EDUC 250 final exam

Application of motivation concepts in the classroom

Behavioral 1. Extrinsic motivation 2. Rewards 3. Help students see the personal gains of their learning for intrinsic motivation to occur Intrinsic motivation 1. curiosity 2. persistence 3. attraction to challenging tasks 4. focus on master of knowledge and skills Performance vs task contingent rewards 1.Performance - earned, good for intrinsic motivation 2. task - given, not good for intrinsic motivation examples of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations 1.Intrinsic - Games 2. Extrinsic- Grades Rewards 1. temporary behavior change 2. engages in desired behavior for the reward only 3. Decreases intrinsic motivation Positive feedback (effort praise) 1. Increase intrinsic motivation 2. must be given to all who qualify 3 perceptions in motivation Self-esteem - Judgment/appreciation of self-impacted by external factors 1. factors - do others hold us in high regard, how they are viewed, harder to shape then self-efficacy 2. Self-worth and self-efficacy are the best way to improve this 3. Global vs domain specific Self-Worth - ones own value as a person, impacted by internal factors 1. dependent of one's perception of competence 2. Our value as a person "I believe I am good..." internal mechanism what we believe 3. Global vs. domain specific Self-efficacy - One's belief about one's ability to carry out a specific task 1. "I believe I can do what hasn't happened yet" - forms from past experiences changes future behavior 2. changes with different domains 3. Future-oriented, domain specific

Formative vs Summative assessment

Formative - non-graded assessment to "form an opinion" about wether to reteach content or move forward 1. Informal assessments - (not anything with grading) have a formative purpose, involve an observation or interview and do not involve scores or comparing students. Created by classroom teacher ex: walking around class, seeing what ya know Summative - Assessment of learning - sum-up students learning and assign a grade - end of learning cycle (chapter, unit, semester) 2. Formal assessments- obtain summative data of students performance that can be compared to other students. Created by classroom teacher to obtain objective data - grading ex: standardized testing - provides summative info that tends to have validity and reliability. Not created by classroom.

4 different types of performance assessments

1. Direct Writing assessment - tests asks students to write a specific topic under a standard set of conditions 2. Portfolio - A folder that contains pieces of a students work, some of which demonstrates different stages of completion 3. Exhibition - A display or showing of some product (Painting, drawing, photographs, models) 4. Demonstration - Students are required to show how they can apply information or perform a task

Behavioral approaches to instruction

1. Direct presentation of factual info or demonstration of basic skills in a structured environment 2. Lecture - teacher provides factual information 3. Punishments/Rewards 4. divide content into small units, students progress through at their own pace until they have reached mastery

Cognitive approaches to instruction

1. Divide lessons around principles of meaningful learning, teach students how to learn more effectively 2. one way - instructor presents content, build connections between new material and previously learned material, provides a summary (expository and info processing) 3. another way- Students discover a concept, rule or principle in an unstructured manner (discovery learning) or a structured manner (guided discovery) Process 1. Tell students what you want them to learn and why 2. Use attention-getting devices 3. Emphasize organization and meaningfulness 4. present new info in small chunks over time 5. facilitate encoding of information into long-term memory

Constructivist approaches to instruction

1. Help students construct meaningful schemes 2. Two ways to use constructivist approach - one is resolving disequilibrium which is the independent approach OR by working with a MKO (more knowledgable learner) Examples - 1) students construct their understanding of the content through asking questions and seeking the answers (self-directed learner) 2) students work together to achieve a similar goal (cooperative learning)

What type of assessment would you use for your grade level and for what purposes. How would these assessments support students cognitive and psychosocial development?

A group project at the end of the semester cognitive - use guided discovery in formulating their project plan psychosocial - identity vs. role confusion - have to self-regulate

what does no child left behind legislation do? what happened next?

Aimed to close the achievement gap between groups of students through greater accountability and increased flexibility and choice - held teachers accountable for student performance It didnt work Every Student Succeeds act put in

norm-referenced grading vs. criterion referenced grading

Norm-referenced grading - determined by comparing each student to the other students in the class ex: grading on the curve Strength: Determines whose the top Weak: students against each other not individual progress, no need for that Criterion referenced grading - grades are determined by comparing each students to a pre-determined criteria (fixed number of points) ex: the classic referenced grading classroom (EDUC 250) Strength: Drives personal motivation Weak: arbitrary (90=A/89=B) Difference between the two- Who knows it best? / Who knows it?

Objective/performance assessments

Objective assessments - students produce a response that can be scored as correct or incorrect with little interpretation ex: selected response tests/short-answer tests Performance assessments - can they do the task, students demonstrate their knowledge through creating a product or demonstrating a process; includes essay tests. all performance assessments include rubrics Objective showing they can learn it, Performance showing they can apply it ?

Reliability and validity def'ns

Reliability - consistent scores each time = how reliable is this Validity - does it measure what it is intended to measure = how valid it is If it is reliable is it also valid? NO If it is valid must it be reliable? YES Reliability is necessary but not sufficient cond. for validity

Describe standardized tests

Standardized test - created by test experts @ test publishing company All students given test by trained examiner Contain lots of multiple choice q's Ex: IQ tests/personality tests Diagnostic- diagnose/figure out what is going on

4 criteria of high-quality assessments

Validity - assessment measures what it is intended to measure (Standardized tests) Reliability - Consistency in measurement (standardized tests) Fairness - Students had equal opportunity to learn content and demonstrate knowledge (standardized tests and classroom tests) Practicality - time needed to create administer and score assessment (standardized test and classroom tests)

types of standardized tests - achievement vs apt vs diagnostic

standardized achievement test - assess current knowledge Ex: ohio assessment test Ex: teacher wants to know how her bio class performs in comp Standard aptitude test - assess future potential ex: how able are you to fly plane in the future Diagnostic test - form of pre-assessment that allows a teacher to determine students' individual strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and skills prior to instruction. ex: used to diagnose student difficulties and to guide lesson and curriculum planning.

types of standardized test scores - criterion vs norm referenced

tests either evaluate a criterion specific or data complied form the test scores of many similar individuals (norm) Criterion-referenced - compare an individuals score to a present criterion, or standard of performance for a learning objective. - often test mastery of educational goals to provide info. about what individual foes or does not know ex: Ohio exams/teacher licensure test Norm - referenced - compare individual test takers performance to performance of group of similar test takers (norm sample). Items are intended to differentiate to the greatest degree possible between individual test takers

3 types of validity

♣︎ Content validity - evidence provides information about the extent to which the test items accurately represent all possible items for assessing the variable of interest ♠︎ex: when you review a U.S. history exam, you notice that several of the items reflect European history (a conflict) ♠︎ex: do the 50 items on a standardized eighth-grade math achievement test adequately represent the content of eighth-grade mathematics? ♣︎ Predictive validity - evidence, based on the test score and another criterion assessed in the future. ♠︎ex: if you wanted to use a musical aptitude test to help you decide which students should be admitted to musical genius school (aptitude = future) ♠︎ex: an aptitude test and later college GPA. ♣︎Construct Validity - .the degree to which an unobservable, intangible quality or characteristic (construct) is measured accurately. the other 2 types of validity are used to test the construct validity, ♠︎ex: If you want to use a test to measure students' self-concepts, and if you are concerned about the test's construct validity, what you are concerned about is - whether the test can identify who does and who doesn't have self-concepts, or whether the test can identify students with strong self-concepts and those with weak self-concepts. the degree to which a test measures what it claims to be measuring.

Achievement and value-added measures (♢★)

♣︎Achievement measures- based on "standardized" test scores at a specific point in time - represents snapshot in time ♠︎ Strength: designed to permit comparisons of "end results" among schools, districts, states and nations. ♠︎uses Static achievement measure - the calculation of the score doesn't measure prior knowledge ♠︎Weakness : correlated with non-school factors like SES ♣︎ Value-added/growth measure - analyze an individual students test scores form one point in time to another ♠︎ still using scores form "standardized" assessment but the focus is growth over time ♠︎Represents a "movie" multiple snapshots over time, not really correlated with non-school factors ♠︎designed to take students prior achievement levels into account ♠︎identify how much students growth was likely due to teacher, school, or district comparison of both - Achievement measures are beneficial because they show the "end results" among schools districts states and nations. BLANK that achievement measures are correlated with non-school factors like SES. Achievement scores are not valid, compare to others, while growth compares self to self growth

Compare/contrast Behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist approaches

♣︎Behaviorism - learning leads to a change in an individual's behavior. an individual's behavior is the result of two environmental stimuli: antecedents and consequences. ♠︎Commonly- a teacher asking a question (antecedent), a student providing a response (behavior), and the teacher offering feedback (consequence). 2 ways its done 1) ♠︎Direct instruction - direct instruction assumes students learn best when teachers structure the learning environment to present accurate information in small chunks and offer many opportunities for practice and feedback Direct instruction is a popular method in the early elementary grades, where much of instruction is focused on basic skill. may not be sufficient alone for encouraging long-term retention and transfer of complex skills 2)♠︎ Mastery learning - all students can learn curricular material if given sufficient time. . Teachers set a pre-specified mastery level, such as 80% on a unit test. Students who do not master a certain unit are allowed to repeat it or an equivalent version at their own pace ♣︎Constructivism - student centered because constructivism emphasizes the individual's active role in exploring and socially interacting within his or her environment. 2 Ways it is done 1.♠︎Situated cognition - learning in authentic contexts, such as apprenticeships in school - called cognitive apprenticeships in younger schooling. 2. ♠︎Modeling - modeling (performing a behavior for others to imitate) by the adult or the more experienced individual, ♣︎Cognitive - proposes that learning involves actively constructing knowledge. ♠︎student centered - they focus on the mental processes students use in knowledge construction rather than the external stimuli teachers use in behaviorist ♠︎meaningful learning—actively forming new knowledge structures. selecting relevant information, organizing the information into a coherent structure, and integrating the information with relevant prior knowledge. 2 ways its done ♠︎ discovery learning - students to discover and internalize a information through unstructured exploration of to-be-learned information ex: high school students might be given various inclines and objects and be expected to experiment with the materials—without explicit guidance from the teacher—to "discover" certain physics principles. ♠︎guided discovery - teacher provides enough guidance to ensure that students discover the rule or principle to be learned. similar to discovery learning but - teacher would provide general guidelines for experimentation, ask them to explain their thought processes to themselves or others, and provide feedback and support to steer their activities in the right direction ♠︎Benefits - allow students to focus cognitive resources on integrating and reorganizing knowledge and making inferences rather than on figuring out how to carry out the discovery process itself - development of conceptual knowledge in preschoolers - learning and transfer of new scientific knowledge for students from elementary through high school

Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson

♣︎Piaget - ♠︎ Individual Constructivist - persons gain knowledge from experience rather than by memorizing facts provided by others ex: kid Tinkering with bike himself to see how it works ♠︎Genetic epistemology - knowledge develops from an interaction between nature and nurture 4 factors of children thinking under this idea 1. Biological maturation (nature) - biological readiness to learn 2. Active exploration of the physical environment (nurture) - individuals construct new knowledge when they engage in active self-discovery as they interact with objects in their environment 3. Social experiences (nurture) - peers are more likely to operate as equals 4. Equilibration (or self-regulation) - regulate or control all the individual influences on development ♠︎Assimilation/accommodation - assimilation - Integrating new info or a new experience into an existing cognitive structure. - accommodation - modification of an existing scheme or formation of a new cognitive structure when it is not possible to fir information in an existing structure ♠︎Knowledge evolves through 4 stages 1. Sensorimotor - infancy - acquiring a capacity for internalized thinking 2. Preoperational - children - symbolic function, an ability to represent an object or action with signs and symbols, unable to think ab future action 3. Concrete operational - 7-111 - think logically using concrete materials 4. Formal operational - 11 to adult - abstract thinking ♠︎ Development vs learning - Development before learning because they must be developmentally ready to learn ♣︎Vygotsky ♠︎Social Constructivist - individuals construct knowledge through an interaction between the knowledge they bring to a situation and social/cultural exchanges within that context ex: Kids works alongside an adult to see how to fix a bike ♠︎ General ideas - agreed with Piaget that development comes from the interaction between heredity and environment. - We need to know what cognitive structured the child already has developed to understand how culture influences cog. development - emphasized the Role of social interactions in the development of cognitive processes ex: problem-solving, self-regulation and memory ♠︎Zone of proximal development (ZPD) = children's actual developmental level (what they can already accomplish) and their level of potential development (highest level they can reach with guidance from more capable individuals - all possible skills that children are on the verge of developing and can perform only with help from someone more cognitively advanced (Piaget argued peers at the same level) - Two same-age students can have the same actual developmental level but differ considerably in their learning potential ♠︎Scaffolding - Older person role - temporary social support to help children accomplish a task. teachers model or demonstrate how to solve a problem, and then step back, offering support as needed. - Gradually can be withdrawn as they learn more - Driven by the learner ♠︎Development vs. Learning - Learning before development - theoretical learning pulls development to higher levels ♠︎ Testing- use dynamic testing to determine what students are able to learn with assistance (their ZPD) rather than an assessment that shows what they already know - Dynamic testing - an interactive assessment which teachers probe students thinking and provide guidance and feedback during the testing - points to learning potential, how much can they achieve with appropriate support ♣︎ P and V - constructivist ideas - teaching approaches that emphasize the teacher as facilitator and knowledge construction (rather than memorization) and peer interaction. ♠︎Instruction - teachers should provide problem-solving activities that enable students to use scientific concepts in a practical way ♠︎ Learning - Learning leads to development only if the instruction has been organized properly to focus on cognitive function not yet completely mastered ♠︎designing classes - consider students' developmental level when designing curricula and activities. both recognized importance of knowing a child's current level of thinking before planning instruction ♠︎ Whether stages or ZPD, students profit from experiences that are within their reach cognitively. Tasks that are challenging will be in their ZPD or will experience disequilibrium ♠︎Encourage students to be active learners - WIthin ZPD and given scaffolding, leading to active learning - any type of meaningful learning in which students construct rich knowledge base rather than memorization ♠︎ Instruction - Link new concepts to students prior knowledge - assimilate a new experience into the cognitive framework and accommodate the new experience - use teaching method based on constructivist principles Erikson - Development extends over the entire lifespan Learning - each of the 8 developmental stages a social challenge - psychosocial crisis occurs - one positive outcome, one negative Instruction - Autonomy development - reasonable choices, do things for themselves, accepting of attempts to master skills even if the results are not perfect, reasonable expectations 2. boost industry in students - careful with comp. Emphasize mastery of skills, with high expectations 3. identity - let them explore a variety of things Know students level of identity - Identity achieved - Explore many option - goals and values - Identity foreclosure - not given time explore accepted commitments laid out by parents - Moratorium - exploring but havent made decisions or commitments - Identity diffusion - not yet begun exploration no goals and values Ethnic identity in students Strong, positive ethnic indentites are related to better academic achievement Gender Identity behavior from enviornment, male or female positive self-concept may lead to higher achievement, and higher achievement in turn will lead to an even more positive self-concept. teachers tend to ask ever more difficult questions of students for whom they have high expectations. Positive teacher-student relationships have been linked to academic self-concept as well as academic motivation focus on quality interactions in order to facilitate positive self-concepts among students, which in turn will facilitate students' academic motivation and achievement. Boost self-concept FOcus on domain-specific self-concept focus on praising students and providing feedback on their performance Help students acquire social skills Social skills programs to increase social competence in children with disabilities Foster social competence - leads to academic achievement 1. select specific, critical social skils to be improved on 2. modeling or direct instruction 3. practice learned social skills 4. point our student progress

Identify the features of the different types of written test

♣︎Selected response- items provide students with information and require them to select a response, such as the correct answer in a multiple-choice item, circling true or false, or linking information in a matching exercise. ♠︎ Objective tests (items have one correct answer and can be scored objectively without interpretation or judgment.) can assess lower and sometimes (with multiple choice) higher level learning objectives - Very little reading is involved and many learning objectives can be assessed within a short testing time. - Scoring also is easy, objective, and reliable when items are well-constructed. - Focus on knowledge- level learning objectives (memorization without necessarily understanding) ♣︎ Constructed response - require students to formulate a response to a question or prompt, range from simple completion or short-answer items to restricted essays and extended essays. ♠︎ Subjective tests - the response may vary from student to student; therefore, judging the correctness of the response is open to interpretation. - Short-answer/completion items are the least subjective and extended essays are the most subjective. - Short answer- easy to create and score objectively, especially when the expected response is a one-word answer. Guessing is also less likely than with selected-response items. Essay 1. Restricted response essays - restricted in content and length of response. They provide a narrowly defined problem that can be addressed with a brief response containing certain concepts or information that teachers are looking for as a "correct answer," 2. Extended response essays - allow students the freedom to construct an open-ended response to a complex question or problem. Many appropriate answers to the essay question are possible Extended response - allow students to demonstrate higher level thinking skills, whereas restricted-response items are limited to lower level skills, such as factual knowledge, comprehension, and application ex: a teacher who lectures on the influence of Greek culture on the Roman Empire might expect students to be able to answer objective items (such as multiple choice) measuring their factual knowledge but should not expect them to answer an essay comparing and contrasting Greek and Roman cultures. Teachers need to decide what types of items match the content that was taught, the learning objectives, and the cognitive processes in the table of specification Can use a "table of specifications to determine what level of thinking is appropriate

Types of standardized test scores Standard, Grade equivalent scores, percentile scores, stanine

♣︎Standard ♠︎Z-scores --> (raw score-Mean)/Standard deviation Strength -->equally distributed, based on units of SDs, comparisons across student scores are more precise than GE weak- confusing scale --> ranges from -4.00 to 4.00 ♠︎ T score --> Same as Z score except z-scores are multiplied by 10, and then 50 is added to the product - Mean will = 50 and STD = 10 strength --> equally distributed ♠︎Grade equivalent scores - based on median score for particular grade level of norm group Strength - good to see if students are performing @ grade level weak - easy to misinterpret ex: if the median score for all sixth graders in the second month of the school year in a norm group taking a standardized achievement test is 100, then all students scoring 100 are considered to have a GE score of 6.2, or second month of sixth grade. The 6 denotes grade level, and the decimal represents the month in the school year. Suppose the median score for all sixth graders in the seventh month of the school year is 120. Then a student earning a score of 120 would have a GE score of 6.7. ♠︎Percentile scores - % of people you scored higher than or as well as. - listing all raw scores from highest to lowest and providing information on the percentage of test takers in the norm sample who scored below or equal to that raw score. Strength : You see where you stand compared to others weak: Not equally distributed - confused with % Ex: a percentile score of 80 means that the test taker scored as well as or better than 80% of all test takers in the norm sample. ♠︎Stanine - Ranks scored from low to high and convert scores to single digit 1-9 Strength : N/A Weak: Confusing parents/misleading ex: 1, 2, 3, - below average 4, 5, 6 - average 7, 8, 9 - above average.