures (higher turnover) and men will be induced to have longer tenures (lower turnover). Here the employer produces the behavior that s/he predicted. (3) (Suppose that the employer's beliefs about a gender difference in turnover are incorrect. Suppose that the truth is that when women and men with the same education and training and are employed in the same occupation, they have identical turnover rates. Explain why the employer is unlikely to discover that his/her beliefs are wrong. ANSWER: If the employer behaves as described in the answer to (E.1) above, s/he won't learn that women and men would in fact have the same turnover if they were treated the same. If women are limited to jobs with firm-general skills with flat earnings profiles, they will respond to the incentives by having shorter tenures (higher turnover). If men are placed in jobs with firm-specific skills with steep earnings profiles, they will respond to the incentives by having longer tenures (lower turnover). In many cases of statistical discrimination where employers have wrong information about characteristics of women and men (or members of other groups), we expect that employers would learn the true productivities of their workers through experience. But, the behavior we analyze here creates a vicious cycle that is hard to interrupt and where employers don't learn the true characteristics of workers.

we know that women who divorce typically suffer a dramatic decline in their living standards. explain how this fact, together with divorce rates that are higher than they ever were in the past, provides married women with an incentive to be in the labor force even when they have young children at home

-divorce rates rose dramatically in the US in the 1960s and the 1970s -most women who divorce suffer substantial loss In their living standard -women living where the prob of divorce is high and post-divorce living standards are low, have an incentive to insure themselves by maintaining their market earning potential. -women who live through a rapid and dramatic increase in the divorce rate and observe the impact of this change on women and children, will revise their expectations about the probability that they may divorce. with their revised expectations they have. greater incentive to insure themselves against the negative effects of divorce -clearest way to insure to invest is human capital investment and wage earning potential declines with strongly determined by human capital investment and wage earning potential declines with time out of the labor force. -married women and those with high demands on their productive energies at home bc of kids have an incentive to stay attached to the labor force -"divorce insurance"

use fata from 2006-2010 to show how the probability of marital dissolution differs by educational level

-in the period 2006-2010, the probability that a first marriage would remain intact for 20 years differed greatly by edu level -those with higher edu had greater chance their marriages would remain intact -for example, hs women graduates had a 41% probability that their marriages would remain intact for 20 years (i.e. 59% probability that their marriages would dissolve within 20 years) whereas women college graduates had a much higher 78% probability that their marriages would remain intact (i.e. 22% prob that their marriages would dissolve within 20 years) -less than hs:.39(women), .54(men) -bachelors degree:(.78=women), .65(men)

what happened to the mean age at which women gave birth to their first child in the US since 1960? in which decade was the change largest?

-since 1960, the age at which women typically give birth to their first child risen by 4.8 years (from 21.5 in 1960 to 26.3 in 2014--big change) -big changes took place in the 1970s--increases of 1.3 years -the 1980s(increase of 1.5 years) and since 2000(increase of 1.4 years from 2000 to 2014)

are highly educated women more or less likely to be labor force participants? has the relationship between education level and female labor force participation changed over time?

-strong positive relationship between educational attainment and labor force participation for women -in 1970 and 2014, college graduate women were more likely to be labor force participants than were women with lover levels of education -the effect of higher levels of education on womens likelihood or being in the labor force has gotten stronger over time... for example, the differential between the labor force participation rates of women with the low and high levels of edu was larger in 2014 than in 1970... -the relationship between edu and labor force part has changed a lot over time. in the 19th century, women labor force participants were mostly poor women who had low levels of edu. by the 2nd half of the 20th century, a strong positive relationship had developed between edu level and LFP of women. this has a big current impact as womens educational levels continue to increase rapidly

In which decade of the 20th century did female labor force participation change the most?

-the 1970s had the biggest change. in 1970, FLFPR=43.3%. In 1980, FLFPR=51.5%. The difference is 8.2% points. No other decade has as large of a change

fact: the gender earnings ratio has risen which means market productivities of women and men became more similar fact: there is more educational endogamy than there was in the past

-these facts suggest that we, like Stevenson and wolfers, should broaden our analysis of marriage behavior to include consumption complementarities which may have increased production complimentarities declined these facts explain why the overall proportion married declined, but does not explain why highly educated people are now more likely to be married and less likely to divorce than those with less education

what happened to the unemployment rates of men and women during the Great Recession and the recovery 2008-2012? which gender experienced the greater impact of this macroeconomic event?

-while unemployment rates increased for men and women, more men were unemployed...so men felt greater impact of the recession..."man cession" -due to the industries that were hurt durign the recession -post recovery, the male and female unemployment rates are similar

ccording to Goldin and Rouse, how important was blind screening to the increase in the proportion female in major symphony orchestras? (That is, what part of the increase in proportion female can be attributed to the use of blind audition procedures?)

...the switch to blind auditions can explain about one-third of the increase in the proportion female among new hires....Estimates based on the roster sample indicate that blind auditions may account for 25% of the increase in the percentage of orchestra musicians who are female.

What happened to the median age at first marriage for American men over the period 1890-2015? compare what you find to what happened to the age at marriage fir women. What happened to the typical difference in the age of brides and grooms over this period?

1. From 1890-2015, the median age at first marriage for American men dropped from 26.1 in 1980, until the 1950s--22.8yo. Since then, the age has been rising and in 2015, average age for men is 29.2yo. 2. From 1890-1950s, womens age dropping too...in 1890 was 22 years old then stop at low point 20.3. Since then has been rising, 2015 at 27.1yo The median age at first marriage fell for both American men and women over the first 60 years from 1890-1950. the notable exception is the decade of the 1930s (when downturn in economy). in 1890, half of all men had married by age 26.1 and half of all women had married by age 22. by 1950(and 1960) the median age at first marriage for men had fallen 3.3 years to 22.8 and the median age at first marriage for women had fallen by 1.7 years to 20.3 -after 1960, the median age at first marriage rose substantially for both men and women. in 1960, half of all men had married by age 22.8 and half of all women had married by 20.3. By 2015, the median age at first marriage for men had risen 6.4 years to 29.2 and the median age at first marriage for women had risen by 6.8 years to 27.1 -the median age at first marriage is now at historical highs for both men and women. the difference in the ages of the first time brides and grooms is smaller than it was in the past. in 1890, typical grooms were 4.1y older than their brides. by 1930, the difference fell to 3 years. by 1970 fell to 2.4years. In 2014, difference was 2.1 years

Michelle budgie in her article, the fatherhood bonus and the motherhood penalty, reports that

1. a larger share of the fatherhood gap can be explained by supply side factors than the share of the motherhood gap that can be explained by supply side factors 2. data from an audit study indicate that employers are much more likely to call back. female job applicant who is childless than an equally qualified job applicant who is a mother

if some employers have prejudicial tastes against women, then the Becker model predicts that

1. employers with prejudicial tastes might hire women if women accept a lower wage than men 2. employers with the strongest prejudicial tastes will earn lower profits than employers without prejudicial tastes. this is such employers give up some profits in order to exercise their prejudicial tastes

In which decade in the 2nd Half of the 20th century (1950-2000) did American women's marital behavior change most? Look at the indicators: median age at first marriage, percent married, refined divorce rate.

1. our best measure of entry into marriage is the median age at first marriage which began to rise from 1960 on after having fallen over the first half of the century. The decade of the 1980s shows up as having the largest increase in the median age at first marriage: 1.9 years... in 2000, median age 1st marriage is 25.2--high...in 1950/60/70s~~20.3 -in the 1980s it rises from 22-->23.9 2. if we focus on the percent of women married, we notice that up until 1970 the percent married rose. during the 1960s the increase in the percent married was large. both the 1970s and 1980s saw large decreases in the percent of women married. In 60s, rise 5.2%, in 70s, drop 4.9% and in 80s drop 4.7&... now 57.6% women married in 2000 3. when we look at the divorce rate (#/1000 women married) we see that the divorce rate rose a lot in the 60s/70s....but the increase was greatest in the 70s. In this table, the divorce rate peaked in 1980 at 22.6/1000 married women. The peak was actually 1981...it has since fallen from its peak but the divorce rate is still higher than it was in the period before 1970

educational attainment levels of both men and women have increased in the us but not at the same rates. which statements capture the differences

1. since 1970, the share of men in the pop who are college grads has more than doubled. over the same period, the share of women in the pop who are not college grads has more than tripled 2. now a larger share of the total female labor force has a college degree than does the total male labor force

explain the effect of higher women's market wages on the demand for child services: 1. consider the effect on the price of child services and then on the quantity demanded of child services 2. the effect on full family income and then on the demand for child services 3. the effect on the quantity and quality of child services demanded

1. since parents time--especially the time of mothers--is a substantial part in the production of child services-- a rise in womens market wages raises the opportunity cost of time devoted to the production of child services and therefore raises the price of child services. an increase in the price of child services is expected to cause a fall in the quantity demanded of child services (movement along a demand curve) -when womens market wage rises, child services become more expensive and people demand less...SUBSTITUTION EFFECT 2. a rise in womens market wages will raise full family income. if child services are a normal good...and they are....this will increase the demand for child services-INCOME EFFECT NOTE: the net impact of a rise in womens market wages on the demand for child services is unclear--it could go either way.t he income effect and sub effect work in opposite directions. but we have seen that fertility has fallen as womens mkt wages rise...may mean that sub effect> income effect. 3. children, like other consumer durable goods, have a quantity and quality dimension. for ex,. people care about how many tvs they have and the characteristics of those tvs. some people may prefer to have a larger number of standard tvs or someone else might want one balled out TV -we see evidence that as people make more money and income rises, they substitute toward higher quality children (those with a lot of resources)...as womens wages have risen, more people may have chosen to have a smaller number of more expensive, high quality children. in this case, their demand for child services may rise even though their fertility aka number of kids may fall -SUPPORT QUANTITY: QUALITY trade off argues that both quantity and quality are normal goods, but that higher womens wages have a. different effect on quantity and quality. the argument is that quantity is more time intensive so that there is a big price effect on quantity of children when womens wage rises. adding another child to the family is very expensive when womens wages are high. child servives=durable goods--produced in the household using the time of parents as well as market goods and services. by contract, increasing quality is accomplished more by increasing the market goods and services expended on children -incresing quality is more goods-inrensve....so the income effect is comparatively stronger for child quality. analysis for why womens wages may lead to an increase for child services-but in the form of a lower birth rate and higher expenditures per child-- a smaller quantity of higher quality children

supply side theories offer explanations of the earnings gap which included the following:

1. women earn less than men because they have less labor market experience than men 2. women earn less than men because they prefer to work in jobs where they accept lower pay in order to get the job characteristics they want

if women expect that they will suffer discrimination in the labor market....

1.they may be more likely to become self-employed entrepreneurs 2. they may invest less in human capital because their rates of return are lowered 3. they may participate less in the labor force and so have lower levels of labor force eperience 4. they may invest in more human capital to signal their higher productivity to employers if they fear they will suffer statistical discrimination

in which of the following years was the American divorce rate highest

1980

in which decade did the gender gap in earnings between American women workers and American men workers narrow most (i.e. when did the ratio of the median earnings of women workers divided by the median earnings of men workers rise most)?

1980s

If will completely specializes in producing the good in which he has a comparative advantage and Kate completely specializes in providing the good in which she has the comparative advantage, what is the level of output of the two types of goods that they produce as a joint household.

6000M 6000H

Describe (in no more than 3 sentences) what happened to the gender gap in mortality between 1920 and 2014.

Between 1920 and the late1970s, the gender mortality gap widened a great deal and rapidly with the female advantage in terms of expectation of life growing from 1 year in 1920 to 7.6 years in 1970 (7.8 years in 1979 according to Waldron). Since the late 1970s, the mortality gap has narrowed from 7.6 years in 1970 to 4.8 years in 2014, though the gap remains large.

Claudia golden argues that the decline in womens LFP since 2000 is evidence for the opt-out revolution with many well-edu high-earning women leaving the labor force to reallocate time to home and family

FALSE

budig finds that supply side factors explain a small share of the fatherhood gap in earnings but they explain nearly all of the motherhood gap in earnings

FALSE

in the period since 2000, the labor force participation for older men in the US decreased a lot as the trend toward earlier retirement continued

FALSE

the audit study of restaurant hiring found that employers in all types of restaurants (high-priced, medium-priced, low price) preferred men over equally qualified women,. this was revealed by the fact that male applicants were more likely to be interviewed and more likely to be hired in all types of restaurants--

FALSE

Oaxaca decomposition studies demonstrate that compensating differentials explain a larger share of the gender gap in earnings than do human capital diff between men and women

FALSE,

How big is the fatherhood bonus? That is, how much more do fathers earn than men with similar characteristics who are not fathers?

Fathers earn 6.2% more than non-fathers who have similar human capital, work hours, marital status and other individual characteristics. From this we can conclude that about 3/4 (6.2 / 8) of the gap is associated with the variables included in Budig's earnings equations. Those variables are mostly measuring human capital. (Remember the uncontrolled gap is 8%.)

What was the labor force participation rate for American women in 1900,1940, 1950, 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2015? what was the labor force participation rate for American men in 1950,1970, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2015?

Females: Males 1900-20 1940-27.9 1950-33.9 86.5 1960-37.7 1970-43.4. 79.9 1980-51.5. 77.4 1990-57.5. 76.4 2000-59.9 74.8 2010-58.6. 71.2 2015-69.1 69.1

Explain how occupational crowding leads to a gender difference in wages. (Use a graph along with your verbal explanation.)

If there are barriers to entry into some occupations so that women's access to those occupations is restricted, then the supply of labor to restricted occupations will be artificially low which will lead to higher wages in restricted occupations. Since women's entry into some occupations is restricted, women who want jobs will seek employment in the unrestricted occupations. This will cause the supply of labor in the unrestricted occupations to be artificially high and will result in lower wages in the unrestricted (i.e., crowded) occupations. --PICTURE ON NOTES PAGE--restricted/unrestricted occupation

What is an audit study? Explain how an audit study can reveal whether gender differences are caused by discrimination.

In an audit study focused on gender, individuals are created/presented in such a way that they are identical except for gender. Since everything except gender is the same, any differences in treatment must be caused by gender alone - and therefore is discrimination. In audit studies, it is possible to impose controls that are difficult (or impossible) in the real world. For example, in Neumark's study of hiring by Philadelphia restaurants, the candidates were identical except for gender. And in the laboratory and audit studies about the effects of parenthood conducted by Correll, Bernard and Pak the job candidates were identical in every way except parental status. Because audit (and laboratory) studies allow for such a high degree of control, we can be confident that any differences we see are the result of discrimination (by gender, by parental status, or by whatever characteristic we are studying.)

in 2014, were African American mothers of young kids (under 3) more or less likely to be LFP than are white women? how big is the difference? compare these numbers for those with Asian and hispanic women with young kids.

Info is from table 5. -the LFPR of AA moms of children under 3 is 66.4% -the LFPR of while moms of young kids is lower at 62.1% -racial differential is interesting but not large -well over Half of all women with young children are labor force participants -SEE TABLE 7 for info on FLFP LFPR of women with kids under age 3 White=62.1 AA=66.4 Asian=51.3 Hispanic=51.8 the LFPR of asians and hispanic mothers is lower than the LFPRS of white and African American women, but they are still over 50%

Based on Goldin & Rouse's work, can we be confident that women musicians were victims of discrimination before the institution of blind audition procedures? Briefly explain your answer.

It is possible to disagree, but most people find that the study by Goldin & Rouse provides convincing evidence that female musicians were discriminated against by the people making decisions about hiring into orchestras, and that blind audition procedures dramatically reduced that discrimination. As G&R say (page 716), "the issue is whether sex, apart from objective criteria (e.g., the sound of a musical performance, the content of a resume), is considered in the hiring process." When information about the sex of candidates for orchestra positions was hidden from the people making hiring decisions, they hired many more women. This would seem to be clear evidence of discrimination before blind auditions were instituted. But note that not all the increased employment of women musicians by major orchestras seems to be caused directly by reduced discrimination. G&R also find substantial differences on the supply side - with many more well-trained women musicians coming forward to apply for orchestra jobs in more recent years. It is likely that there is an important demand-supply interaction at work here. It may have been that when talented women musicians believe they were less likely to be discriminated against (because of blind auditioning) more of them invested in acquiring (through training and practice) the skills needed to be a professional musician at the highest level and more of them put themselves forward as candidates for orchestra positions. Another virtue of this study is that we can be reasonably confident that both male and female musicians who undergo the rigorous training needed to be in a major orchestra and who apply for such positions have strong preferences in favor of such jobs and are well informed about what the jobs entail. So, it is unlikely that observed differences in employment are caused by compensating differentials (i.e., systematic gender differences in preferences about job characteristics.)

How big is the motherhood penalty? That is, how much less (per child) do mothers earn than women with similar characteristics who are not mothers?

Mothers earn 3.6% less per child than non-mothers who have similar human capital, marital status, other individual characteristics and work in jobs with similar family friendly characteristics. Since Budig's results for women are reported on a per child basis, the calculation of the share of the gap associated with the variables included in the earnings equations for mothers and non-mothers is not straightforward - since mothers may have 1 or 2 or 3 or... children. Budig tells us that on average the variables included in her estimated wage equations (mostly human capital) "explain" about 1/3 of the motherhood gap in earnings

An employer says he really hates immigrants, but that he is not willing to pay a premium to hire a native-born worker instead. Does this employer have a "taste for discrimination" as Becker defines it?

No! In the Becker model of employer discrimination based on prejudicial tastes, employers have a utility function in which both profits and discriminating against undesired employees confer utility to the employer. In such a situation, employers must be willing to trade-off some profits (e.g., by paying higher wages to equally productive non-immigrants) in order to avoid contact with undesired employees (here, immigrants).

Brad and Angie

PROBLEM IN NOTES!!

For the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, what proportion of its total members were female in 1940, in 1960, in 1970, in 1980, in 1996 (the last year of G&R's data)? Read text and Figure 1. When did the proportion female of NYPhil orchestra members change most?

Proportion female in NYPhil: 1940: 0% 1960: 1-2% 1970: 2-3% 1980: 10% 1996: 35% Clearly there was very little change in the proportion female of the NYPhil before 1970. Goldin & Rouse say there was a turning a point in the early 1970s. "For the NYPhil, the line steeply ascends in the early 1970s." (page 717). Looking at Figure 1 shows that the line for the NYPhil is quite steep from the early 1970s on. So it looks like change in the proportion female began in the early 1970s and has continued throughout the period since then.

Consider new hires to major orchestras. What has happened to the female share of new hires to the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the Chicago Symphony, and the NY Philharmonic since the early 1980s?

Since the early 1980s the share female among new hires has been about 35 percent for the BSO and Chicago, and about 50 percent for the NYPhil, whereas before 1970 fewer than 10 percent of new hires were women

which statement best described the gender mortality gap in the us

TAKE NOTES:

if prejudices or statistical discrimination create barriers to entry by women into some occupations, rapid increases in female LFP will lead to occupational crowing and a widening of the gender gap in earnings

TRUE

When did the gender mortality gap narrow? Was the narrowing associated with rising mortality for one gender and falling mortality for the other?

The gender mortality gap narrowed from the late 1970s (Waldron says 1979) to the present. The narrowing was NOT associated with rising mortality for either gender. In this period, mortality for men fell and mortality for women fell, but male mortality fell more.

When did the gender gap widen? Was the widening associated with rising mortality for one gender and falling mortality for the other?

The gender mortality gap widened from 1920 to the late 1970s (Waldron says 1979). The widening was NOT associated with rising mortality for either gender. In this period, mortality for women fell and mortality for men fell, but female mortality fell more.

What evidence is there that at least part of the motherhood penalty is caused by discrimination rather than by productivity differences?

The laboratory experiment and the audit study by Correll, Benard, and Paik reveal substantial discrimination against mothers - compared to non-mothers with the same skills, education, and experience. In the lab experiment, raters saw the mothers as less competent; less committed, and required a higher exam score for mothers to be considered for advancement. 47% of the raters recommended hiring the mother compared to 84% recommending the non-mother. They recommended a salary for mothers that was $11,000 lower, and they allowed mothers fewer days off without penalty than they allowed to non-mothers. In the audit study, mothers were less than half as likely to be called back by employers to whom they had applied for a job - compared to equally qualified non-mothers.

Is there a gender mortality gap revealed in the "expectation of life" data? How big is it? Who lives longer?

There is a substantial gender mortality gap. Women live longer than men. The female mortality advantage is evident in every year for which data is given from 1920 to 2014. In 2014, the expectation of life at birth for U.S. women was 4.8 years longer than for men.

When we see gender discrimination, we ask whether the discrimination reflects unconscious bias or whether it comes from desires to disadvantage and harm women. After reading the articles assigned for November 1, what do you conclude about the motives of discriminators - unconscious bias? Explicit misogyny? Or...?

There is no one correct answer. This questions asks you to draw conclusions from the articles you are assigned to read. We will be very interested to read your conclusions and your explanations for how you reached those conclusions.

Why might compensating differentials related to various job preferences differ by sex?

Women (on average) and men (on average) may differ in their preferences about job characteristics for a wide variety of reasons including compatibility with other social roles (e.g., parenthood) and attitudes related to what are thought to be sex appropriate characteristics (e.g., risk-taking, helping behavior). Page 255 of the assigned Jacobsen reading, presents results from a study using 1977 data in which men and women rated some job characteristics differently. In that study, for example, we find that men on average, had higher preferences for variety and autonomy and were more willing to take hazardous jobs. Women placed a higher value on relations with coworkers and on the freedom to take time off and were willing to expend more effort than men. A number of studies have shown that men (on average) are more willing to take dangerous jobs.

major orchestras instituted blind auditioning practices so that the people making hiring decisions did not know whether they were hearing a male or female musician. What effect did this change in auditioning procedures have on employment of women musicians in major orchestras?

a large effect, golden and rouse estimate that the blind auditioning procedures account for 25% of the increase in the proportion of orchestra members who are women

which statement best described the educational attainment levels women and men in the US

a larger proportion of the female labor force are college graduates than the male labor forve

use the demand for services child model to help you choose the statement below that is tru

as womens wages rise, the opportunity cost of child services RISE as womens wages rise, we expect the higher full income to lead to higher demand for child services, but this higher demand may take the form of higher quality rather than quantity of children

will and Kate each have 60 units of time to devote to market production M and home production H -In each unit of time, will can produce 200M or 100H -In each unit of time, Kate can produce 100M or 25H

based on the information we can conclude that....will has an absolute advantage in the production of M and a comparative advantage in the production of H

In the article, marriage and divorce: changes and their driving forces, Stevenson and Wolfers argue that

changes in birth control tech and household tech have made production complementarities a less compelling description of American marriages if we want to understand modern American marriage behavior, we should pay more attention to the consumption complementarities and insurance motives for marriage

According to biologist Ingrid Waldron and other researchers, the biggest cause of the change in the gap between male and female mortality over the 20th century is

changes in smoking behavior

which of the following statements accurately described the change in marriage behavior by Americans?

currently the great majority of 20-24 year old men and women are single

Emily oyster argues that men should unload dishwashers in most households because their familiarity with mechanical processes leads them to have an absolute advantage in dishwasher unloading and similar machine based household chores

false

if discrimination is caused by unconscious bias, then discriminatory behavior can be reduced by bringing the discriminatory behavior to the attention of the discriminators and giving them education about how to change their behavior. an example of this is the article on gender bias in letters of recommendation

false

the baby boom in the US 1946-1960 resulted from families making up for childbearing deferred because of WW2

false

the mortality gap between men and women is narrowing because more women smoke now than they did in the past. the increase in the number of women smokers is because many more women are in the labor force, and the female LFP are more likely to smoke than are non participants

false

the study of gender bias by elementary school teachers found that when teachers over-estimated the ability of boys and under estimated the ability of girls, the girls compensated by taking more math and science courses in middle school and high school and scoring higher on future math and science courses in middle school and high school and scoring higher on future math and science exams

false

The mortality gap has changed in size over time. How big was it in 1930, 1950, 1970, 1990, 2010, 2014?

female expectation of life minus male expectation of life: 1930=3.5 1950=5.5 1970=7.6 1990=7 2010=4.8 2014=2.8

when we look at info about how earnings differ by parenthood status, we see....

for women, the motherhood penalty is bigger for low earning women than for high earning women

in the us since 1960, the degrees of occupational segregation by race declined less than did the degree of occupational segregator by gender--FALSE

gender change more

An employer wants to hire workers for a job that requires lifting bags weighing 40 pounds. The employer has information that 60% of men and 40% of women have sufficient strength to lift 40 pound bags. If the employer decides to limit this job to men only, is the employer discriminating?

his is statistical discrimination against those women who have the ability to perform the job, i.e., the 40% of women who can lift 40 pound bags. (See shaded area below.) In order to not discriminate, the employer would have to test individuals to find those women (and men) who are qualified to perform the job. Eliminating all women from consideration for a job because the average woman is believed to be incapable of doing the job is statistical discrimination. (rock graph is in notes)

there are many empirical studies of the earnings gap. which uses the Oaxaca decomposition to break the gap into two parts: 1. a part explained by human capital differnces 2. a part unexplained by human capital differences the typical result of such studies is....

human capital differences explain part of the gap, but most studies find that half or more of the gap is unexplained by measures of human capital

What is the difference in marriage behavior (percent married) between men who were high school graduates and men who college graduates in 1970 and 2007?

in 1970, 88% of high school graduate men were married and 88% of college graduate men were married--NO DIFFERENCE! in 2007, 54% of high school graduate men were married, and 69% of college graduate men were married--a large difference with college graduate men much more likely to be married

write a brief description of the educational difference in marriage behavior you found for 2007 and 1970?

in 1970, there was little difference in womens or mens marriage behavior by edu level. by 2007, incidence of marriage had fallen a great deal for both women and men of all edu levels, and there was a considerable differential by edu level--with college edu people more likely to be married than were people who were hs grduates

compute the earnings ratio for African American women as a percentage of the earnings of white women...how did this change from 1979 to 2014?

in 2014, the median usual weekly earnings of AA women were $611. for white women the number was $734. So the ratio (AA/WHITE)=611/734=83.2% -for 1979, the number was 169/184=91.8% -we see that the gap in earnings between white and AA was larger in 2014 than it had been 35 years earlier in 1970...The earnings ratio fell, which means the earnings gap increased)--the earnings of black/white women is becoming more unequal

compare 2014 unemployment rates of men and women ages 25-54(prime working years). is there a big difference? which gender has the lower unemployment rate in the prime working years? does the gender difference in unemployment look different at ages below and above 25-54?

in 2014, the unemployment rates for men and women in the prime working years were almost the same, 5.3% for women, and 5.2% for men. At ages below 52, men have substantially higher unemployment rates than women do--especially in teen years. there is little difference in unemployment rates of men and women over age 54

what percentage of American wives earned more than their husbands in 2013? How has this changed since 1987?

info for all families in which wives have earnings and for families in which both husbands and wives have earnings. from this, we can find that the percent of wives who earned more than their husbands was: 1987: 23.7--in all families with earnings wives 1987:178--in families with both husband and wife earnings 2013: 38.1--in all families with earning wives 2013: 29.3--in families with both husband and wife earners as we can see, compared to the past, there are now many more families in which both husbands and wives have earnings....and MORE FAMILIES WHERE WIVES EARN MORE THAN THEIR HUSBANDS -More women in the labor force, but families are more dependent on the earnings of wives than they were in the past...many single parent families that are completely dependent on the earnings of the women

What is the difference in marriage behavior (as measured by percent married) between women who were high school graduates and women who were college graduates in 1970 and 2007?

info is provided on table from pew study day 5 canvas. -in 1970, 86% of hs grad women=married, 82% of college grad women=married...small difference with college grad less likely to be married -2007, 55% of high school grad women were married and 69% of college grad women were married--large difference with college gra women now more likely to be married

statistical discrimination

is most likely when it is difficult for employers to discover information about the productivity of individual workers

Which statement best described what has happened to the American divorce rate (divorces/1000 pop)

it has increased a great deal in the 1960s and 1970s, but declined since the early 80

which statement best described the changes in the American gender earnings ratio (median earnings of women workers divided by median earnings of men workers)

it increased a great deal in the 1980s and the 1990s and 2000s, but more in the 1990s and 2000s than in the 1980s

when we look at the measure of gender segregation index for the us occupational structure over the 20th century and into the early 21st century, we see that

occupational gender segregation was mostly unchanged until about the 1970s after which it declined

the study "sex discrimination on restaurant hiring: an audit study" provides compelling evidence of which explanation of the earnings gap:

taste-based discrimination by employers and/or customers

in which of the following decades did American womens labor force participation rate increase the most

the 1970s

in which decade did the female percentage of degrees earned in business, engineering, law, and medicine increase the most?

the 1970s for all 4

Which statement best describes the American fertility rate

the American fertility rate fell from 1800 to the mid-1940s. then it experienced a rise during the 1.5 decades following WW2

which statement best described American fertility

the age at which women typically have their first birth has increased since 1970

if divorce rates are high and post-divorce livng standards of women and their children are low....

the divorce insurance model predicts high rates of LFP by married women

In which decade since 1960 did the gap in earnings between women and men workers change most?

the earnings gap narrowed most during the 1980s. you can see this on the earnings ration graph from class...CANVAS DAY 4! -earnings ratio rose from 60.2% in 1980 to 71.6% in 1990. the earnings ratio changed little in the period before 1980 when it was usually around 60%, though the gap did widen between 1955 and 1965...the earning ratio has continued to rise since 1990 (i.e. earnings gap has continued to narrow) but not as fast as it rose in the decade of the 1980s. in 2015, earnings ratio is 79.6

during the 1800s, increasing numbers of womens were employed In manufacturing jobs in factories as the economy became less dependent on agriculture. What effect did this have on the US female/male earnings ratio?

the earnings ratio increased

the large and sustained increase in labor force participation by married women in the 20th century created problems for labor economists because the standard labor supply model did not offer a convincing explanation for such behavior. Jabor mincer developed a model of labor supply behavior that helps us understand why married women increased their labor force participation. the crucial feature of the mincer model is...

the emphasis on the substitution of market work time for home work time as womens wages rise

lionel Robbins developed the modern theory of labor supply in the 1920. he was most interested in explaining the changing behavior of men in the British working class whose wages has been rising for many years. at the same time, the length of the work week had declined. the explanation offered by the robins model for the labor supply behavior of these workers is that

the income effect of the wage changes was stronger than the substitution effect

in a study of major orchestras, golden and rouse find that...

the institution of blind auditioning practices had a substantial impact on increasing the proportion of orchestra musicians who are women

the fact that womens wages and employment have increased over a long period run the US leads us to conclude that in the market for womens labor

the supply curve shifted to the right and the demand curve shifted to the right but the demand curve shifted more

occupational crowding leads to lower wages for women because

the supply of workers in occupation where women can get jobs is artificially high because women's entry into occupations is restricted

you have learnedd how to use data from successive cross-sections to analyze behavior of birth cohorts. social scientists pay greater attention to the cohorts of women who were born 1946-1950 and 1951-1955....what makes these women so interesting?

they had rising participation as they aged with no clear indication of a pattern of dropping out during the childbearing years.

Women are now more than half of all pharmacists and veterinarians In the US

true

examination of the decadal pattern of gaps between men and women--and the article by O'Neill and Polachek--indicate that the narrowing of the gender earnings gap in the 1980s was closely related to the substantial rise in womens work experience levels in that decade

true

if customers have prejudicial tastes against women workers, a likely result is that employers will hire women but keep them behind the scenes where they do not interact directly with the customers

true

if women are not admitted to jobs that provide substantial amounts of firm-specific training, we can expect to see higher quit rates for women workers (compared with men who have the same human capital and preferences)

true

in 1970, there was little difference in marriage behavior by educational level. by 2007, highly educated Americans were much more likely to be married than were those with lower levels of education

true

the fatherhood bonus is bigger for well-education men in professional jobs than it is for less educated men in non-professional jobs

true

what proportion of all US births were to unmarried women in 1950, in 1970 in 2015? in which decade since 1940 did the share of births to unmarried women increase most?

year. % births to unmarried women 1950--4 1970--10.7 2015--40.2 -decade of the 1980s saw a rise from 18.4% of all births to unmarried women in 1980 to 28% in 1990--an increase of 9.6% points. BUT if we look at the percentage change over the decades, changes over intiial value, 1960s standas out. -in 1960s, share of births to unmarried women more than doubled from 5.2% to 10.7% from 60s-70s. -the increase in percent of births to the unmarried has been very large since the 1960s to today--small decrease though from 2010 to 2015

describe in a few sentences what happened to the divorce rate from 1950 to 2014

year. divorces/1000pop. divorces/1000 married women 1950: 2.6/10.3 1960: 2.2/9.2 1970: 3.5/ 14.9 1980: 5.2/ 22.6 1990: 4.7/ 20.9 2000: 4/18.9 2010: 3.6/ ? 2014: 3.2/ 16.9 divorce rate fell slightly from 1950 to 1960. post 1960, it rose for two decades, peaking at 22.6 div/1000 married women in 1980. note: divorce rate in 1980=2x as high as 1960. big rapid increase in divoce=dramatic and was called the divorce revolution -since1981, the US divorce rate has fallen -2014, divorces/1000 married women was 16.9...still higher than it was before the 1970s

what was the us fertility rate in 1950, 1900, 1940, 1950, 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2014? In which decade did the fertility rate increase the most? in which decade since 1960 did the fertility rate decrease most?

year. fertility rate=births/1000 women 15-44 1850--194 1900--130 1940--79.9 1950--106.2 1960--118 1970--87.9 1980--86.4 1990--71.1 2000--65.9 2010--64.1 2015--62.5 -US fertility rate fell throughout history except post WW2 baby boom.recently the fertility rate stabilized at a low level--little variation up or down -increased fertility: only 2 decades saw notable increase in fertility rate. these decades contain the baby boom. from 1940-1950, the fertility rate increased from 79.9 to 106.2 (26.3 point increase/33% increase) -biggest decadal increase -increase from 1950 to 1960 also large, fertility rate increased from 106.2 in 1950 to 118 in 1960 -decresaed fertility: the biggest decrease in fertility came in the baby bust decade of the 1960s...fertility rate fell from 118 in 1960 to 87.9 in 1970--26% decrease. also fell a lot in the 70s. since 1980, fertility has remained low and varied relatively less than the baby boom and bust decades from 1940 to 1980