Effective Interviewing

Survey Interviewing: Questions

-surveys are *highly schedules* and *standardized* -phrasing and response options must be *right* -*all interviewees must hear the same questions with the same phrasing and delivery* -there are *no opportunities to rephrase, explain, or expand* on questions during the surveys -*delivery must be controlled* (i.e. emphasis, tone, facial expressions)

Question Types: Informational Probe

-this probe is *useful if the answer provided is superficial or vague* EX: "How well do you know each other?" "We've known each other for 8 years." "Tell me more about your relationship."

Question Types: Reflective Probe

-useful when you need to *clarify/verify an answer before moving on* -be careful to avoid leading the respondent EX: "Who went with you to the event?" "Mary." "When you say Mary, are you referring to Dr. Smith?"

Interview Structure: Process

1) determine the *purpose* of the interview 2) determine the *type* of interview best suited to fulfill the purpose 3) prepare an *interview guide* 4) decide on the type of *schedule* that best fits your needs 5) decide on a *question sequence* that suits your needs 6) prepare *specific questions* and a *scoring system*

Question Types: Open v. Closed Questions

OPEN: -*show interest in the interviewee* and *signal trust* they are able to disclose meaningful information -may be easier to answers, given that these questions involve a great deal of *freedom* -may help *build rapport and comfort* for the interviewee -style and content of answer can reveal interesting/important information about the interviewee -*the interview can "get away from you"* if one answer takes up a great deal of time or fails to provide the important information CLOSED: -allows the interviewer to *control/guide* the interview -*requires less effort* for both parties -answers are easy to record, tabulate, and compare -these types of questions can be *impoverished* because they often do not probe enough information

Question Pitfalls: Double-Barreled

asking a question with two parts, necessitating two answers

Question Pitfalls: Don't Ask, Don't Tell

asking for information that the respondent may not be able or willing to provide due to social, psychological, or situational constraints

Question Pitfalls: Unintentional Leading

asking in such a way that the "correct" answer is implied

Question Pitfalls: Curious

asking questions that aren't necessary or central to your purpose

Question Pitfalls: Too High/Too Low

failing to match the respondent's information level and ability

Interview Structure: Quintamensional (Gallup) Sequence

five step approach... -*awareness* of issue (EX: are you familiar with the...? what do you know about...?) -*uninfluenced attitude* (EX: knowledge, objective impact) -*specific attitude* (EX: approve or disapprove) -reason why (i.e. the *rationale behind the specific attitude*) -*intensity of attitude* (EX: how strongly do you feel...?)

Focus Group vs. Group Interview

focus group: -designed to facilitate interaction between participants -*data collected is based on group discussion/debate* -*one topic is explored in depth* group interview: -quicker way to interview than using individual techniques -interaction between moderator and participants -data collected is individual responses -topics can range widely

Question Pitfalls: Guessing

guessing info, rather than asking and letting the respondent generate the answer

Diversity: Developing Cultural Intelligence

having high cultural intelligence allows you to... -*respect, recognize, and appreciate cultural differences* -process *curiosity* and interest in other cultures -*avoid inappropriate stereotypes* -adjust conceptions of time and show *patience* -manage *language differences* to achieve shared meaning -establish *trust* and show *empathy* across cultures -approach cross-cultural relationships with a *learner mindset*

Question Pitfalls: Open-to-Closed

initially asking an open question, but rephrasing into a yes/no or bipolar question before the respondent can answer

Survey Interviewing: Ordinal Scales

interviewees *rate/rank* the response options

Question Pitfalls: Tell Me Everything

question is TOO open, giving hardly any direction

Question Pitfalls: Yes (No) Question

question really only has one answer

Question Pitfalls: Unintentional Bipolar Question

question results in a simple yes/no answer, when the interviewer really wanted a detailed response

Survey Interviewing: Nominal Scales

*categorical* response options, which are mutually exclusive and do not have a meaningful order

Survey Interviewing: Interval Scales (3)

*evaluative interval scales:* -ask interviewees to *make judgements or express opinions* -interval scales are typically *bipolar* and there are often an odd number of response options *frequency interval scales:* -respondents *select the number/range that most accurately represents how often they do something* -be mindful of the response bins you create, depending on the analysis plan for the data *numerical interval scales:* -*respondents select the number/range that most accurately reflects their category* -good for things like: age, income, education level, etc

Focus Groups: Activities

-*activities keep it interesting, facilitate new conversations, and create more data* -testing products/tools -sharing stories/experiences -drawing -making lists -providing ratings -sorting/concept mapping -word association

Survey Interviewing: Repeat Question Strategy

-*allows interviewer to assess the consistency of the interviewee's responses* -ask the same, or rephrased version, of a question later in the interview -*especially helpful if the topic is controversial or you have doubts about the interviewee's honesty* -can go from moderately to highly closed questions

Survey Interviewing: Shuffle Question Strategy

-*allows interviewer to reduce biases due to order of response option* for list rating questions (primacy/recency effects, "top of the list" effects, bias against later responses) -clearly detail instructions to interviewers when shuffling

Survey Interviewing: Chain (Contingency) Question Strategy

-*allows you to pre-plan sequences of probes, based on prior responses* -typically an *"if x, then y"* structure, allowing for a branching of the interview

Interview Structure: Funnel Sequence

-*begins with broad, open questions, then moves to more restricted closed questions* -good way to *get the interviewee comfortable,* especially if the topic is non-threatening and they are knowledgeable

Interview Structure: Inverted Funnel Sequence

-*begins with more restricted and closed questions, then moves into broader, more open questions* -good if the interviewee needs to *warm up* and build momentum answering questions -hesitancy to respond may be due to a less comfortable topic, feeling that one isn't knowledgeable, or anxiety about the interview process

Informational Interviewing: Prepare the Data

-*create the report, story, or final product* -focus on what is most important and identify "sound bites" -*check/compare answers with other sources*, searching for inconsistencies -*filter out unnecessary content* (i.e. grammatical errors, or expletives in a transcript)

Diversity: Assertiveness

-*cultures with high assertiveness* emphasize direct and unambiguous language, are uncomfortable with silence, prioritize resolving issues, express more emotion, use dominant language, stress equity and use competitive language, and value unrestrained expression of thoughts and feelings -*cultures with low assertiveness* emphasize indirect and subtle language, view silence as communicative and respectful, prioritize respect over problem-solving, express less emotion, use tender and pleasant language, stress equality and use cooperative language, and value disciplined expression of thoughts and feelings

Diversity: Future Orientation

-*cultures with high future orientation* emphasize control and plan for the future, focus on intrinsic motivation, discuss long-term strategies, use flexible and adaptive languages, mention long-term rewards and incentives, and appreciate visionary approaches -*cultures with low future orientation* emphasize controlling current business problems, focus on extrinsic motivation. rarely discuss long-term strategies, use inflexible and firm language, mention short-term rewards and incentives, and prioritize proven and routine approaches

Diversity: Gender Egalitarianism

-*cultures with high gender egalitarianism* provide equal professional opportunities to men and women, expect men and women to have the same communication/management styles, and avoid protocol that draws attention to gender -*cultures with low gender egalitarianism* provide more professional opportunities to men, expect men and women to communicate in distinct masculine and feminine ways, and prefer protocol that draws attention to gender

Survey Interviewing: Selecting Interviewees

-*define the population of interest* (if small, consider interviewing the entire population; if large, draw a representative sample) -determine proper *sample size* based on population size, desired margin of error, and confidence level -as population increases in size, a smaller proportion is necessary

Survey Interviewing: Selecting Interviewers

-*determine the number of interviewers needed* (based on the sample size, length of interview, ease of accessing interviewees) -determine the *qualifications* necessary (follow directions, read survey clearly, record responses accurately) -consider *personal characteristics* (older, optimistic, non-threatening interviewers tend to get the best participation)

Survey Interviewing: Preparation and Structure

-*determine your purpose/goals*, *time* demands, survey format (*qualitative/quantitative*), and complete research on the topic/issue -*prepare an interview guide and schedule*, ensuring planned questions will be easily *recordable with code-able responses* -include *directions* for interviewers and be mindful of the *order of questions* -open clearly and politely, given that people may be suspicious/weary of being surveyed -make your closing brief, express thanks, follow-up

Informational Interviewing: As the Interviewee

-*do your homework and ask questions* -identify the interviewer, their organization, the length of the interview, the information desired, and how the information is to be used -*assess the relationship and the meaning of the interview* -*anticipate questions and prepare responses* -listen carefully to questions (so you don't answer the wrong one) -be thoughtful and careful -be patient and do not interrupt -stay in the moment while being respectful and avoiding assumptions -*answer strategically* by avoiding defensiveness, sharing control, explaining responses if necessary, identifying question pitfalls, avoiding "traps," supporting your answers with logical rationale and being positive

Informational Interviewing: Difficult Conversations (7)

-*emotional interviewee:* be sensitive and allow for emotions -*hostile interviewee:* label the situation and allow the interviewee to feel they have a voice while staying neutral -*hesitant interviewee:* start in a non-threatening way and build momentum with safe, easy to answer questions -*talkative interviewees:* do not interrupt, bust use non-verbals to signal it's time to move one; shift to closed/targeted questions -*evasive interviewees:* repeat or rephrase; laugh and simply continue on; skip items and circle back; provoke a response with leading/loaded questions -*confused interviewees:* avoid embarrassing or angering them by controlling your non-verbals and rephrasing -*dissimlar interviewees:* avoid stereotyping

Interpersonal Communication: Perception of Others

-*expectations/beliefs of the opposing party* impact the interviews -perceptions may be based on *previous interactions, stereotypes, etc* -it's essential to *keep an open mind* and be adaptable

Survey Interviewing: Interview Location

-*face-to-face:* good participation due to social norms; expensive and time consuming -*over the phone:* inexpensive; reduces bias; may produce more honest answers (due to social distance); works best for short interviews -*over the internet:* (i.e. emailed links, posted on websites, survey services) respondents may be more honest (due to social distnace); respondents can complete survey when convenient; respondents can quit/withdraw

Informational Interviewing: Planning Steps

-*formulate a purpose* (what data do you need to discover? how will the information be used? what timeline is needed for the interview?) -*research the topic* and enter the interview prepared and knowledgeable about the subject matter; *evidence of research/effort helps motivate interviewees* -*choose the interviewee(s)* by assessing their *(1) level of information, (2) availability, (3) willingness to participate, and (4) capability* -consider your relationship (ex: status differences) with the interviewee (*subordinate interviewees* may have less control and be honest to please the interviewer; *superior interviewers* may feel free to speak openly because they are less likely to feel threatened; *equals* are easier to build strong rapport with, making the interview less pressured) -assess the situation and location, using a relevant location if possible (you want to *create a space that facilitates exchange and limits barriers*) -*structure the interview* by creating an interview guide that outlines primary questions, probes, and topics -choose a *schedule* and establish trust and rapport with a strong opening

Question Types: Neutral Questions

-*give little direction, thereby giving the respondent power and control* -open questions: the interviewee determines the length, details, and nature of the answer -closed questions: the interviewee can choose between "equal" choices (i.e. one is not balanced/weighted differently"

Focus Groups

-*group discussions organized to explore a specific set of issues with the explicit use of the group interaction as research data* -*collective conversation among a group/moderator(s)* -generally involve 4-12 participants -lasts 1-2 hours -may be video/audio recorded (then transcribed) -often face-to-face, in a shared space (e.g. conference room) -facilitated by a moderator, who shapes the conversation -*designed to collect rich, qualitative data*

Question Types: Closed Questions (3)

-*have a specific, narrow focus, and are designed to elicit restricted answers* -these question types are *more controlled and efficient*, making them *reproducible* -*bipolar questions* give the respondent only *two options* (EX: Do you own a car?) -*highly closed questions* typically asks for a single piece of information, like a *single word response* (EX: In what year did you graduate from high school?) -*moderately closed questions* asks for *specific information, without elaboration* from respondents (EX: What are your favorite restaurants in Fairfield?)

Survey Interviewing: Leaning Question Strategy

-*helpful if the interviewee is undecided/uninformed about an issue, but you need a formal response* -follow-up with a question asking which way they are leaning

Survey Interviewing: Filter Question Strategy

-*helps assess interviewee's knowledge of the topic* -interviewee may report being familiar with a topic/issue/event, but don't take their word for it... ask them to elaborate to determine the extent and accuracy of their knowledge

Interpersonal Communication: Self-Perception

-*how we view ourselves can impact how we communicate* -*self-esteem* and perception of worth may impact interview behavior (EX: low self-esteem may cause you to be over-critical, uncertain, or hesitant) -*self-monitoring* refers to our *awareness of others' responses* and *motivation to adapt*

Question Types: Probing Questions

-*if answers to primary questions are unsatisfactory* (incomplete/vague/irrelevant), you can *probe the respondent for more information* (EX: Can you explain what you mean by "confusing?") -usually only *makes sense within the context of the earlier primary question* -there are many types of probes: silent, nudging, clearinghouse, informational, restatement, reflective, and mirror

Information Interviewing: Asking Questions

-*implement your plan, follow your guide, and be flexible* -ask primary and probing questions, using a mix of open and closed questions -*change tasks if necessary*, especially if you sense resistance, discomfort, or irritation -*be thoughtful* in how you phrase each question, particularly unplanned ones -*try to avoid confusion*, but monitor for it and correct when necessary (use an appropriate restatement or informational probe)

Informational Interviewing: Note Taking

-*improves attention and recall* (especially if notes are handwritten via pen and paper) -*signals interest* to the interviewee -helps you *stay organized* -provides a more *accurate record* of the responses -*can limit eye contact*, and therefore trust/rapport -*creates anxiety* or impatience on the part of the interviewee

Focus Groups: Moderator Skills

-*interviewing* (creating a guide/schedule, question construction, navigating moderately schedule interview, improvising probes) -*interpersonal communication* (clear verbal communication, establishment of trust/rapport/respect) -*group/team dynamics* (leaderless group discussions, facilitation, motivation, conflict management) -*subject matter expertise* (knowledge of topic, ability to understand participants and direct conversation) -*remaining neutral* (ability to be unbiased, not lead participants, and stay silent)

Question Types: Primary Questions

-*introduce new topics and/or subtopics* (EX: Why did you choose to study I/O Psychology?) -these questions should *stand alone* (i.e. larger context is not needed to know the appropriate response)

Survey Interviewing: Phrasing

-*keep questions short and clear* -*avoid prefacing questions* with phrases such as "some people believe..." or "other people think..." because these can be *leading* -avoid acronyms (or explain them, don't assume people understand them), jargon, slang, or technical language -be sensitive to the expertise/knowledge of your interviewees -*avoid negatively phrased questions* because they confuse respondents and reduce validity

Interpersonal Communication: Interview Situation

-*many factors impact communication outcomes*, like (1) who initiated the interview? (2) what is the meaning of the interview? (3) what is the purpose of the interview? (4) is the timing of the interview agreeable? -*stronger communication (i.e. Level 2 & 3) is likely to occur when the interview seems familiar, informal, warm, positive, private, and psychologically close* -EX: consider *seating options* and physical distance/comfort during the interview

Interview Structure: Schedules (4)

-*nonscheduled* interviews are *unstructured* with no preplanned questions, just the interview guide -*moderately scheduled* interviews are ideal, given that *all major questions and possible probes are outlined* with some *flexibility* for unplanned probes and adaptation -*highly scheduled* interviews are rigid and have all major questions and preplanned probes outlined with *NO room for deviation and NO unplanned probes* -*highly schedule standardized* interviews are cold/robotic and produce identical interview experiences, given that *questions have specific answer options with no probing or explanation* needed (EX: survey)

Interpersonal Communication: Outside Forces

-*outside forces shape an interview landscape and dictate potential disclosure* -the interviewer and interviewees may also be influenced by: laws, organizational policies, third-party relationships, culture/norms, publicity/accountability concerns

Survey Interviewing: Sampling Techniques

-*probability sampling:* each member of the population has a predetermined chance of being samples (random sampling) -*non-probability sampling:* often easier and cheaper, but unlikely to be representative of the entire population of interest (self selection, convenience sample)

Diversity: Culture Risks

-*projected cognitive similarity:* assuming others have the same norms and values as your own cultural group -*stereotyping:* can lead to prejudice and discrimination -*outgroup homogeneity effect:* occurs when people view all members of an outgroup as "the same" -*communication challenges:* avoiding judging those without fluency in your own language, slowing down to rephrase to aid comprehension, avoid slang/jargon -*self-fulfilling prophecy:* acting in a way to provoke behaviors you expect of a particular cultural group

Question Types: Open Questions (2)

-*provide the interviewee with the freedom to determine the amount/type of information to respond with* -*highly open questions* place no restrictions and give little direct guidance about the information being sought (EX: Tell me about your summer vacation.) -*moderately open questions* give some specific guidance (EX: Tell me about the trip you took on your summer vacation.) -open questions *build rapport and give interviewees power* in the situation, but they *require more interviewer skill*

Characteristics of an Interview

-*purposeful communication between two parties through the use of questions* -interviews can be *structured* (with a pre-planned schedule, questions, and probes) or interviews can be *interactional* (with equal exchanges) -interviews are best when conducted structurally because they have *high reliability*

Interpersonal Communication: Levels of Interactions (Level 3)

-*richest information* may be obtained from Level 3 interactions, but risks make it *harder to obtain* -*risky communication* that involves *full disclosure* of feelings -requires a strong, established relationship -self-disclosure is risky because the interviewee puts their personal, professional, social, psychological, and financial welfare at stake -it is important to *rely on trust to reach Level 3* -*prediction-based trust:* we trust people because we can predict -*relationship-based trust:* we trust people we like and who like us

Interpersonal Communication: Levels of Interactions (Level 1)

-*safe, nonthreatening questions that require brief responses* -no prior (or likely future) relationship exists between the interviewer and interviewee

Interpersonal Communication: Relationship Dimensions

-*similarity:* shared gender, race, age, culture, values, norms, interests -*inclusion:* degree of motivation and contribution to the exchange -*affection:* mutual respect, warmth, liking -*control:* avoid trying to "control" the interview, allow for it to be collaborative rather than hierarchical -*trust:* comes from mutual honesty, sincerity, fairness, reliability

Survey Interviewing: Probing Questions

-*standardize probes across interviews* by limiting probing, thereby ensuring replicability -*pre-plan probes* for specific questions OR for specific deficits of responses -if an answer is too brief, utilize a silent probe, then a nudge -after each opening question, utilize a clearinghouse probe -*record any instance where a probe is used*

Interview Structure: Tunnel Sequence

-*straight, consistent* sequence of questions -questions can be open or closed -works well for *simple interviews* (EX: polling)

Question Types: Leading Questions

-*suggest the answer the interviewer expects/prefers* -result of interviewer *bias* (rather than objectivity) -can be leading due to phrasing, extra information provided, or nonverbal cues -can transform a bipolar question into a unipolar one (due to social preference/authority)

Question Types: Mirror (Summary) Probe

-*summarizes topics discussed to ensure understanding/accuracy* -similar to active listening and repeating back what you have heard from the respondent EX: "Okay, just to check I have this right... You spoke to the salesperson first, who agreed to issue the refund, but it was the manager who arranged for the replacement?"

Survey Interviewing: Revision

-*the process of writing effective survey questions is ongoing* (expect to revise and redevelop questions as you develop your survey schedule) -check for loaded questions or phrases that might indicate bias, extraneous phrases/words, and the degree of sensitivity -*pretest questions* with a small sample, carefully observing interviewees' responses and reactions

Interpersonal Communication: Levels of Interactions (Level 2)

-*trust* is necessary to answer *moderately risky questions* -probes *personal beliefs/attitudes*, sometimes related to controversial issues -a current relationship may exist, but it is formal

Question Types: Restatement Probe

-*useful if the respondent didn't answer (or misunderstood) the question asked* -may be needed in two-part questions if the respondent forgets to answer the second part -try to avoid sounding critical of the interviewee EX: "Why did you choose Park Hyatt Creek for your vacation?" "Well, we always wanted to go skiing in Colorado." "I see. And why did you choose the Park Hyatt, rather than other resorts?"

Diversity: Culture is like an iceberg...

-above the water are *observed behaviors,* like rituals, customs, speech and nonverbal cues, and conflict behavior -below the water are *unseen/inferred interests, values, norms, and assumptions,* like beliefs and values that guide behaviors, interpretations, and reactions -EX: you could have two cultures with the same values, but different ways of showing them

Adapting Interviews to Technology: Telephone

-advantageous because it *saves money and time* -can easily reach interviewees who are *geographically distant* -disadvantageous because they *lack visual signals and may create communication challenges* (e.g. poor connection) -interviewees may have a tendency to slump or be distracted by other things

Survey Interviewing: Social Distance Scale

-allows the interviewer to *assess if a person's attitude towards an issue changes depending on the social distance* (as it becomes "close to home") -respondents may endorse policies for people/places far away from them, but not for their immediate/personal space -may reveal a *"not in my backyard" bias* -scale moves progressively closer in terms of relationship/distance

Informational Interviewing: Notes and Recordings

-always ask permission by notifying the interviewee at the beginning of the conversation -show/share notes if the interviewee requests it -record only critical information -asks the interviewee to slow down if necessary -fill in gaps immediately after the conclusion of the interview

Interview Guide

-an *outline of topics and subtopics* that will be addressed in the interview (i.e. specific areas of inquiry) -ensures all areas are covered in the interview -facilitates effective recording of all interviewee responses

Informational Interviewing: Have a Plan

-as with all interviews, *preparation is key* -never assume you can just "wing it" -before you sit down at the table, consider completing *interviewee research* and designing an interview guide/schedule -preparation promotes *strong interpersonal exchanges* during the interview

Informational Interviewing: Closing

-begin with a *clearinghouse question* -keep eyes and ears open for new information as you wrap up (sometimes interviewees volunteer information at the closing) -make any additional notes (if necessary) immediately after closing

Survey Interviewing: Coding and Analysis

-best practice is to predetermine the *coding schema* and *data entry plan* prior to survey administration (EX: what categories are being coded for in the open responses?) -*analyze the data to "make sense" of it* by computing summaries and comparisons (EX: compare responses between groups/demographics) -*produce the product* by compiling your results into a report/paper/presentation

Interview Structure: Hourglass Sequence

-combines funnel and inverted funnel -*begins with open questions, moves closed, then returns to open* -allows you to *narrow focus* (collect facts), then return to broader issues (to assess experiences and/or attitudes)

Diversity: Individualism v. Collectivism

-cultures with *high individualism* (like the U.S.) discuss *individual* rewards and goals, emphasize *opportunities* and choices, network *loosely tied* and *temporary* social networks, and communicate *directly* to efficiently deal with tasks and outcomes -cultures with *high collectivism* (like China) discuss *group* rewards and goals, emphasize *duties* and obligations, network in *tightly knit* and *permanent* social networks, and communicate *indirectly* to preserve harmony in work relationships

Focus Groups: Process

-determine research question -select your design -determine your level of structure -determine your purpose -create focus group guide and/or schedule -recruit participants -arrange host space -conduct focus group -transcribe discussion -analyze qualitative data

Survey Interviewing: Training Interviewers

-ensure all instructions are *carefully written into the survey itself* -perform *in-person training* and ask interviewers to practice delivering the survey -instruct interviewers to prepare/*familiarize* themselves with the questions and response options; dress appropriately and *generically*; be *warm* and professional; speak *clearly and naturally*; *rehearse their opening*; *repeat* questions/responses if needed; give interviewees time to respond and carefully record their answers; *remain neutral*; close politely

Question Types: Loaded Questions

-extremely leading questions -*dictate a particular response* or set up a *"no win"* scenario with a forced response

Interpersonal Communication: Dyadic Interaction

-foundation of the interpersonal communication model: *two parties interact, making unique contributions that effect the interview outcome* -it's important to be aware of the *current/evolving relationship* between the parties and consider the *relationship dimension*

Question Types: Clearinghouse Probe

-good practice for ensuring you have covered everything of importance on a particular topic -asks respondent to *volunteer any information they think is relevant that your prepared questions didn't cover* -also provides a good wrap-up of a particular topic, allowing a clear segue into any new areas -this type of probe *build rapport with the interviewee because it shows them you value their contribution* to the conversation -EX: Is there anything else you'd like to tell me about your trip?

Interview Structure: Closing

-have a strong wrap up (*this should be planned, avoid ad-libbing*) -use verbals or non-verbals to signal the interview is ending -*express your gratitude* and allow for some continuation of the dialogue (don't rush the interviewee) -be honest and sincere -*avoid a "false closing,"* in which you reopen the interview and *"failed departures,"* where you run into the interviewee shortly after saying goodby -*poor closings can result in the interviewee reframing the experience as negative* (EX: ending too abruptly may make the interviewee feel that they were not respected by the interviewer) -consider using *clearinghouse probes* or mirror probes to summarize the interview content

Question Types: Nudging Probe

-if silence isn't sufficient, but *you want to encourage the interviewee to continue* on a topic, nudge them by saying: "I see" or "Go on" or "And?" or "Yes..." or "So?" or "Uh-huh?"

Question Types: Silent Probe

-if the interviewee hasn't said enough, *sometimes remaining silent is sufficient to induce more sharing* -*this probe can be accompanied by other non-verbal cues*, like eye contact, a head nod, or hand gesture

Diversity: Egalitarian v. Hierarchical

-in *egalitarian cultures,* decision making is more decentralized, protocol based on status is less important, subordinates are able to speak freely but do not take responsibility for the mistakes of leaders, and leaders are approached directly -in *hierarchical cultures,* decision making is more centralized, protocol based on status is very important, subordinates defer to leaders and often take blame for them, and leaders are approached through intermediaries

Interview Structure

-interviews vary in terms of their structure -*unstructured interviews are primarily exploratory,* where interviewers follow a guide and are free to ask whatever they want (but no questions are prepared ahead of time and there is no standardization across replications) -*structured interviews follow a pre-planned schedule,* likely utilizing standardized scoring and pre-planned questions/probes

Diversity: Gender Differences

-it's difficult to discern if gender differences are *innate or learned* -being *counter-normative* can be costly (i.e. breaking your stereotype/violating people's expectations could have adverse effects) -EX: women are told to "ask for it," but are more likely to be told "no"

Interpersonal Communication: Feedback

-it's important to understand that both *involved parties are mutually building this experience* -parties should *attend to verbal and nonverbal cues* -*avoid over-interpreting* responses or behaviors -*engage in careful listening* for *comprehension* (receiving, understanding, learning, remembering), *empathy* (reassures, comforts, expresses warmth), *evaluation* (judging what is heard, including clarifying interpretations), and *resolution* (solving problems and strengthening relationships)

Informational Interviewing: Motivation

-label the interview using less threatening terms... talk, conversation, discussion, chat -be nice and communicate freely and honestly -show sincere interest -be honest, but objective (limit bias and judgement) -ask questions, rather than making statements -do not interrupt the interviewee and allow for sharing control using open questions and clearinghouse probes -use non-verbals properly

Survey Interviewing: Scales

-lengthy interviews can result in distracted or bored respondents -*it is a good idea to vary the response scales/options for questions*, but don't make it confusing -different types of responses/scales will provide different types of data (i.e. interval, nominal, ordinal)

Adapting Interviews to Technology: Video Chat

-many different economical options for effective video conferencing (i.e. skype, google, zoom) -*allows for a simulation of a face-to-face conversation*, making it richer -bad connections limit effectiveness -*awkwardness with regard to the visual* (top half only) and interacting with the screen (looking at yourself) -may not be appealing to those unfamiliar with technology

Interview Structure: Opening

-openings create the *first impression* -there is no one-size fits all approach to openings... it's important to *assess your interview situation and goals* (EX: openings may be friendly, serious, professional, informal, optimistic, pessimistic, non-threatening) -*the interviewee's willingness to participate, and to move past "Level 1" interactions, hinge on a successful opening* -*poor openings may result in a defensive climate*, producing short, vague, or inaccurate responses -*effective openings motivate interviewees*, establishing a mutually created dialogue -openings should *establish rapport,* signal trustworthiness, respect, and express interest in a genuine relationship -openings should also *orient/educate the interviewee* about the purpose of the interview, how info will be used, why the person was selected as the interviewee, and the length of the interview/procedural expectations

Interview Structure: Diamond Sequence

-opposite of hourglass -*begin with closed questions, move to more open, then return to closed*

Advantages of Survey Interviews

-provide a high degree of *reliability and replicability* -they are *highly structured*, often *standardized, detailed interviews* -all primary and probing questions are prepared, so these interviews are easy to implement

Informational Interviewing: Audio/Visual Recordings

-provides a *complete capture* of the interview (including exact sequence, tone, emphasis) -recordings *can be reviewed* to check accuracy of responses and refresh memory -*allows interviewer to concentrate on the interviewee* as a person -be aware of possible *technical difficulties* -recordings can appear *intrusive*, create fear and dishonesty, and establish a barrier

Interview Structure: Sequences

-refers the *organization of question types and content* across the interview -six types: tunnel, funnel, inverted funnel, hourglass, diamond, quintamensional

Survey Interviewing: As the Interviewee

-remember you can always decline to participate -*consider the benefits of participating* -*determine the interview's purpose/motivation* before agreeing to participate -question the merits of your participation -be vigilant (if something seems amiss, question it) -listen carefully, respond honestly, ask for questions/options to be repeated, give feedback, refuse individual questions if inappropriate

Interpersonal Communication: Exchange of Roles

-roles should be exchanged in a *collaborative environment that allows for open dialogue* -*directive communication* is more *structured and standardized*, where the *interviewer assumes control*, dictates the pace, purpose, and climate of the interview -*non-directive communication* involves more *shared control* between the interviewer and interviewee, with more *role exchange* and open-ended questions and freedom in terms of responding