Education Exam 2

Mass Higher Education: Faculty Issues

- academic freedom (McCarthyism, House Un-American Activities Committee) - collective bargaining (public institutions covered by state law; private institutions covered by National Labor Relations Act - enacted in 1935, amended in 1947 to exclude supervisors, but to include professionals, however, National Labor Relations Board did not recognize right of full-time faculty at private institutions to organize until 1971)

Mass Higher Education: Student Issues

- access (race; gender; disability; SES) - activism (civil rights movement; anti-war movement)

Mass Higher Education: Institutions

- competition for status among research universities - growth of comprehensive state institutions - struggle for survival among liberal arts colleges (closure of many; redefinition of others as comprehensive or hybrid) - massive growth of community colleges as private junior colleges largely dies out

University Transformation Institutions: Universities

- conditions necessary to university transformation took shape form 1860 to 1900 (reduced influence of religion; relationships with professions; community service mission; professionalization of faculty; support for research; elevation of practical arts - agriculture, mechanics, industry, to legitimate academic fields; elevation of science over humanities; shift from traditionalism to view of knowledge generation as ongoing; extension of higher education to the graduate level; acquisition of public and private funds) - leadership of the university transformation (Thomas Jefferson introduced the model in his vision for the University of Virginia - advanced study, organization of faculty by discipline; supported by other scholars who had visited and studied in Germany) - earliest universities (Cornell founded in 1869 as comprehensive institution; Johns Hopkins in 1876 with emphasis on research and graduate education) - expansion of professional education (preparation in law, medicine, and theology continues; emergence of new professional fields - business, journalism, engineering, architecture, pharmacology, dentistry, agriculture, mining, forestry, librarianship, education, psychology, and sociology) - emphasis on research as the most distinguishing characteristics of the emerging universities - Association of American Universities (AAU) formed in 1900 as elite group of research universities - transformation of colonial colleges into research universities (Yale, Princeton, Harvard, Pennsylvania, and Colombia) - other institutions founded with focus on graduate education (Chicago, Cornell, Johns Hopkins, MIT, Stanford, and Cal Tech) - Morrill Act of 1862 (established land grants from federal government to states in support of universities with a public service mission; included curricula in applied fields - military service, agriculture, and engineering) - university model became more uniform as institutions adopted innovative practices introduced by others - AAU began to exert influence in promoting common standards - Ph.D. emerged as expected credential for faculty - competition among institutions fueled certain trends (expansion of enrollments, construction of new facilities, and growth of athletics) - despite embrace of intellectualism, influence of popular values remained strong and clienteles remained largely homogeneous - by the early 20th century, American universities were leading the world in research - Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) and Students' Army Training Corps (SATC) established in 1916 and 1918

University Transformation Institutions: Overall Patterns

- continued expansion of higher education - emergence of more diverse types of institutions - most notable development is the increase prevalence of the university model (comprehensive institutions with multiple academic units - undergraduate colleges, professional schools, and graduate departments; provide a variety of services as well)

University Transformation: Outcomes

- continues source of community pride - increased role in national defense (training of officers; research and development) - rapid expansion of scientific research, in terms of both activity and support, far greater support for research in natural sciences than in humanities and social sciences - research in agriculture is slower to advance, but ultimately benefits from federal legislation (Hatch Act of 1914 supports creation of experiment stations for research in agricultural colleges; Smith-Lever Act of 1914 established cooperative extension system, in association with land-grant universities, which provides education and conciliation to farmers and others associated with American agriculture) - increased role in the economy (role in professional preparation continues to grow, as more professional fields are incorporated into the curriculum; continuing role in young people's transition into the workforce; higher education also emerges as an important sector of the economy in its own rights) - critics of higher education emerge (Thorstein Veblin, 1957, called form a more singular focus on scholarship, with the teaching function reduced to preparation of future scholars; Upton Sinclair, 1923, maintained that academic institutions were functioning as instruments of the capitalist system and argued that they should take a more active role in prompting social change; Robert Hutchins, 1936, advocated a return to a pure liberal arts curriculum and elimination of professional programs; Jose Ortega y Gasset, 1944, cautioned against elevation of research above teaching and advocated a student-centered approach to education that cultivated the intellect and excluded activities that distracted from this goal, his 'Flexner report' was instrumental in bringing about major reforms in medical education)

University Transformation: Finance

- contrasiting orientations toward finance (payment for service; philanthropic charity; higher education settled on a combination of the two) - expansion of philanthropy during university transformation era (fundraising becomes a major activity of colleges and universities - initially through solicitation by presidents, later become more organized; types of gifts - restricted, unrestricted; sources of gifts - foundations, individuals; wide variation in levels of support for institutions emerges, as some benefit for more generous donors; establishment of TIAA, now TIAA-CREF, faculty pension fund by Carnegie Foundation - excluded church-affiliated colleges, accelerated disaffiliation of institutions with looser ties) - endowments and appropriations (funds raised beyond those necessary for operating expenses are used to grow institutional endowments that further differentiate between wealthier and poorer institutions; establishment of research centers enables universities to attract additional support - foundation support for private institutions, state support for public institutions; expansion of campus facilities often supported by restricted gifts; alumni emerge as a major source of support, further differentiating among institutions based on the wealth and generosity of their alumni) - higher education suffers financially during the Great Depression, but less so than most service enterprises - federal government emerges as a source of support through various initiatives targeted at advancing national priorities

University Transformation Students

- evidence of increased accessibility (percentage of 18 year olds attending college increased from 3% in 1890 to 16% in 1940; woman's enrollment increased from about 20% of college students in 1870 to roughly 50% by 1930) - growth of higher education partly attributed to increased rates of high school graduation - view of higher education as a means of social mobility gained wide acceptance - admissions process becomes more complex (required pre-college coursework becomes more common - some variation in requirements across institutions and disciplines; emphasis on academic merit, but other factors, such as personal connections, come into play; reasons for focus on merit include, institutional reputation, ease of instruction, higher return on investment - greater learning/less effort, individual motivation, societal value - student contributions to knowledge, maintaining a community of common discourse - quality of academic dialogue; standardized testing emerges in the early 20th century) - collegiate way becomes engrained (expansion of student services and athletics; expansion of research on the residential college experience; publication of the Student Personnel Point of View, ACE, 1937 - loyal to and heavily engaged in the life of the institution, modest engagement in intellectual life, as reflected in the 'gentleman's C', comparable to Clark & Trow's 'collegiate' student culture; although students became less rebellious against faculty and staff than in prior eras, social activism increased)

Mass Higher Education: Governance & Finance

- expansion of federal funding (research; student financial aid; campus construction) - state coordinating commissions - accreditation (regional; professional)

University Transformation: Curriculum

- increased breadth (incorporation of new disciplines; introduction of academic majors and minors; vocationalism, leading to more applied fields; combination of trends resulted in fragmentation of the curriculum) - implications for secondary education (reduced emphasis on classical studies led to an easing of traditional entry requirements for higher education; meanwhile, compulsory education and the creation of the public school system led to curricular accommodations at the level for a broader cross-section of the adolescent population; concern for under-preparedness then prompted universities to exert more direct influence over secondary curricula; unsuitability of college preparatory curriculum for most high school students led to tracking systems at the secondary level; as post-secondary institutions continued to confront under-prepared students, many began to implement their own remedial programs) - general education movement (response to the 'centrifugal curriculum'; initially took the form of interdisciplinary courses in Western civilization; ultimately gave rise to distribution requirements) - humanist vs. vocationalist debate (hybrid model adopted at most institutions; humanistic approach at a small number of pure liberal arts colleges or in specific units within comprehensive universities; vocational model became most prevalent in junior colleges and professional schools) - women's colleges and HBCUs (greater emphasis on remedial studies in HBCUs, due to deficiencies in preparation; incorporation of traditionally feminine fields - ex. home economics, into curricula at women's colleges) - growth in enrollments led to larger class sizes - experiments in nontraditional timelines and forms of delivery (correspondence courses; extension courses; three-year bachelor's degree programs; year-long calendars) - standardization of curricula (uniform course design within fields of study; standardized testing; grading systems; credit hour system; standards and guidelines for practice enacted by professional associations)

Mass Higher Education: Enduring Issues

- lowering of admissions standards - grade inflation - reliance on teaching assistants - large classes - undervaluing of teaching relative to research

Mass Higher Education: Curriculum & Instruction

- student demands for relevance - student inability and under-preparedness - self-paced and computerized instruction - supplemental and remedial instruction

University Transformation Faculty: Professionalization

- traditional characteristics of professions (lifetime career commitment; specialized body of knowledge; broad discretionary authority; ethical standards; licensure; monitoring by professional associations) - substantial progress made in professionalization of faculty during university transformation era - emergence of teacher/scholar model (expectation that faculty devote time to both teaching and research existed at most institutions) - at more prestigious institutions faculty devoted less time to teaching and more to research - sabbaticals introduced at Harvard around 1880 - departmental organizational structure (organized around specialized disciplinary interests; placed curricular decisions-making within the hands of departmental faculty) - rise of academic freedom (freedom of inquiry and discourse in teaching and research; American Association of University Professors (AAUP) - founded in 1915 to protect faculty academic freedom, 1940 statement of principle that declared right to academic freedom and tenure, established maximum probationary period, and supported faculty role in institutional governance) - as academic disciplines became more specialized, a growing number of corresponding professional associations were established - introduction of faculty rank in the late 19th century - through most of the university transformation era, faculty at research universities earned their doctorates at the same institutions where they ultimately taught - with professionalization of the faculty, public service was interdicted as a third dimension of the faculty role - early in the university transformation era, faculty were responsible for admissions, but over time, this became an administrative function, along with finance, records, student services, etc.

University Transformation: Governance

- trend toward secularization (growth of public system; declining influence of churches within private sector) - bureaucratization of organizational structures - growing role for business managers within administration and governing boards - growing role for faculty in hiring and curricular decision-making - presidents as empire builders, focused on elevation of institutional stature - expansion of specialized administrative functions and establishment of student affairs as a distinct branch on university administration - introduction of academic senates created a role for faculty in governance beyond the departmental level - a growing number of professional associations, accrediting bodies, and philanthropic organizations exerted external influence on the functioning of institutions as well

University Transformation Institutions: Other Institutions

- university transformation brought scrutiny of smaller and weaker colleges, resulting in various forms of adaptation (closure, reduction to junior college status, and expansion of curriculum to include some elements of the university model) - increase in part-time enrollment at large urban institutions - establishment of historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) - expansion of women's colleges - expansion of junior colleges - expansion of state colleges (some initially founded as normal schools for the training of teachers) - experimental colleges established, usually as units within more traditional universities - postsecondary vocational schools established

Mass Higher Education: Societal Context

- victory in World War II - economic recovery and expansion - Serviceman's Readjustment Act of 1944, GI Bill - post-war baby boom - cold war - civil rights movement - Vietnam war

University Transformation Social Conditions

- westward expansion continues, including acquisition of Alaska - reconstruction characterized by continued tension between North and South - Jim Crow era brings continues racial injustices - industrialization brings greater wealth, along with increased financial speculation

Chapter 4

the Mass Higher Education Era (1945-1974)

Chapter 3

the University Transformation Era (1879-1944)