EESC 1050 Final.

Equatorial Divergence

-current divergence occurs when currents move away from an area -southeast trade winds blow across equator and Ekman transport causes water to veer to the right north of the equator and veer to the left south of the equator -this creates a divergence of surface currents along the geographical equator and upwelling of cold nutrient rich water -common in Pacific and creates areas of high productivity and rich fishing grounds

Brown Tide

Brown tides are part of growing world-wide incidences of harmful algal blooms (HAB) which are caused by a proliferation of single-celled marine plants called phytoplankton. One species of phytoplankton, the microscopic alga Aureococcus anophagefferens may bloom in such densities that the water turns dark brown, a condition known as "brown tide." In 1985, severe brown tides were first reported in the Peconic Bays of eastern Long Island, New York, in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island and possibly in Barnegat Bay, New Jersey. Since then, brown tide has intermittently occurred with variable intensity in Barnegat Bay and in the bays of Long Island. Brown tide has had particularly detrimental effects on the Peconic Bay ecosystem and the economy of eastern Long Island. During intense bloom conditions, densities of the brown tide organism can approach two million cells per milliliter. These numbers far surpass typical mixed phytoplankton densities of 100 to 100,000 in that same volume. Eelgrass beds which serve as spawning and nursery grounds for shellfish and finfish may have been adversely impacted by decreased light penetration, at least in part, due to brown tide blooms.

HNLC region

High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (HNLC) regions are regions of the ocean where the abundance of phytoplankton is low and fairly constant despite the availability of macronutrients. Phytoplankton rely on a suite nutrients for cellular function. Macronutrients (e.g., nitrate, phosphate, silicic acid) are generally available in higher quantities in surface ocean waters, and are the typical components of common garden fertilizers. Micronutrients (e.g., iron, zinc, cobalt) are generally available in lower quantities and include trace metals. Macronutrients are typically available in millimolar concentrations, while micronutrients are generally available in micro- to nanomolar concentrations. In general, nitrogen tends to be a limiting ocean nutrient, but in HNLC regions it is never significantly depleted.[1][2] Instead, these regions tend to be limited by low concentrations of metabolizable iron.[1] Iron is a critical phytoplankton micronutrient necessary for enzyme catalysis and electron transport.[3][4] Between the 1930s and '80s, it was hypothesized that iron is a limiting ocean micronutrient, but there were not sufficient methods to reliably detect iron in seawater to confirm this hypothesis.[5] In 1989, high concentrations of iron-rich sediments in nearshore coastal waters off the Gulf of Alaska were detected.[6] However, offshore waters had lower iron concentrations and lower productivity despite macronutrient availability for phytoplankton growth.[6] This pattern was observed in other oceanic regions and lead to the naming of three major HNLC zones: the North Pacific Ocean, the Equatorial Pacific Ocean, and the Southern Ocean.[1][2] The discovery of HNLC regions has fostered scientific debate about the ethics and efficacy of iron fertilization experiments which attempt to draw down atmospheric carbon dioxide by stimulating surface-level photosynthesis. It has also led to the development of hypotheses such as grazing control which poses that HNLC regions are formed, in part, to the grazing of phytoplankton (e.g. dinoflagellates, ciliates) by smaller organisms (e.g. protists).

Horseshoe Crab

Horseshoe crabs are marine arthropods of the family Limulidae, suborder Xiphosurida and order Xiphosura. They are invertebrates, meaning that they lack a spine. Horseshoe crabs live primarily in and around shallow ocean waters on soft sandy or muddy bottoms. They occasionally come onto shore to mate. They are commonly used as bait and in fertilizer. In recent years, population declines have occurred as a consequence of coastal habitat destruction in Japan and overharvesting along the east coast of North America. Tetrodotoxin may be present in the roe of species inhabiting the waters of Thailand.[2] Because of their origin 450 million years ago, horseshoe crabs are considered living fossils.[3] The entire body of the horseshoe crab is protected by a hard carapace. It has two compound lateral eyes, each composed of about 1,000 ommatidia, plus a pair of median eyes that are able to detect both visible light and ultraviolet light, a single endoparietal eye, and a pair of rudimentary lateral eyes on the top. The latter become functional just before the embryo hatches. Also, a pair of ventral eyes is located near the mouth, as well as a cluster of photoreceptors on the telson. The horseshoe crab has five additional eyes on top of its shell. Despite having relatively poor eyesight, the animals have the largest rods and cones of any known animal, about 100 times the size of humans',[5][6] and their eyes are a million times more sensitive to light at night than during the day.[7] The mouth is located in the center of the legs, whose bases are referred to as gnathobases and have the same function as jaws and help grind up food. The horseshoe crab has five pairs of legs for walking, swimming, and moving food into the mouth, each with a claw at the tip, except for the last pair. External video Limulus polyphemus horseshue crab on coast.jpg Rendezvous with a Horseshoe Crab, August 2011, 4:34, NewsWorks The Horseshoe Crab Spawn, June 2010, 5:08, HostOurCoast.com Horseshoe Crabs Mate in Massive Beach "Orgy", June 2014, 3:29, National Geographic As in other arthropods, a true endoskeleton is absent, but the body does have an endoskeletal structure made up of cartilaginous plates that support the book gills. Behind its legs, the horseshoe crab has book gills, which exchange respiratory gases, and are also occasionally used for swimming.[8] They are more often found on the ocean floor searching for worms and molluscs, which are their main food. They may also feed on crustaceans and even small fish.[citation needed] Females are larger than males; C. rotundicauda is the size of a human hand, while L. polyphemus can be up to 60 cm (24 in) long (including tail). The juveniles grow about 33% larger with every molt until reaching adult size.[9]

Diatoms

Diatoms[6] are a major group of microalgae, and are among the most common types of phytoplankton. Diatoms are unicellular, although they can form colonies in the shape of filaments or ribbons (e.g. Fragilaria), fans (e.g. Meridion), zigzags (e.g. Tabellaria), or stars (e.g. Asterionella). The first diatom formally described in scientific literature, the colonial Bacillaria paradoxa, was found in 1783 by Danish naturalist Otto Friedrich Müller. Diatoms are producers within the food chain. A unique feature of diatom cells is that they are enclosed within a cell wall made of silica (hydrated silicon dioxide) called a frustule.[7] These frustules show a wide diversity in form, but are usually almost bilaterally symmetrical, hence the group name. The symmetry is not perfect since one of the valves is slightly larger than the other, allowing one valve to fit inside the edge of the other. These shells are used by humans as diatomaceous earth, also known as diatomite. Fossil evidence suggests that they originated during, or before, the early Jurassic period. Only male gametes of centric diatoms are capable of movement by means of flagella. Diatom communities are a popular tool for monitoring environmental conditions, past and present, and are commonly used in studies of water quality.

Greenhouse Gases

Greenhouse gases[edit] Greenhouse gases are those that absorb and emit infrared radiation in the wavelength range emitted by Earth.[1] In order, the most abundant greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are: Water vapor (H 2O) Carbon dioxide (CO 2) Methane (CH 4) Nitrous oxide (N 2O) Ozone (O 3) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Hydrofluorocarbons (incl. HCFCs and HFCs) Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases are determined by the balance between sources (emissions of the gas from human activities and natural systems) and sinks (the removal of the gas from the atmosphere by conversion to a different chemical compound).[13] The proportion of an emission remaining in the atmosphere after a specified time is the "airborne fraction" (AF). The annual airborne fraction is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year's total emissions. As of 2006 the annual airborne fraction for CO2 was about 0.45. The annual airborne fraction increased at a rate of 0.25 ± 0.21% per year over the period 1959-2006.[14]

HAB

Harmful algal blooms, or HABs, occur when colonies of algae — simple plants that live in the sea and freshwater — grow out of control and produce toxic or harmful effects on people, fish, shellfish, marine mammals and birds. The human illnesses caused by HABs, though rare, can be debilitating or even fatal. Ranging from microscopic, single-celled organisms to large seaweeds, algae are simple plants that form the base of food webs. Sometimes, however, their roles are more sinister. Under the right conditions, algae may grow out of control — and a few of these "blooms" produce toxins that can kill fish, mammals and birds, and may cause human illness or even death in extreme cases. Other algae are nontoxic, but eat up all of the oxygen in the water as they decay, clog the gills of fish and invertebrates, or smother corals and submerged aquatic vegetation. Still others discolor water, form huge, smelly piles on beaches or contaminate drinking water. Collectively, these events are called harmful algal blooms, or HABs.

Herring

Herring are forage fish, mostly belonging to the family Clupeidae. Herring often move in large schools around fishing banks and near the coast. The most abundant and commercially important species belong to the genus Clupea, found particularly in shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and the North Atlantic Oceans, including the Baltic Sea, as well as off the west coast of South America. Three species of Clupea are recognised, and provide about 90% of all herrings captured in fisheries. Most abundant of all is the Atlantic herring, providing over half of all herring capture. Fishes called herring are also found in the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, and Bay of Bengal. Herring played a pivotal role in the history of marine fisheries in Europe,[2] and early in the 20th century, their study was fundamental to the evolution of fisheries science.[3][4] These oily fish[5] also have a long history as an important food fish, and are often salted, smoked, or pickled.

Superstorm Sandy

Hurricane Sandy (unofficially referred to as Superstorm Sandy)[1][2] was the deadliest and most destructive hurricane of the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season, and, at the time, was the second-costliest hurricane in United States history;[3] as of 2017 it has fallen to fourth, with Hurricanes Maria (2017), Katrina (2005), and Harvey (2017) having cost more in damage than Sandy. Classified as the eighteenth named storm, tenth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the year, Sandy was a Category 3 storm at its peak intensity when it made landfall in Cuba.[3] While it was a Category 2 hurricane off the coast of the Northeastern United States, the storm became the largest Atlantic hurricane on record (as measured by diameter, with winds spanning 1,100 miles (1,800 km)).[4][5] Estimates as of 2015 assessed damage to have been about $75 billion (2012 USD), a total surpassed only by Hurricanes Katrina, Maria, and Harvey.[6] At least 233 people were killed along the path of the storm in eight countries.[7][8] Sandy developed from a tropical wave in the western Caribbean Sea on October 22, quickly strengthened, and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Sandy six hours later. Sandy moved slowly northward toward the Greater Antilles and gradually intensified. On October 24, Sandy became a hurricane, made landfall near Kingston, Jamaica, re-emerged a few hours later into the Caribbean Sea and strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane. On October 25, Sandy hit Cuba as a Category 3 hurricane, then weakened to a Category 1 hurricane. Early on October 26, Sandy moved through the Bahamas.[9] On October 27, Sandy briefly weakened to a tropical storm and then restrengthened to a Category 1 hurricane. Early on October 29, Sandy curved west-northwest (the "left turn" or "left hook") and then[10] moved ashore near Brigantine, New Jersey, just to the northeast of Atlantic City, as a post-tropical cyclone with hurricane-force winds.[3][11] In Jamaica, winds left 70% of residents without electricity, blew roofs off buildings, killed one, and caused about $100 million (2012 USD) in damage. Sandy's outer bands brought flooding to Haiti, killing at least 54, causing food shortages, and leaving about 200,000 homeless; the hurricane also caused two deaths in the Dominican Republic. In Puerto Rico, one man was swept away by a swollen river. In Cuba, there was extensive coastal flooding and wind damage inland, destroying some 15,000 homes, killing 11, and causing $2 billion (2012 USD) in damage. Sandy caused two deaths and damage estimated at $700 million (2012 USD) in The Bahamas. In the United States, Hurricane Sandy affected 24 states, including the entire eastern seaboard from Florida to Maine and west across the Appalachian Mountains to Michigan and Wisconsin, with particularly severe damage in New Jersey and New York. Its storm surge hit New York City on October 29, flooding streets, tunnels and subway lines and cutting power in and around the city.[12][13] Damage in the United States amounted to $71.4 billion (2013 USD).[14] In Canada, two were killed in Ontario and an estimated $100 million (2012 CAD) in damage was caused throughout Ontario and Quebec.[15]

Hurricane

Hurricanes are large, swirling storms. They produce winds of 119 kilometers per hour (74 mph) or higher. That's faster than a cheetah, the fastest animal on land. Winds from a hurricane can damage buildings and trees. Hurricanes form over warm ocean waters. Sometimes they strike land. When a hurricane reaches land, it pushes a wall of ocean water ashore. This wall of water is called a storm surge. Heavy rain and storm surge from a hurricane can cause flooding. Once a hurricane forms, weather forecasters predict its path. They also predict how strong it will get. This information helps people get ready for the storm. There are five types, or categories, of hurricanes. The scale of categories is called the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. The categories are based on wind speed. Category 1: Winds 119-153 km/hr (74-95 mph) - faster than a cheetah Category 2: Winds 154-177 km/hr (96-110 mph) - as fast or faster than a baseball pitcher's fastball Category 3: Winds 178-208 km/hr (111-129 mph) - similar, or close, to the serving speed of many professional tennis players Category 4: Winds 209-251 km/hr (130-156 mph) - faster than the world's fastest rollercoaster Category 5: Winds more than 252 km/hr (157 mph) - similar, or close, to the speed of some high-speed trains

Solubility Pump

In oceanic biogeochemistry, the solubility pump is a physico-chemical process that transports carbon (as dissolved inorganic carbon) from the ocean's surface to its interior.

Urchin-Otter-Kelp Triad

Kelp forests are extremely productive ecosystems that support a huge amount of marine life, and they are also efficient absorbers of CO2. Like any land-based forest, kelp forests sequester (take out) CO2 from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, transforming it into the energy they need to build their leafy structure. Kelp forests are at risk from sea urchins, small spiky marine animals that love to eat kelp. With no predators around, sea urchin populations can multiply, forming herds that sweep across the ocean floor devouring entire stands of kelp and leaving "urchin barrens" in their place. Fortunately, sea otters have an appetite for sea urchins and they help to keep sea urchins in check, allowing the kelp to flourish and capture CO2. When otters are present, urchins hide in crevices and snack on kelp scraps. The kelp can flourish, providing habitat for many ocean organisms. Sea otters play a small role in mitigating global climate change, but their impact points to a larger lesson: wildlife conservation can save vegetation needed to reduce CO2.

Menhaden

Menhaden, also known as mossbunker and bunker, are forage fish of the genera Brevoortia and Ethmidium, two genera of marine fish in the family Clupeidae. Menhaden is a blend of poghaden (pogy for short) and an Algonquian word akin to Narragansett munnawhatteaûg, derived from munnohquohteau 'he fertilizes', referring to their use of the fish as fertilizer.[1] It is generally thought that Pilgrims were advised by Tisquantum (also known as Squanto) to plant menhaden with their crops.[1] Menhaden are flat, have soft flesh, and a deeply forked tail. They rarely exceed 15 inches (38 cm) in length, and have a varied weight range. Gulf menhaden and Atlantic menhaden are small oily-fleshed fish, bright silver, and characterized by a series of smaller spots behind the main, Humeral spot. They tend to have larger scales than Yellowfin menhaden and Finescale menhaden. In addition, Yellowfin menhaden tail rays are a bright yellow in contrast to those of the Atlantic menhaden.

Salmon-Bear-Trees Triad

Pacific salmon are weaved into the rich tapestry of coastal B.C. culture and heritage. While local waterways in and around Whistler are void of salmon runs due to natural fish barriers such as waterfalls and tight canyons, Pemberton and Squamish waterways team with salmon nearing the end of their life cycle in the fall. These salmon feed bears and many other species and provide a substantial influx of nutrients to local streams, rivers, and adjacent forests. Science has the ability to sample these nutrients and determine if they come from the sea. Nutrients that come from the sea are called marine derived nutrients. Recent studies suggest that one single bear feeding in a salmon stream drag approximately 700 partially consumed salmon carcasses to the forest - the remains of which go as far as 200 meters inland from stream banks. These carcasses are left in valley bottoms where trees are the largest. Coincidence? No. These carcasses feed the trees. Along with the scat from bears and other scavengers. Large tree growth rings directly correspond with large salmon runs. These large trees lining streams provide shelter and rich habitat for fish, bears, and many other forms of life. These types of fascinating ecological links can be made between so many species on earth, and are just one more reason for us to be in awe of the natural cycles that surround us.

Parrotfish

Parrotfishes are a group of about 95 species traditionally regarded as a family (Scaridae), but now often considered a subfamily (Scarinae) of the wrasses.[1] They are found in relatively shallow tropical and subtropical oceans throughout the world, displaying their largest species richness in the Indo-Pacific. They are found in coral reefs, rocky coasts, and seagrass beds, and play a significant role in bioerosion.[2][3][4] Parrotfish are named for their dentition, which is distinct from other fishes, including other labrids. Their numerous teeth are arranged in a tightly packed mosaic on the external surface of their jaw bones, forming a parrot-like beak with which they rasp algae from coral and other rocky substrates[6] (which contributes to the process of bioerosion). Maximum sizes vary within the family, with the majority of species reaching 30-50 cm (12-20 in) in length. However, a few species reach lengths in excess of 1 m (3 ft 3 in), and the green humphead parrotfish can reach up to 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in).[7] The smallest species is the bluelip parrotfish (Cryptotomus roseus), which only reaches 13 cm (5.1 in).[8][9]

Red Tide

Red tide is a common name for a phenomenon known as an algal bloom (large concentrations of aquatic microorganisms) when it is caused by a few species of dinoflagellates and the bloom takes on a red or brown color. Red tides are events in which estuarine, marine, or fresh water algae accumulate rapidly in the water column, resulting in coloration of the surface water. It is usually found in coastal areas.[1] These algae, a form of phytoplankton, are single-celled protists, plant-like organisms that can form dense, visible patches near the water's surface. Certain species of phytoplankton, dinoflagellates, contain photosynthetic pigments that vary in color from green to brown to red. When the algae are present in high concentrations, the water appears to be discolored or murky, varying in color from purple to almost pink, normally being red or green. Not all algal blooms are dense enough to cause water discoloration, and not all discolored waters associated with algal blooms are red. Additionally, red tides are not typically associated with tidal movement of water, hence the preference among scientists to use the term algal bloom. Some red tides are associated with the production of natural toxins, depletion of dissolved oxygen or other harmful effects, and are generally described as harmful algal blooms. The most conspicuous effects of these kinds of red tides are the associated wildlife mortalities of marine and coastal species of fish, birds, marine mammals, and other organisms.

Shellfish Poisoning

Shellfish poisoning is a general term used to indicate poisoning that occurs when shellfish (mainly oysters, clams, scallops or mussels) are eaten by humans. Shellfish are usually associated with saltwater habitats, but some species inhabit freshwater.

Spring Bloom (N. Atlantic)

Spring bloom. The spring bloom is a strong increase in phytoplankton abundance (i.e. stock) that typically occurs in the early spring and lasts until late spring or early summer. This seasonal event is characteristic of temperate North Atlantic, sub-polar, and coastal waters.

Parrot Fish are important to corals because:

They eat algae.

Patagonian Toothfish

The Patagonian toothfish, Dissostichus eleginoides, is a species of cod icefish found in cold waters (1-4 °C or 34-39 °F) between depths of 45 m (148 ft) and 3,850 m (12,631 ft) in the southern Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans and Southern Ocean on seamounts and continental shelves around most sub-Antarctic islands. The average weight of a commercially caught Patagonian toothfish is 7-10 kg (15-22 lb), depending on the fishery, with large adults occasionally exceeding 100 kilograms (220 lb). They are thought to live up to fifty years[1] and to reach a length up to 2.3 m (7.5 ft). Several commercial fisheries exist for Patagonian toothfish which are detailed below. This species is also sold under the trade names Chilean Seabass.

Tsunami

is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake.[3] Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.[4] Unlike normal ocean waves, which are generated by wind, or tides, which are generated by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun, a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water. Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea waves, because their wavelength is far longer.[5] Rather than appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide, and for this reason they are often referred to as tidal waves, although this usage is not favoured by the scientific community because tsunamis are not tidal in nature. Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves, with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called "internal wave train".[6] Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history, with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean. Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his late-5th century BC History of the Peloponnesian War, that tsunamis were related to submarine earthquakes,[7][8] but the understanding of a tsunami's nature remained slim until the 20th century and much remains unknown. Major areas of current research include trying to determine why some large earthquakes do not generate tsunamis while other smaller ones do; trying to accurately forecast the passage of tsunamis across the oceans; and also to forecast how tsunami waves interact with specific shorelines.

The ocean's 'solubility pump'

is governed by temperature and salinity.

pH

pH (potential of hydrogen) is a scale of acidity from 0 to 14. It tells how acidic or alkaline a substance is. More acidic solutions have lower pH. More alkaline solutions have higher pH. Substances that aren't acidic or alkaline (that is, neutral solutions) usually have a pH of 7.

Toxins (PSP,DSP,NSP)

paralytic shellfish toxins causing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP); diarrhoeic shellfish toxins causing diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP); neurotoxic shellfish toxins causing neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP);

Fishing

the activity of catching fish, either for food or as a sport.

Overfishing

deplete the stock of fish in (a body of water) by too much fishing.

El Nino

an irregularly occurring and complex series of climatic changes affecting the equatorial Pacific region and beyond every few years, characterized by the appearance of unusually warm, nutrient-poor water off northern Peru and Ecuador, typically in late December.

Aquaculture is considered 'new' but has in fact been going on for

2000 Years.

Sea Level Rise

A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world's oceans, resulting in an increase in global mean sea level. Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of ice sheets and glaciers on land.

Anchoveta

A small anchovy (Engraulis ringens) of the Pacific coast from Peru to Chile that forms large schools and is caught commercially especially for use in fish meal. A species of fish of the anchovy family, Engraulidae, from the Southeast Pacific Ocean. It has yielded greater catches than any other single wild fish species in the world, with annual harvests varying between 4.2 and 8.3 million tonnes in 2008-2012.The Peruvian anchoveta may be the world's most abundant fish species.

Ice Cores

An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet or a high mountain glacier. Since the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow, lower layers are older than upper, and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years.

Aquaculture

Aquaculture is the farming of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other aquatic organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish.[2] It is less commonly spelled aquiculture[3]), and is also known as aquafarming. Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture "is understood to mean the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated."The reported output from global aquaculture operations in 2014 supplied over one half of the fish and shellfish that is directly consumed by humans;however, there are issues about the reliability of the reported figures Further, in current aquaculture practice, products from several pounds of wild fish are used to produce one pound of a piscivorous fish like salmon.[8] Particular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, mariculture, algaculture (such as seaweed farming), and the cultivation of ornamental fish. Particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, both of which integrate fish farming and aquatic plant farming.

Carbon sequestration

Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and may refer specifically to: "The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir."When carried out deliberately, this may also be referred to as carbon dioxide removal, which is a form of geo engineering. Carbon capture and storage, where carbon dioxide is removed from flue gases (e.g., at power stations) before being stored in underground reservoirs. Natural biogeochemical cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and reservoirs, such as by chemical weathering of rocks. Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to either mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate change. It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or physical processes. Some artificial sequestration techniques exploit these natural processes, while some use entirely artificial processes. Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to petroleum refining or from flue gases from power generation. CO2 sequestration includes the storage part of carbon capture and storage, which refers to large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO 2 using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil fields, or other carbon sinks.

Southern Oscillation

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an irregularly periodic variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, affecting much of the tropics and subtropics. The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña. Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component, coupled with the sea temperature change: El Niño is accompanied with high, and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific.[1][2] The two periods last several months each (typically occurring every few years) and their effects vary in intensity.[3]

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is when the environment becomes enriched with nutrients. This can be a problem in marine habitats such as lakes as it can cause algal blooms. Fertilisers are often used in farming, sometimes these fertilisers run-off into nearby water causing an increase in nutrient levels. This causes phytoplankton to grow and reproduce more rapidly, resulting in algal blooms. This bloom of algae disrupts normal ecosystem functioning and causes many problems. The algae may use up all the oxygen in the water, leaving none for other marine life. This results in the death of many aquatic organisms such as fish, which need the oxygen in the water to live. The bloom of algae may also block sunlight from photosynthetic marine plants under the water surface. Some algae even produce toxins that are harmful to higher forms of life. This can cause problems along the food chain and affect any animal that feeds on them.

Glaciers

Glaciers are made up of fallen snow that, over many years, compresses into large, thickened ice masses. Glaciers form when snow remains in one location long enough to transform into ice. What makes glaciers unique is their ability to move. Due to sheer mass, glaciers flow like very slow rivers. Some glaciers are as small as football fields, while others grow to be dozens or even hundreds of kilometers long. Presently, glaciers occupy about 10 percent of the world's total land area, with most located in polar regions like Antarctica, Greenland, and the Canadian Arctic. Glaciers can be thought of as remnants from the last Ice Age, when ice covered nearly 32 percent of the land, and 30 percent of the oceans. Most glaciers lie within mountain ranges that show evidence of a much greater extent during the ice ages of the past two million years, and more recent indications of retreat in the past few centuries

iron fertilization

Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron fines to iron-poor areas of the ocean surface to stimulate phytoplankton production. ... It is highly insoluble in sea water and in a variety of locations is the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth.

Iron hypothesis- John H martin

Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron fines to iron-poor areas of the ocean surface to stimulate phytoplankton production. This is intended to enhance biological productivity and/or accelerate carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration from the atmosphere.

Horseshoe crabs' blood

Is used in sterility testing.

Martin, John

John Martin (February 27, 1935 - June 18, 1993), was an oceanographer. Born in Old Lyme, Connecticut, he is best known for his research on the role of iron as a phytoplankton micronutrient, and its significance for so-called "High-Nutrient, Low Chlorophyll" regions of the oceans.[1] He is also known for advocating the use of iron fertilization to enhance oceanic primary production to act as a sink for fossil fuel carbon dioxide.

Methane Hydrate

Methane hydrate, also called methane ice or methane clathrate, consists of methane, which is enclosed in frozen water. The water molecules completely surround the methane. Methane hydrate is a common constituent of the shallow marine (ocean) geosphere.

Microcystis

Microcystis is a genus of freshwater cyanobacteria which includes the harmful algal bloom Microcystis aeruginosa. The cyanobacteria can produce neurotoxins and hepatotoxins, such as microcystin and cyanopeptolin. Microcystis is capable of producing large surface blooms through a combination of rapid division and buoyancy regulation by production of gas-filled vesicles. Their ability to regulate buoyancy is key to their dominance of eutrophic waters, by optimally positioning themselves within the photic zone in a stable water column.[citation needed] Because they can form large surface blooms, they are capable of out-competing other phytoplankton by essentially monopolizing light in the photic zone.[citation needed] Microcystis is capable of strong uptake of phosphate and nitrogen; they are believed to strongly influence nitrogen to phosphorus ratios ("N:P ratio").[3] In South Africa, Hartebeestpoort Dam is highly impacted by Microcystis because of elevated phosphate and nitrate levels flowing from the sewers of Johannesburg, one of the few cities in the world that straddles a continental watershed divide [4] and therefore lies upstream of major dams and rivers [5

Ocean Acidification

Ocean Acidification (OA) is a term used to describe significant changes to the chemistry of the ocean. It occurs when carbon dioxide gas (or CO2) is absorbed by the ocean and reacts with seawater to produce acid.

Storm Surge

One major cause of hurricane damage is storm surge. Storm surge is the rising of the sea level due to the low pressure, high winds, and high waves associated with a hurricane as it makes landfall. The storm surge can cause significant flooding and cost people their lives if they're caught unexpected.

Small pelagic

Pelagic fish live in the pelagic zone of ocean or lake waters - being neither close to the bottom nor near the shore - in contrast with demersal fish, which do live on or near the bottom, and reef fish, which are associated with coral reefs.[1] The marine pelagic environment is the largest aquatic habitat on Earth, occupying 1,370 million cubic kilometres (330 million cubic miles), and is the habitat for 11% of known fish species. The oceans have a mean depth of 4000 metres. About 98% of the total water volume is below 100 metres (330 ft), and 75% is below 1,000 metres (3,300 ft).[2] Marine pelagic fish can be divided into pelagic coastal fish and oceanic pelagic fish.[3] Coastal fish inhabit the relatively shallow and sunlit waters above the continental shelf, while oceanic fish (which may well also swim inshore) inhabit the vast and deep waters beyond the continental shelf.[4] Pelagic fish range in size from small coastal forage fish, such as herrings and sardines, to large apex predator oceanic fishes, such as bluefin tuna and oceanic sharks.[1] They are usually agile swimmers with streamlined bodies, capable of sustained cruising on long-distance migrations. The Indo-Pacific sailfish, an oceanic pelagic fish, can sprint at over 110 kilometres per hour. Some tuna species cruise across the Pacific Ocean. Many pelagic fish swim in schools weighing hundreds of tonnes. Others are solitary, like the large ocean sunfish weighing over 500 kilograms, which sometimes drift passively with ocean currents, eating jellyfish.[1]

Fecal Pellets

Pellets are small spherical to ovoid or rod-shaped grains that are common component of many limestones. They are typically 0.03 to 0.3 mm long and composed of carbonate mud (micrite). Their most common size is 0.04 to 0.08 mm. Pellets typically lack any internal structure and are remarkably uniform in size and shape in any single limestone sample. They consist either of aggregated carbonate mud, precipitated calcium carbonate, or a mixture of both. They either are or were composed either of aragonite, calcite, or a mixture of both. Also, pellets composed of either glauconite or phosphorite are common in marine sedimentary rocks. Pellets occur in Precambrian through Phanerozoic strata. They are an important component mainly in Phanerozoic strata. The consensus among sedimentologists and petrographers is that pellets are the fecal products of invertebrate organisms because of their constant size, shape, and extra-high content of organic matter.[1][2][3] Pellets differ from oolites and intraclasts, which are also found in limestones. They differ from oolites in that pellets lack the radial or concentric structures that characterize oolites. They differ from intraclasts in that pellets lack the complex internal structure, which is typical of intraclasts. In addition, pellets, quite unlike intraclasts, are characterized by a remarkable uniformity of shape, extremely good sorting, and small size.[1][2] By definition, pellets differ from peloids, in that pellets have a specific size, shape, and implied origin—while peloids vary widely in size, shape, and origin. Pellets, in the strict sense, are fecal products of invertebrate organisms. Peloids are allochems of any size, structure, or origin. As a result, peloids not only include possible pellets, but also include a variety of other distinctly non-pellet grains—such as indistinct intraclasts, micritized ooids, or fossil fragments. In addition, some peloids are even microbial or inorganic precipitates. Carbonate geologists consider the vast majority of peloids as secondary allochems created by biological degradation or "micritization" of other primary carbonate grains, i.e., ooids, bioclasts, or pellets.[3]

Pseudonitzchia

Pseudo-nitzschia is a marine planktonic diatom genus containing some species capable of producing the neurotoxin domoic acid (DA), which is responsible for the neurological disorder known as amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP). Currently, 49 species are known, 26 of which have been shown to produced DA.

Pteropods

Pteropoda are specialized free-swimming pelagic sea snails and sea slugs, marine opisthobranch gastropods. The monophyly of Pteropoda is the subject of a lengthy debate; they have even been considered as paraphyletic with respect to cephalopods.

Greenland Ice Sheet

The Greenland ice sheet (Danish: Grønlands indlandsis, Greenlandic: Sermersuaq) is a vast body of ice covering 1,710,000 square kilometres (660,000 sq mi), roughly 80% of the surface of Greenland. It is the second largest ice body in the world, after the Antarctic ice sheet. The ice sheet is almost 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) long in a north-south direction, and its greatest width is 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) at a latitude of 77°N, near its northern margin. The mean altitude of the ice is 2,135 metres (7,005 ft).[1] The thickness is generally more than 2 km (1.2 mi) and over 3 km (1.9 mi) at its thickest point. It is not the only ice mass of Greenland - isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76,000 and 100,000 square kilometres (29,000 and 39,000 sq mi) around the periphery. If the entire 2,850,000 cubic kilometres (684,000 cu mi) of ice were to melt, it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m (24 ft).[2] The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice, or its Danish equivalent, indlandsis. It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap.

Biological Pump

The biological pump, in its simplest form, is the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere to deep sea water and sediment. It is the part of the oceanic carbon cycle responsible for the cycling of organic matter formed mainly by phytoplankton during photosynthesis (soft-tissue pump), as well as the cycling of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) formed into shells by certain organisms such as plankton and mollusks (carbonate pump). The biological pump can be divided into three distinct phases,[3] the first of which is the production of fixed carbon by planktonic phototrophs in the euphotic (sunlit) surface region of the ocean. In these surface waters, phytoplankton use carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and other trace elements (barium, iron, zinc, etc.) during photosynthesis to make carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Some plankton, (e.g. coccolithophores and foraminifera) combine calcium (Ca) and dissolved carbonates (carbonic acid and bicarbonate) to form a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) protective coating. Once this carbon is fixed into soft or hard tissue, the organisms either stay in the euphotic zone to be recycled as part of the regenerative nutrient cycle or once they die, continue to the second phase of the biological pump and begin to sink to the ocean floor. The sinking particles will often form aggregates as they sink, greatly increasing the sinking rate. It is this aggregation that gives particles a better chance of escaping predation and decomposition in the water column and eventually make it to the sea floor. The fixed carbon that is either decomposed by bacteria on the way down or once on the sea floor then enters the final phase of the pump and is remineralized to be used again in primary production. The particles that escape these processes entirely are sequestered in the sediment and may remain there for millions of years. It is this sequestered carbon that is responsible for ultimately lowering atmospheric CO2. The first step in the biological pump is the synthesis of both organic and inorganic carbon compounds by phytoplankton in the uppermost, sunlit layers of the ocean.[4] Organic compounds in the form of sugars, carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are synthesized during the process of photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O + light → CH2O + O2 In addition to carbon, organic matter found in phytoplankton is composed of nitrogen, phosphorus and various trace metals. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen and phosphorus varies little and has an average ratio of 106C:16N:1P, known as the Redfield ratio. Trace metals such as magnesium, cadmium, iron, calcium, barium and copper are orders of magnitude less prevalent in phytoplankton organic material, but necessary for certain metabolic processes and therefore can be limiting nutrients in photosynthesis due to their lower abundance in the water column. Oceanic primary production accounts for about half of the carbon fixation carried out on Earth. Approximately 50-60 Pg of carbon are fixed by marine phytoplankton each year despite the fact that they comprise less than 1% of the total photosynthetic biomass on Earth. The majority of this carbon fixation (~80%) is carried out in the open ocean while the remaining amount occurs in the very productive upwelling regions of the ocean. Despite these productive regions producing 2 to 3 times as much fixed carbon per area, the open ocean accounts for greater than 90% of the ocean area and therefore is the larger contributor.

Coral Reef ecosystems

The coral reef ecosystem is a diverse collection of species that interact with each other and the physical environment. The sun is the initial source of energy for this ecosystem. Through photosynthesis, phytoplankton, algae, and other plants convert light energy into chemical energy. As animals eat plants or other animals, a portion of this energy is passed on.

Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.[1][2] If a planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) they will radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it.[3] The intensity of the downward radiation - that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect - will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains. Earth's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life. Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have intensified the natural greenhouse effect, causing global warming.[4] The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse. The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different, as a greenhouse works mostly by reducing airflow and thus retaining warm air inside the structure.[2][5][6]

Polar Bears

The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a carnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle, encompassing the Arctic Ocean, its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses. It is a large bear, approximately the same size as the omnivorous Kodiak bear (Ursus arctos middendorffi).[3] A boar (adult male) weighs around 350-700 kg (772-1,543 lb),[4] while a sow (adult female) is about half that size. Although it is the sister species of the brown bear,[5] it has evolved to occupy a narrower ecological niche, with many body characteristics adapted for cold temperatures, for moving across snow, ice and open water, and for hunting seals, which make up most of its diet.[6] Although most polar bears are born on land, they spend most of their time on the sea ice. Their scientific name means "maritime bear" and derives from this fact. Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice, often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present. Because of their dependence on the sea ice, polar bears are classified as marine mammals.[7] Because of expected habitat loss caused by climate change, the polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species, and at least three of the nineteen polar bear subpopulations are currently in decline.[8] However, at least two of the nineteen subpopulations are currently increasing, while another six are considered stable.[9] For decades, large-scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species, but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect.[10] For thousands of years, the polar bear has been a key figure in the material, spiritual, and cultural life of circumpolar peoples, and polar bears remain important in their cultures. Historically, the polar bear has also been known as the white bear.[11]

Fish kills

The term fish kill, known also as fish die-off, refers to a localized die-off of fish populations which may also be associated with more generalized mortality of aquatic life.[1][2] The most common cause is reduced oxygen in the water, which in turn may be due to factors such as drought, algae bloom, overpopulation, or a sustained increase in water temperature. Infectious diseases and parasites can also lead to fish kill. Toxicity is a real but far less common cause of fish kill.[3] Fish kills are often the first visible signs of environmental stress and are usually investigated as a matter of urgency by environmental agencies to determine the cause of the kill. Many fish species have a relatively low tolerance of variations in environmental conditions and their death is often a potent indicator of problems in their environment that may be affecting other animals and plants and may have a direct impact on other uses of the water such as for drinking water production. Pollution events may affect fish species and fish age classes in different ways. If it is a cold-related fish kill, juvenile fish or species that are not cold-tolerant may be selectively affected. If toxicity is the cause, species are more generally affected and the event may include amphibians and shellfish as well. A reduction in dissolved oxygen may affect larger specimens more than smaller fish as these may be able to access oxygen richer water at the surface, at least for a short time.

Upwelling (coastal)

Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the warmer, usually nutrient-depleted surface water.

The quote, "Give me a half tanker of iron and I'll give you an ice age" refers to: John H. Martin said this.

a connection between iron in the ocean and atmospheric CO2.

Monsoon

a seasonal prevailing wind in the region of South and Southeast Asia, blowing from the southwest between May and September and bringing rain (the wet monsoon ), or from the northeast between October and April (the dry monsoon ).

Orange Roughy

an edible roughy, much prized for its white flesh. Found in deep waters of temperate oceans worldwide, its reddish body turns orange after being exposed to air.