Edu 210 Exam 3

Teaching position searches

Campaign actively Prepare Materials Develop interview skills Determine Job availability Gain experience by working with children

Authentic assessment

When they adopt that perspective, schools may fail to teach what is difficult to test. In some instances, the content and actual form of tests have become the curriculum itself, with weeks of classroom drill being based on previous versions of tests. Some educators and parents see a connection between the dramatic rise in student obesity and the emphasis stakes testing, because recess and physical education are often eliminated or cut back to provide more time for test drilling. Not long ago, educators and the business community began calling for schools to on high- emphasize higher-order thinking skills, such as critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. These qualities are difficult to measure through multiple-choice and other objective tests, so some educators called for a different type of assessment--one that would directly measure real student performance on important tasks. For example, if we want to know how well students can write, we can examine samples of their writing. If we want to know how well students understand scientific concepts and can carry out scientific processes, we can ask them to conduct an actual experiment In other words, the assessment would actually measure what we wanted student to be able to do rather than relying on them to choose the correct response on a multiple choice test item. This type of assessment is known as authentic assessment, or performance. Advocates claim that authentic assessment involves performance tests that get closer to how students apply knowledge rather than how they store it in their minds. One method of authentic assessment involves having students collect their work over time and assemble it to create portfolios. These portfolios might showcase students' best work, much like an artists portfolio. In other instances, the work in the portfolio is representative of work done throughout the semester, demonstrating students growth over time. In either case, students and teachers can evaluate these portfolios to determine learning progress. In many parts of the country, in fact, student teachers assemble portfolios of their own work to show their professional skills when they apply for employment. Authentic assessment is not without its critics and unresolved issues. The ability of performance assessments to satisfy both the validity requirement ("Is this a true measure of what I want to assess?") and the reliability requirement ("Will this test yield a similar result when administered at different times and under different circumstances?") has yet to be determined. Cost is also a major concern. Evaluating writing samples or judging students' success in conducting a scientific experiment is much more time-consuming and therefore more costly than machine-scoring a multiple-choice exam. Standards of judgment present another difficulty. Even if testers use rubrics that specify criteria and standards of assessment, the subjectivity of the human evaluator is an important consideration. In addition, questions remain about how to judge excellence, originality, and creativity in art and writing, let alone math or science. Although the quest for improved means of assessment continues, one thing is clear: Any educational reform needs to include some way of knowing if students are actually meeting the standards set and becoming the well-educated individuals that society wants. Therefore, a major item on the school reform agenda is to broaden the means by which we measure student learning.

Tenth Amendment

reserves all power to the states and the people that are not specifically designated to the federal government Each of the 50 states has legal responsibility for the operation and administration of the public schools within its own boundaries

Implementing school reform

Although the issue of school reform has been on the national agenda with healthcare and the environment it. Emerge to new pro in pence in 2010. Major television networks devoted time and resources to explore what was wrong with our schools and what should be done. Independently and within months of one another filmmakers released for powerful documentaries waiting for Superman race to know where the dark side of America's achievement culture the lottery and the cartel all of which are highly critical of our educational system. This intense media attention focused in particular on urban schools and how they are educating African-American and Latino students and newly arrived immigrants. Two things that have come to prominence both in the education literature in any popular media or high stakes testing and school choice. Testing 20 years ago was seen as the spearhead at the school reform movement is increasingly being seen as overuse and sucking the air out of what should be the joy of learning. The theme of parental choice of schools is hardly new that has gained in intensity as many parents and educational alternatives for their children. These things in the others to which we now turn have been intensified by the current economic demands and the realizations that are national future depends so on the quality of the education we are providing our children today. Most educators agree that the modern reform efforts started with a 1983 federal report A nation at risk. This strongly worded document to clear that the United States was in serious danger because it schools had left a nation vulnerable towards military and economic competitors. Report card for longer school days more homework and effort on the part of students tougher grading policies more testing and more demanding textbooks. It arrived at a time of particularly widespread dissatisfaction with the public schools. The remainder of the 1980s saw blizzard of national and state reports that was hitting many of the same things and all calling for massive change. In the 1990s was a period of intense development of curricular programmatic and pedagogic initiatives and a bringing about change in schools and better student performance. Several different groups at the national state and local levels creative proposals for reform

School secretaries and custodians

Appreciate them, they do a lot for the schools and help teachers out.

Teacher and no administrative support

At some point, they must make recommendations about "their" teachers to their superiors, and they obviously are influenced by what they have seen during their "helping" observations. For this reason, confusion and potential conflict between the administrator and a new teacher may be expected. In addition, beginning teachers often do not know how to work in a bureaucracy (i.e., how to make the organization work for their ends), and they sometimes are antibureaucratic, or overly critical and complaining. This behavior can put them into direct conflict with their administrators, whose job it is to train beginners in bureaucratic procedures and whose primary responsibility is to ensure that the school, as a totality, runs smoothly and that students learn what is expected of them. Perhaps not surprise. An error of first impressions can also work the other way: The administrator who seems severe and distant can turn out to be warm and supportive. Principals (and others who have supervisory responsibility over beginning teachers, such as lead teachers and department- and grade-level chairpeople) can be a crucial source of professional expertise and moral support. In addition, research shows that supportive administrators actually help teachers to become reflective and solve their own problems.

School principal duties

At the elementary level, principals may be responsible for more than one school building or may serve part-time as teachers Considered to be part of the administrative organization, directly accountable to the superintendent and the local school board Principals usually interview prospective teachers and make teaching assignments, supervise and evaluate staff members, schedule students and classes, manage school budgets, administer district discipline policies, and procure and dispense supplies To list all tasks would be impossible Historically, the role of the principal has included managment, supervision, and inspection duties They are expected to function as instructional leaders for their schools In a number ofstates, principals and their teachers are being held accountable for increasing student learning on statewide assessments of achievement "Voices from the classroom" feature, principals and teachers may not always be on the same page Effective principals serve as instructional leaders by promoting a productive working and learning environment. They do so by understanding the mission of the school, communicating it to the staff and students, and rewarding excellent performance. They also represent the school to parents and the communit. Involving parents and community members in the school's activites and securing their support for these activites are important functions of the principal.

Culture Shock

Beginning teachers' disorientation with what they thought would be the familiar turf of school often shows up in visible signs of mental and physical stress. In the early months of the school year, many new teachers experience depression and self-doubt, outbursts of crying, physical exhaustion, insomnia, crankiness, inability to control temper, and even fits of vomiting before going to school in the morning. The stresses and strains many new teachers experience are similar to the phenomenon known as culture shock. Culture shock is the feeling of dislocation that people experience when they initially live in a foreign country. Peace Corps volunteers, aid workers, exchange students, tourists, and newly arrived immigrants often report that when they are first thrust into the strange life patterns of a foreign culture, they feel numbingly disoriented, forced to assimilate too much too soon, and afraid they have made a drastic mistake by going to this strange country. Haven't we just said that teachers, as ex-students, are accustomed to the culture of school. But many of the surprises of school life are very pleasant ones. There is much love and human warmth in the classroom. Some of the aspects of school life that you may have dreaded never materialize. The content about which you feel uncertain could turn out to be your strength. Also, within the four walls of the classroom, some people find a new self they didn't know existed.

Classroom discipline

Classroom management, classroom control, or discipline (pick your euphemism) is one of those problems that shouldn't exist. After all, school is an opportunity for children. The teacher works hard to help them. It's simple: The teacher is there to teach, and the students are there to learn. Unfortunately, things do not always work out that way. The great majority of schools, whether kindergartens or high schools, are organized with the expectation that the teacher will be "in charge of the class. You may not like this structure, but there are things you can do about it. (For example, zero-tolerance policies in many schools regarding weapons or illegal substances take some of the burden of enforcement off teachers.) But being in charge

Local school board duties

Represents the citizens of the district in setting up a school program Hiring personhnel to operate the schools Determining organizational and adminsitrative policy Evaluating the results of the program and the performace of personnel Many school boards are empowered to to raise money through taxes

Title I

Compensatory and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), of 1965, also known as Title I. Congress continues to strongly support Title I: Improving the academic achievment of the disadvantaged because the money reaches almost every school district and thus provides jobs and services in every congressional district. Few members of congress will vote against providing these benefits to their districts. No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)- Title I has come to account for the largest portion of federal spending on public schools. This was designtated to do two things: 1. deliver federal funds to local school districts and schools for the education of students from low-income families. 2. supplement the educational services provided to low-achieveing students in those districts. Subsequent reauthorizations of ESEA have changed the rules for schools that recieve Title I funds. To reicieve money, states and school districts now must submit a state improvment plan that includes the adoption of challenging content standards and aligned assessments for Title I students. Schools are allowed to use their Title I funds on a schoolwide basisi rather than only for the poorest students, and they can combine money from multiple federal programs. School districts must rank their schools based on their percentages of poor students and distribite Title I funds accordingly, with the poorest schools recieving the most money per pupil. Between 1965 and 2013 , Title I provided almost $300 billion for educational services in almost all of the nation's school districts. In fiscal year 2012, this program distributed more than $14.5 billion on behalf of more than 17 million children in more than 50,000 schools. In 2013 congress allowed sequestration to occur, reducing the budget for Title I by $725 million, and affecting more4 than 1.2 million disadvantaged students.

Teacher's salaries and basis

Salaries are a legitimate concern for prospective teachers-after all, everyone must have sufficient income to meet the costs of living. You will have to decide whether the salary you are likely to make as a classroom teacher will allow you to establish the lifestyle you want. This section presents some objective facts to help you make your decision. The 2013-2014 average salary of classroom teachers in the United States was estimated to be about $56,689. Figure 13.3 shows the rise in average salaries since 2004, and Table 13.1 shows how salaries vary by state and region. The Average Salary column in the table represents the average for all public elementary and secondary school teachers, and the Beginning Salary column indicates the average for first-year teachers. For teachers in their first year, the average pay across the United States as a whole was $36,141 in 2012-2013, ranging from a low of $27,274 (Montana) to a high of $51,539 (District of Columbia)." Most public school salary schedules are usually determined by two factors: years of teaching experience and amount of education, usually expressed in terms of college credit hours or advanced degrees. Thus, the longer you teach and the more college education you receive, the more money you will make. In addition, some states and school districts have used various forms of merit or performance pay (pay- for-performance) plans to reward teachers for exceptional teaching, acquiring new skills needed by the school, achieving national board certification, raising student test scores, or assuming more professional responsibilities. Many politicians support performance pay plans as a way to reward those teachers who are deemed most effective. Such plans, they say, ensure that effective teachers' efforts are recognized, and should lead to fewer good teachers leaving the profession. Most teachers unions have opposed performance pay plans, maintaining that fair and equitable means for determining the salary increases under these schemes are elusive. Each school district determines what it will pay its teachers, with many states setting a minimum base salary below which the school district cannot go. Generally, the large and middle-size school districts pay better than the small ones, and urban and suburban school districts pay better than rural ones. Many school districts offer extra pay for special duties such as directing the band or coaching athletic teams. Some offer summer teaching or curriculum development jobs. Most states and school districts provide public school teachers with a number of fringe benefits, including sick leave, health and life insurance programs, and retirement benefits. When applying for a teaching position, be sure to ask about these benefits; they are a major advantage for public school teachers over employees in the private sector, especially as many private employers are cutting back on such benefits.

Principal duties, liaison

School principals loom quite large in the lives of beginning teachers, and the teacher-principal relationship has many facets. Most importantly, the principal is now a colleague, a fellow educator joined with you in the common task of bringing civilization to the young You are both professionals. You are both part of a common tradition. You probably share common goals (such as improving the educational opportunities of children) and attitudes (e.g., that people engaged in the important work of educating the young need more support from the public than they receive). But there is more to this relationship. official leaders in the school. They make decisions or act as the principals are the funnel for the decisions of higher authorities. Decisions made by teachers or students are normally checked with principals. Principals speak for the school community to the superintendent, the press, and the local citizens. Nothing is ever quite official" unless the principal has been involved. Principals are helpers. They can dispense information and materials, and, as experienced teachers, they are sources of tips, shortcuts, and helpful suggestions. Principals also visit classrooms and hold conferences with teachers, especially new teachers. They stand ready to aid beginning teachers who are encountering difficulties and confusion. Principals are policy makers. A school system is a bureaucracy whose long arm extends from the state commissioner of education to the local district superintendent of schools to the individual school principal. That "long arm" is, in fact, educational policy-the ideas that are supposed to direct what happens in a school and, more specifically, in your classroom. Principals act on behalf of the school district's bureaucracy by introducing teachers to the policies and monitoring the policies' implementation. In addition, they often set their own policies unique to their school building, such as discipline and dress codes, assembly activities, and a character education program. Principals are crisis managers. When something happens that a teacher cannot handle, the principal's office is where he or she naturally turns for help. A principal needs to be fully briefed about crises, real or potential, to deal with them effectively. Principals are facilitators. Schools run on things: pencils, books, paper, heat, hot lunches, sanitary toilets, lights, construction paper, petty cash, computers, and keys. It is the principal's job to keep teachers supplied so that they, in turn, can carry out the aims of the school. Principals are reward dispensers. They assign classes to teachers, deciding which kind of children they will teach and whether those children will be at the level or in the subject for which particular teachers are prepared. Principals also assign teachers to extracurricular duties and activities. In addition, they can give or withhold compliments on teacher performance. Principals are judges. A principal makes the decision about a new teacher's qualifications to teach in the school, and later decides whether the teacher's performance merits rehiring him or her. After all, first-year teachers are neither permanent members of the faculty nor permanently licensed members of the teaching profession. Principals can write recommendations for or against teachers, thereby enhancing or destroying individuals' reputations as teachers. This role of judge is one that new teachers often don't appreciate until it is too late. Principals act as buffers between teachers and angry parents (or, occasionally, angry students). Teachers can be quite vulnerable to public attack. Parents hear tales from their children or from other parents and, if they have a question or a complaint to make against a teacher, often go directly to the principal, bypassing the teacher. The principal is the official "complaint department. This delicate position requires the principal to be open and responsive to complaints and, at the same time, to support the position of the teacher involved. Such situations call for the skills of high diplomacy. Principals are sacrificial lambs. If the community, the teachers, or the school board become dissatisfied with what is happening in a particular school, the school's principal is vulnerable. If a school fails to make adequate yearly progress on some state or federal policy or program, the principal may be replaced. No one suggests replacing the students or the parents: Tenured staff cannot be dismissed (except under very special circumstances), so the principal, who may or may not be responsible for the reported problem, is likely to pay the penalty. The ease with which a principal can be dismissed is incidentally, a characteristic shared with beginning teachers because principals typically don't have tenure as principals. The need to wear all these hats makes for a complicated existence. Today's school principal has a most difficult job, and doing the job well requires the strengths of a field general, a philosopher, a psychiatrist, and a saint. A 2012 study reports how in just the last few years, a principal's job has become much more complex and demanding. Given that the strengths required of a principal are in short supply, it is not surprising that new teachers sometimes find themselves in conflict with their principals. Principals have to make many quick and difficult decisions, often with insufficient information or time, and they are sometimes wrong. When principals observe in teachers' classrooms, they may appear to be there as helpers, but they cannot put aside their role as judges.

Education reform

Excellence High Standards and Accountability Active Learning (constructivist's approach) A Sense of Community Lifelong Learning Character Education

Alternative Licenscure

In many states, the traditional route to licensure-graduation from an approved teacher education program-is no longer the sole route to gaining a teaching license. Alternative licensure programs have been developed as a response to (1) teacher shortages and (2) the perception on the part of some lawmakers that courses in education contribute little to a teacher's effectiveness. Generally, those licensed through alternative means hold a bachelor's degree in the subject area they will teach but have taken fewer credit hours in professional education courses than are normally required for teaching licensure. Often these candidates are required to have at least a B college grade average and to have passed a basic skills test and a test in a subject or specialty area. One alternative program that has attracted considerable attention is Teach for America. This program recruits motivated undergraduate students with arts and science majors from selected colleges and universities to teach for two years in rural or urban areas that have had difficulty recruiting teachers. Although the program bas been successful in attracting significant numbers of minority teachers, its dropout rate is high. Also, the number of teachers produced through the Teach for America program is very small compared with the number graduated through approved teacher education programs. All 50 states have some form of alternative licensure option, with approximately 16 percent of licensed teachers having gone through one of these alternative licensure routes, and 59,000 individuals having been issued teaching licenses through an alternative route in the 2008-2009 school year. Approximately 40 percent of all new teacher hires in the United States now follow alternative routes to teacher licensure. Few formal evaluation studies of alternative licensure programs have been carried 19 out, however, and those that have taken place have sometimes been conducted by people with vested interests in the outcomes. To date, a synthesis of what research has been done concludes: "Teachers who are certified through alternative routes lack adequate pedagogical skills, which are typically taught and acquired in formal teacher education programs."20 One analysis of a national sample of teachers who entered teaching through alternative licensure routes concluded that they tended to have lower academic qualifications than those who entered through other routes, were less likely to stay in teaching, and were more likely to be teaching in inner-city 21 schools that serve more economically disadvantaged students."On the positive side- compared with graduates of traditional teacher education programs, those entering teaching through alternative licensure programs tend to be older, have more experience in occupations other than education, are more likely to be males, and are more likely to be people of color." Supporters of alternative licensure programs argue that the ability to attract men and minorities into teaching speaks to the need for these types of programs. The federal government provides millions of dollars to help mid-career professionals and retiring military personnel become licensed as teachers. Tensions exist between those who want to break college based teacher education's monopoly and professional educators who believe that completion of an approved teacher education program is the public's best guarantee that a teacher is "safe to practice." The variety of alternative licensure programs operating across the various states is testimony to the differing views on how teachers should be prepared. The real issue is not whether traditional programs are better than alternative licensure programs, but rather what the most important elements constituting effective teacher preparation are and whether that preparation occurs through a traditional or alternative program. One thing seems certain: Alternative licensure programs will continue to expand to meet the projected need for teachers

Reflection on professional practice

In the "spaces" in their lives--the time between classes, driving home, working out at the gym, or cooking dinner-they need to ask themselves questions like these: What went right in class today? What didn't work? Which students am I not reaching, and what should I do about it? What can I do to get my uninvolved students more engaged? Are there other ways of presenting this material that will connect with students who have different learning styles? The next time I teach this material I'm going to keep X and change Y. Becoming a reflective practitioner—that is, developing the habit of systematic reflection on your work—is the royal road to excellence in teaching!

Service Learning

Knowing about virtues, such as justice, compassion, and courage, is one thing; making them a part of one's life and practicing them diligently is another. If students are to make these virtues part of their character, they need real opportunities to practice them. As many reformers realize, schools can create opportunities for students, beginning in the early grades and continuing throughout the entirety of their education, to help one another and the adults in the school building. As students get older, they can be given more responsibility for working with and caring for younger students. In the later stages of high school, groups of students can take on projects in the larger community, such as helping a parent whose child has a disability or assisting with an exercise class at a senior citizens' center. Likewise, individual students can provide companionship to elderly shut-ins or peer counseling to troubled youngsters. The emphasis in such programs is not merely on the study of virtues but also on virtues in action. Service learning programs are widespread in U.S. schools.

Teacher licensure components

Licensure is the official recognition by a state governmental agency that an individual meets state requirements. All 50 states and the District of Columbia require public elementary and secondary school teachers to be licensed to teach by the department of education in the state which they work.

Statewide standards testing

Many educators and parents have expressed grave concerns about what they perceive as an overemphasis on high-stakes testing. Measuring school excellence by administering standardized tests poses a danger, which arises because of the limited and simplistic nature of the tests, Evaluation experts warn that relying on tests developed by external sources can be unduly limiting if schools organize their curricula solely to conform to the content of the tests.

NBPTS

National Board of Professional Teaching Standards It has been working to recognize and provide greater support to superior teachers. The organization attempts to strengthen the claim of professionalism for the career of teaching and to play a leading role in this effort. They have established standards for teaching practice and has developed a series of board certification assessments based on these standards. Core Propositions Teachers: 1.Know the subjects they teach and how to teach these subjects to students. 2.Are committed to their students and their learning. 3.Are responsible for managing and monitoring learning. 4.Think systematically about their practice and learn from experience. 5.Are members of a learning community. Five Distinguishing NBPTS Characteristics 1.The NBPTS supports experienced teachers. 2."Taking the boards" is completely voluntary. 3. "Taking the boards" involves submitting oneself to a set of examinations and assessments in particular areas or subject matters . 4.These assessments are not typical paper-and- pencil tests. 5.Primary control of the NBPTS is in the hands of a sixty-three-person board of directors

NEA

National Education Association the most influential forces on the school are professional education organizations Determine educational policy has greatly increased, exert considerable influence on educational policy and legislation Have well articulated positions on selected issues, represent hundreds of thousands of teachers who can be mobilized to vote for or against particular legislators, and spend considerable amounts of money to make their positions known. Teacher organizations have won more and more power over educational policy. They have won recignition as the offical bargaining representatives of thier members. They are also demanding that issues previously considered the prerogatives of local school boards and superintidents be subject to collective bargaining. Among these areas of contention are teacher and paraprofessional salaries, clerical, and secretarial assistance, curriculum development, fringe benefits, in-service training, class size, textbook selection, and even the appoitnment of department heads and other school administrators. In some states, conservative legislatures and governors have implemented policies that were strongly opposed by teacher organizations. In both North Carolina and Florida teacher tenure was abolished.

Colleague attitudes

New teachers are vulnerable to many outside forces as well as to their own insecurities. Although there is increasing cooperation among teachers and greater access to specialists, mentors, and aides, teachers work independently in their own classrooms and with their own students for the most part. When they are engaged in their professional work, they typically are isolated from one another. Although administrators are the official source of support and help for beginners, fellow teachers serve as a much more accessible and less threatening source of assistance. As the preceding case illustrates, a teacher's colleagues can be a powerful influence, especially in the beginning. They can be an ever-ready source of ideas and teaching tips and can initiate newcomers into the customs of the school and lead to their desire to stay in teaching. Like Joan Silver, a peer can be an inspiration and show by example what the phrase "teacher as professional" means. Sometimes, however, teachers can have a negative influence, undermining beginning teachers' idealism, lowering their standards, and offering no help at all. The teachers' lounge may be the venue for serious disillusionment. Many teachers use the lounge to "unwind" by delivering harsh criticism of students, mocking administrators, and offering negative pronouncements about the teaching profession. Although not especially different from similar "off-camera" remarks in hospitals and businesses, such comments in the teachers' lounge can blunt a new teacher's idealism and enthusiasm. The lounge is a source of much learning for beginners, but in some cases the private side of colleagues can be a rude awakening for them. Although we strongly believe that the teaching profession has a larger percentage of dedicated, selfless people than any other profession (except, perhaps, the ministry), it also has its share of rogues and fools. Beginners should pick their way carefully among this field of new colleagues

Character in the curriculum

One major approach is to use the curriculum that already exists in most schools to teach more directly and more vigorously the positive moral values that are embedded in our culture. Our history and literature are permeated with value issues and moral lessons from the past. Instead of simply having students study the facts of a historical period or read a story to build vocabulary or appreciate prose style, a teacher can confront them with ethical issues and moral lessons that are integral to the subject matter. Instead of merely teaching scientific methodologies and findings, the teacher can have students examine the real-world implications of applied science, such as genetic manipulation. Through such explorations, students will see that the use of science and technologies, such as cloning, fossil fuel-based energies, manipulation, is not neutral; rather, how we use science has ethical implications. and genetic As teachers, we must see the content of our curriculum as the carrier of our moral heritage and work to engage our students in that moral heritage

Minority teacher's role and shortage

One of the greatest teacher supply-and-demand problems concerns minority teachers. At a time when the minority school-age population is increasing rapidly, the number of minority teachers is decrfeasing. This shortage is severe now and appeats likely to become worse in the future. These children are currently estimated to account for about 44% of all students in public schools. Teaching staffs, by contrast, are becoming more and more white. Of public school teachers, 83 percent are white, 6 percent are African American, 8 percent are Hispanic, and only 3 percent come from other minority groups, including Asian American or Pacific Islander, and Native American or Native Alaskan. Most minority teachers are located in central cities rather than in suburban or rural areas. During most of the 1990s, the graduation rates for minority students from teacher education programs were lower than their percentage distribution in the teaching force. Although minority enrollment in teacher education has been increasing in recent years, the need for such teachers is still acute. First, minority children deserve to have positive minority role models who can help guide them in a world still plagued by as positive role models to help them overcome the effects of stereotyping and racism. Third, it is important for the United States well-being to have a teaching staff that reflects the diversity of racial and ethnic backgrounds in its population. Fourth, minority students navigate their school environment and culture. A number of reasons explain the shortage of minority teachers. Before desegregation efforts, nearly one-half of African American professional workers were teachers. When schools desegregated in the 1960s and 1970s, resulting in the consolidation of formerly all-black and all-white schools, thousands of African American teachers were dismissed. Today, other professions that pay more and have higher status are actively recruiting minority college students. Another causal factor has been the increasing use of competency tests at either the beginning or the end of teacher education programs. Many minority teaching candidates are either having difficulties with these tests or are being discouraged from even considering teaching as a career. Teaching salaries must continue to improve if teaching is to compete with other professions for well-qualified candidates. Assistance programs to help minority candidates perform well on competency tests have been effective in a number of universities and should be expanded to more colleges. Active recruitment programs for minority candidates must be developed and implemented, and they must reach down into the middle and high schools to encourage minority students to consider teaching as a career long before they enter college. As will be described later in the chapter, alternative licensure programs have been successful in recruiting minority teachers and should be continued. Scholarship and loan-forgiveness programs are needed for students who want to teach but cannot afford to pay for college. Finally, the American public must communicate in a variety of ways that it values teachers and the work they do

PTO

Parent-Teacher Organization They serve as communications link between parents and the formal school organizations, with teachers usually acting as representatives of the schools Are comparatively impotent in achieving educational aims. This weakens of parent groups concerns educational reformers because they know that reforms will last only if parents become actively involved in the work of their schools. Some states have actually passed legislation mandating that schools involve parents in school governance and in the education of the students. 3 Many strategies can be implemented to increase parental involvement and improve the partnership between parents and teachers: frequent parent-teacher conferences; homework hotlines, websites, or emials through which parents find out about homework assignments or communicate with teachers; workshops for parents that address a variety of topics,; school volunteer programs; and school councils on which parents, teachers, and administrators must be trained to overcome barriers to effective parental involvment and to create school environemnts where parents of all races, ethnicites and social classes feel welcome

Teaching as a profession

Profession- is more than a group of indivduals all engaged in the same line of work. Have a more or less recognizable set of characteristics that distinguish them for non professions Offers a unique service to society Relies on intellectual skills for performance of its service Has a long period of specialized training Offers individuals and the professional group autonomy and decision making authority Requires members to accept personal responsibility for actions and decisions Emphasizes services rendered more than financial rewards Is self-governing Has a code of ethics

Character educators

Reminding us that education is not merely about the acquisition of knowledge. The excellence in education is not limited to just academic achievement. Many reformers have also been concerned about excellence of character. Much of the dissatisfaction with schools that has fueled recent educational reform efforts comes from parents and community leaders who believe the schools have not done enough to shape the character and ethical values of students in positive ways. Many reformers are equally convinced that a failure to address these needs of students lies at the heart of the schools' problems. A "good student" has come to mean someone who does well on tests and achieves academically rather than someone who is a good person and who demonstrates characteristics such as responsibility, consideration for others, self-discipline, and the ability to work hard. To achieve excellence in student achievement, according to these critics, serious school reform must address the issue of character education, which we define as the effort to help the young acquire a moral compass-that is, a sense of right and wrong and also the enduring habits necessary to live a good life. Character education, then, involves helping children to know the good, love the good, and do the good."

Smaller schools

Small schools foster citizenship, leadership, and social emotional skills through increased student engagement. Students at small schools are more likely to be highly engaged in their school community, leading to a sense of personal responsibility for the community

Arguments pro and coms for character education

Some people argue that the public school has no role in character development and moral education because both are rooted in deeply held religious worldviews. As such, they are deemed "out of bound. to public schools, which should concentrate primarily on cognitive skills such as reading, writing, and application of the scientific method. According to proponents of this view, parents want attention paid to moral values, they should put eir children in private schools. Others question character education by asking, "Whose values should the public schools teach?" In a nation of diverse cultural backgrounds, a nation committed to freedom of thought and expression, can any one set of values be taught without infringing on someone's deeply cherished beliefs? One solution to this dilemma would have the tax-supported public schools teach the civic virtues that are necessary for life in a democratic society, such and concern for the underdog. Schools that tolerate such behavior not only are failing to address the character education needs of their students but also have become places where the intellectual schooling are impaired. In addition, such schools win little support from the general public, the people who pay for public education. We believe that most educators know it is impossible to educate students in a moral vacuum. The process of schooling necessary affects the way children think about issues of right and wrong and affects the ways they behave. Further, the overwhelming majority of Americans, regardless of religion, class, or racial background, support certain moral values such as respect, thirst for justice, honesty, responsibility in our dealings with one another, consideration, compassion, persistence at hard tasks, and Courage in the face of adversity. For many years, we believed that teaching these moral values effectively would have the indirect and important result of helping students come more academically successful. Recent research has borne out this linkage." Further, we believe that advocacy of these virtues. Teachers and schools can positively influence the development most people would wholeheartedly support schools vigorous of desirable habits and character formation in numerous ways, but two in particular are worthy of note: using the curriculum and involving students in service activities.

Tools for learning

The human brain is a glorious instrument capable of enormous feats of creativity, from writing symphonies to making scientific breakthroughs. The average brain can store and manipulate more information, by several hundred times, than the largest computers. Unfortunately, the brain has some drawbacks too. It loses or "misfiles" information. Numerous and assorted messages enter it through the eyes, ears, and other senses and somehow get lost. When we want to remember an idea, it often is simply "not there. Sometimes the information received gets modified so that when we take the exam, we are sure without a doubt that there are two quarts in a gallon and four pints in a quart. Thus, although the brain is humankind's treasure, it is hardly perfect In any event, to work well, the brain must be trained and well maintained. By trained, we mean we have to teach people how to manage and use their brains effectively. Most likely the majority of our readers have been urged a time or two by parents and teachers to "Use your brain!" Our meaning is both an extension of that request and a more specialized suggestion. We are urging that we give our brains more power through the use of new tools. In the same manner that reading extends the power of the brain by giving it access to vast amounts of important information, other tools can make the brain more efficient and better able to take in, interpret, process, store, and retrieve information. Well maintained means we continue to make use of these important tools long after we have left the hallowed hallways of schools. A fresh focus on the skills of learning can and ought to be a major part of school A reform. Of course, we must attend to the three Rs; we are not suggesting that we give a lower priority to subject matter. Rather, to make knowledge (i.e., intellectual capital) more useful, students need to learn how to learn. As teachers, we must give our students the necessary tools for learning advanced reading, remembering, recording, researching, test taking, analyzing, and creating. These tools can help students excel not just in school but also later in the workplace and in life in general.

Local School member composition

The majority of today's school board members are male, white, between ages 40 and 59- demographic characteristics that have changed little in recent years The proportion of women serving on boards has increased from 12 to around 44% since 1972, but representation of minorities remains small 81% of school board members are white At least 86% of all school board members have annual family incomes exceeding $50,000 3/4 of them have at least bachelor's degreses Most are professionals, managers, or business owners, have children in the public schools and consider themselves to be either moderates or conservatives In many ways school board members are not typical of the public they serve Whether or how this difference influences their values and decisions is not known

State board of education

The state's legal responisbility for public education requires it to establish an organizational framework within which the local school districts can function This is to excercise general control and supervision of schools within the stae This is the state's educational policymaking body for elementary and secondary schools Sets goals and priorities for education in the state, formulates education policy and curriuclar offerings, including establishing academic standards and their assessment; establishes and enforces rules and regulations for the operation of educational programs, represents the public in matters regarding the governance of education; reports to the public on accomplishments and needs; and makes recomedations to the governor and/or state legislature for the improvment of educaiton. It also establishes and enforces minimum standards for the operation of all phases of elementary and secondary education from the state to the local school system level In most states members are appointed by the governor, in about one-third of the states members are elected by popular vote. Number of members varies from state to state, but 9 to 15 is typical Chief states school officer, usually is responsible for the administration of public education and reports to the state board of education

Supervisor help for new teachers

They may have valuable advice on dealing with specialized problems, such as an extremely reticent student. They can put you in contact with specialists in your building or elsewhere in the school district to help you on a range of issues, from curricular matters to dealing with disruptive students. They may be able to do demonstration lessons or special presentations in your class. They may be able to come to your classroom, observe you in action, and provide focused feedback on your early efforts to carry out a strategy such as cooperative learning. Although we suggest you seek help from administrators and supervisors, we also urge prudence. Consult them honestly, directly, and somewhat sparingly.

Job interview preparation

Try role-playing with a friend who assumes the role of the interviewer while you play the candidate. Audiotape you "interview" so the two of you cna criticize it. A major factor school officials consider as part of the decision-making process is whether the candidate has empathy for children. Be prepared to shoe your empathy, not by saying you have it, but rather through the examples you give from your own experience. Ask those who write letters of recommendation for you to emphasize this aspect of your character. Look for a good fit between you and your style of teaching and what the school or district expects from you. Don't be so eager to get any position that you ignore the issue of fit. New teachers will have more options to choose form in terms work climate, educational philosophy, and learning goals. Consider whether you will have access to an induction program and a mentor teacher. Research shows that having a good mentor teacher increases the likelihood of your success as a teacher. Secondary school teachers should also ask whether the number of class preparations is reduced for beginning teachers. Having only one or two types of classes to prepare for makes the first year of teaching much easier than having to complete three or four preparations for different courses

High standards

Two initatives were particaularly notable in this regard: teacher competency testing and career ladder programs. The first initiative, teacher competency testing, was not new, though it emerged with a vengeance during the last two decades of the twentieth century. Almost all states have some form of teacher testing, which typically takes place when candidates are leaving their teacher education programs or before they receive state licensure. One vexing issue that has plagued the movement for teacher competency testing has been the definition of an appropriate and valid standard to which all teacher candidates should be held. In some states, cutoff scores have been set so low as to make them meaningless. In effect, teachers are supposed to demonstrate their proficiency by jumping over a hurdle, but the hurdle has been so low that anyone could jump it. In other states, the standard is considered too arbitrary, dissuading teachers from seeking licensure in those states. There is also variation regarding which competencies are being tested, such as general English and math proficiency, along with content knowledge. In some states, efforts are being made to test competencies beyond mere paper-and-pencil tests and to observe for competence in actual classrooms. The second teacher-related initiative involved career ladders. mpetence in actual classrooms. The second teacher-related initiative involved career ladders. Critics have long complained about the "flatness" of the career structure in teaching. The criticism goes something like this: "Beginners have too much responsibility at the start of their careers and too little opportunity to make the most of their abilities once they really learn to teach. The only way to get promoted in education has been to be promoted away from students, by becoming a department chair, curriculum coordinator, or administrator." With the encouragement of state legislatures, a variety of teacher specialty programs, such as master teacher programs, differentiated staffing, and mentoring programs for new teachers, have now appeared on the scene. Typically, these programs give experienced teachers new roles, new responsibilities, and usually new rewards. Although these innovations have had limited adoption, the assumption that "a teacher is a teacher is a teacher" has been dispelled, and new roles, such as mentor teacher, lead teacher, and team leader, have been opened to teachers who not only want new challenges but also want to stay in the classroom, close to students

First year of teaching

When one of the authors was about to begin his first year of teaching, his battle scarred department chairman cryptically commented to him, "Promise yourself today that you will teach a second year" At the time, the meaning behind the remark was unclear. However, after the emotional yo-yo ride of that initial year had taken a few swoops and plunges, the chairman's message came into sharp focus. A persons first year of teaching is too unusual, too filled with extremes and emotional highs and lows to provide a sound basis for deciding whether teaching is the work on which one wants to spend one's life. Nevertheless, fully one-third of all new teachers leave the profession by the end of their third year. These kinds of statistics need not determine your personal fate. Many of the problems and issues that cause teachers to leave the field are preventable through planning and a few resolutions. Most importantly, be aware that a single-and nontypical-year is rarely the basis for a sound career decision. Begin now Keep a teaching journal Maintain the proper frame of mind Find a mentor Make your student's parents your allies Take evaluation seriously Take care of yourself

Constructivist approach to learning

You can have a child in the classroom, but you cannot make him or her learn. Constructivism is a theory of knowledge of acquisition built on the idea that learners interact with new information to "construct" meaning from it. Provides a frame of reference for organizing classroom practices so that students learn in all content areas. Unlike educational practices in which learners passively recieve information, the constructivists approach requires that learners actively interact with the information, building on their prior knowledge, attitudes, and values. As learners encounter new information or experiences, they ask themselves, "What makes sense here? What happens when I do this or change that?" In this active learning process, learners build and add to their understanding of concepts, rules, and strategies through direct, hands-on experimentation Although the focus is on the students in theory, teachers play a key role. Through a technique called scaffolding, teachers use clues, questions, and hints to extend students' understanding. Teachers help students construct a feld by linking in prior knowledge to make sense of de new information. the primary ingredients of the constructivist approach are learners who take responsibility for their own learning. initiative of the learners is essential. students can achieve excellence only if they take responsibility for their learning. Ideally, constructing classrooms foster experiential, inquiry-based learning in an atmosphere of intel play. Constructivism incorporates many of the ideas that have been written about in this text, including inductive teaching, student-teacher interaction, cooperative learning, multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary teaching, and extensive use of now technologies it is merely one theory of learning one way of thinking about how knowledge and understanding are formed As certainly not the only way. Indeed, critics of this approach are quick to point out that students can "construct" incorrect answers. Further, critics remind us it is formidable task to regularly put constructivism into practice, to translate this theory corrective too much a learning we believe it can be a valuable classroom life. It can bridge the gap between teacher-centered drill or rote on the one hand, and excessively abstract learning on the other hand An ancient Chinese proverb captures well the essence of constructivism: "Tell me and I forget. Show me and I will remember. Make me do it and I learn." Pouring information into students or forcing them to do workbooks or great majority of students learn if simply allowed to wander through a library problem sheets won't always do it. Nor will the or laboratory on their own. Something must happen inside learners before they learn. With the direct or indirect help of a teacher, students "construct" knowledge from the information available to them

Traditional Licensure Programs

a teacher has had to complete an approval teacher education program. Besides conferring bachelor's or master's degree, who provides the necessary liberal arts background, teacher education programs fulfill the state requirement that prospective teachers take certain education courses demonstrate certain competencies. Since the mid-1980s, the overwhelming majority of states have increased the requirements for licensure, adding test requirements such as the PRAT examinations (teacher competency exams developed by the Education Service) or, in some cases, state-developed competency tests of basic d Because the No Child Left Behind law requires that "highly qualified rte meet standards in the content areas they teach, prospective teachers are exam on their content-area knowledge as well as pedagogical knowledge. The difficult levels and the required scores to pass these tests vary from state to state, howe In some states, further requirements for licensure include U.S. citizenship, criminal background checks, an oath of allegiance, and in several states a health certificate Because the requirements for licensure differ from state to state, you should become aware of the requirements for the state in which you will seek employment. Someone in your placement office or your school of education most likely will be able to acquaint you with licensure requirements. Your education library probably contains books that list the licensure requirements for all the states. Alternatively, you can call or write directly to the teacher licensure office in the states in which you are interested. A directory of state teacher licensure offices in the United States appears as an appendix at the end of this book. A number of states have reciprocal agreements to accept one another's licenses as valid. If you move from one state to another, you may want to check whether your teaching license is accepted by the state to which you are moving Besides the basic licenses for teaching at the elementary and secondary levels, many states require different licenses, or endorsements, for such specialization areas as special education, bilingual education, and kindergarten. If, as you gain experience, you want to move out of teaching into a supervisory, administrative, or counseling position, you will need a special license to make that transition as well. A recent type of licensure pertains to teaching online courses at virtual schools. Several states now offer online courses for prospective teachers who wish to teach online courses, especially for high school. For example, the University of North Carolina offers the Carolina Online Teacher Program (COLT) to provide training and licensure for online teachers. As more and more online teaching occurs, we're more likely to see this type of specialized licensure. You would be wise to become licensed or endorsed in more than make you more attractive to prospective employers, particularly in smaller school districts, which have less flexibility to hire specialists who teach in only one area. If you plan to become an elementary school teacher, having an additional license or endorsement in reading, special education, early childhood education, or bilingual education would be very worthwhile. Another way to increase American educational author your appeal to prospective employers is to major or minor in mathematics, one of the sciences, or instructional technology. Elementary school teachers with expertise in these areas are in short supply. If you plan to teach at the secondary level, you can broaden your appeal by becoming licensed to teach in two or more subject fields. For example, if you are a Spanish major, minor in French; if you are a chemistry major, minor in physics or mathematics. Any doubling up of teaching fields will work to your advantage.

New teacher practices

a teacher's only real problem is his or her students' failure to learn and to develop. All other conflicts, triumphs, and defeats pale in significance if the children are learning and developing their human potential. The degree of the children's success as learners is the best measure of a teacher's success or failure. Many pay-for-performance plans give bonuses to teachers whose students exceed expectations on the state-mandated examinations. Although the link between a teacher's instruction and a student's learning is often overstated, this relationship is crucial. Teacher effectiveness is an area in which there are few naturals, and first-year teachers generally have much to learn in this area of instruction. One major difficulty is the sheer newness of the role of teacher. After a little student teaching, you suddenly find yourself totally immersed in all the responsibilities that go with managing a classroom. You are in charge of your own class and responsible for taking it from the first day of school to the last. One particularly vexing problem for beginning teachers is the search for effective curricular materials. Even though the curricular and instructional aspect of teaching can be a thicket of difficulty for many beginners, it is very exciting and inspiring for others.

State Legislature education policy

are the most influential actors in establishing educational policy they make the laws that govern and affect education within their states, and they appropriate the money needed to fund state government Because of the high profile of educational issues, legislatures' interests in educational policy has increase, particularly in areas of school finance and establishment of standards for student academic achievement Governor's office has the power to affect educational policy but often chooses to do so only on limited issues. Many governors have played more prominent roles, beginning with the educational reforms of the 1980s Governors propose and legislatures act on budgets that contain funding for school districts

Teacher supply and demand

student enrollment in schools class sizes enrollment in teacher ed programs geographical location subject matter and grade levels taught retiring teachers, teacher turnover, and returning teachers economic conditions

Teaching positions increase

the total continues to increase over the years. While public is increasing it seems that private is staying steady.