Employee Management-Test 3.

Alderfer proposes that people have what three sets of needs?

1. Existence Needs 2. Relatedness Needs 3. Growth Needs (ERG)

_________________Theory has 4 basic postulates: 1. Individuals strive to create and maintain a state of equity. 2. When a state of inequity is perceived, it creates tension which the individual is motivated to reduce or eliminate it. 3. The greater the magnitude of perceived inequity, the greater is the motivation to act to reduce the state of tension. 4. Individuals should perceive an unfavorable inequity (e.g., receiving too little pay) more readily than a favorable one.

Equity

This theory is concerned with defining what individuals in our society consider to be equitable (fair) and their reactions to being in situations they perceive as unfair.

Equity Theory (COGNITIVE APPROACH)

This theory was originated by Stacy Adams in 1965:

Equity Theory (COGNITIVE APPROACH)

Which needs are often unsatisfied in an organization?

Esteem and self-actualization.

The problem with _____________________ is that there is usually an increase in frequency of the undesirable response/behavior for a period of time soon after extinction has begun. This is called an "term" spike. However, if given sufficient time and given that it is properly continued, the behavior will start to decrease in frequency.

Extinction

_________________: no consequence. (i.e., withhold positive consequences) is provided when a behavior occurs. "If you ignore it long enough it will go away". This decreases the likelihood that this behavior will be repeated in the future. It decreases the frequency of the behavior.

Extinction

__________________ is a type of inequity that benefits you.

Favorable

Alderfer, however, postulates "______________ regression". This is the unique contribution of Alderfer's theory. Alderfer feels that when HIGHER level needs AREN'T satisfied, the individual REGRESSES and tries to gain additional gratification at LOWER levels of needs.

Frustration

The ___________________ ________________ postulate has major implication for managers who must motivate employees in unchallenging tasks that don't provide opportunities to satisfied relatedness and growth needs.

Frustration Regression

________________ theory is very simple and easy to understand. It is based upon a presumed relationship between effort and performance.

Goal

Participation in ___________ _____________ does not always lead to increased goal acceptance (thus, it does not lead to increased performance) This is especially true when the organizational is distrustful, when management and labor do not trust each other, when participation does not fit the manager's style, and when the employee does not want to participate.

Goal setting

This theory holds specific, challenging goals, if accepted, will lead to more effort being put forth and will lead to greater improvements in performance than no goals. "do your best goals" or easy goals. The latter three goals are supposed to adversely affect effort and performance. Research has supported this basic tenet of the theory.

Goal setting

____________________ ____________________ theory is a cognitive model that assumes that there is a direct relationship between our intentions (goal) and our behavior (performance/motivation). Goals serve to energize behavior and to direct both attention and action.

Goal setting

In addition, research in __________________ __________________ has found that also providing feedback about performance and rewarding goal attainment with valued outcomes (e.g. money) can also improve effort and performance. Rewards for goal attainment increase the acceptance of the goals.

Goal theory

What seeks to specify those goal-setting conditions that will increase the amount of effort put forwrd?

Goal theory

3. The manner (interviews using the critical incidents technique) in which _____________ gathered information for his theory was faulty. People attribute success to their own achievements (job context-hygiene factors). This is known as self-serving bias.

Herzberg

Based upon this dichotomy, he concluded that motivators produced job satisfaction, whereas hygiene's merely prevent job dissatisfaction.

Herzberg

He broke away from traditional thinking.

Herzberg

He suggests that the OPPOSITE of job satisfaction is NOT job dissatisfaction, but NO job satisfaction.

Herzberg

He talked about 2 factors that were related to motivation:

Herzberg

He thought that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction were SEPARATE dimensions.

Herzberg

It is a one best-way theory of motivation. It assumes that all employees will be motivated by job enrichment.

Herzberg

The sample ___________________ based his theory on (Accountants and Engineers) is not representative of the total work force. Research has shown differences in work preferences of professional and nonprofessional employees.

Herzberg

____________________ suggested that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction ARE NOT simple OPPOSITES. He broke away from traditional thinking. He thought that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction were SEPARATE dimensions.

Herzberg

__________________ theory offers a direct, simple, and persuasive advice for certain jobs and employees: job redesign. Job redesign offers the promise of motivation due to its changing job content factors or motivators. Herzberg talks about job enrichment as a way to motivate employees.

Herzberg's

___________________ 2-factor theory of motivation enjoyed considerable popularity in the business community due to its simplicity and appearance of intuitive validity to managers who are unaware of the number of deficiencies and the I/O psychology literature.

Herzberg's

Progression can be upward or downward in the ________________.

Hierarchy

Managers when confronted with a motivational problem usually change job context or _______ factors (such as pay). The result of this has often been that employees are still not motivated. Thus, managers may not be getting at the heart of the problem (job content or motivator factors).

Hygiene

To the degree that _______________ are absent, dissatisfaction will occur.

Hygiene's

These factors are related to job DISSATISFACTION, whereas above these factors led to job dissatisfaction, whereas absence of these factors led to job dissatisfaction. Herzberg believed these were directly to job context (work setting). These include company policies and administration, supervision, relations with one's supervisors and peers, working conditions, and pay. They are roughly equivalent to the three lower level needs in Maslow's hierarchy of needs: entrinsic factors.

Hygienes

When present, ______________ prevent dissatisfaction, but don't lead to job satisfaction.

Hygienes

The definition and measurement of need is ___________________.

Impossible

A state of __________________ exists when the ratios of outcomes to inputs are not equivalent. There are 2 types of it: unfavorable (one that hurts you) and favorable (the one that benefits you)

Inequity

An ____________________ is anything a worker perceives as deserving a payoff (i.e. amount of education, number of hours worked, previous job experience). An outcome is defined as any factor for individual perceives to be a payoff for invested effort (e.g. pay, fringe benefits, recognition).

Input

Motivators are ________________ factors.

Intrinsic

They are both effective methods for increasing goal acceptance and performance under the proper conditions.

-Goal setting -Tell & sell method

Maslow thought the higher the level of need, the _________ important it is for survival and the longer its gratification could be postponed. Thus, strength of a need is inversely related to its level in the hierarchy. For example, the higher the level of need the lower the strength of the need (the strongest need is physiological and the weakest need is self-actualization).

Less

Empirical Support. There is ______________________ evidence to support Maslow's need-hierarchy theory.

Little

Maslow thought that the "___________" needs would have to be satisfied before the next "_____________" need could motivate behavior. He also thought that the strength of each need is determined by its position and in the hierarchy and by the degree to which it and all lower needs have been satisfied

Lower, higher

What is the major difference between the two approaches? (Maslow's and Alderfer's)

Maslow and Alderfer both agree on "fulfillment progression" and once a need is satisfied, you move up the hierarchy (Maslow) or the continuum (Alderfer) Alderfer, however, postulates "frustration regression". This is the unique contribution of Alderfer's theory. Alderfer feels that when higher level needs aren't satisfied, the individual regresses and tries to gain additional gratification at lower levels of needs.

Empirical Support: This research support is ______________ but overall ____________.

Mixed, positive

The _____________ completely a concrete need is satisfied, the GREATER the desire is to SATISFY the LESS concrete needs.

More

Managers must identify _____ important needs and LINK need satisfaction to good performance. So, according to this theory, an organization must be flexible and tailor the incentives

Most

Managers should keep in mind that __________________ is generally determined by MULTIPLE needs. The belief that only one factor accounts for motivation is usually an oversimplification.

Motivation

Thus, __________________, according to the equity theory, is the perceived equity between the effort a person puts into the job and what he/she receives in return, especially compared to other people in similar positions.

Motivation

Some people's hygienes (pay, etc.) are other people's _______________.

Motivators

These factors produced job satisfaction. Herzberg thought that these were directly related to job content, reflecting a need for personal fulfillment. Motivators include achievement, recognition, and work itself, responsibility, advancement, and personal growth. These factors are roughly equivalent to the two upper level needs of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. (ENTRINSIC FACTORS)

Motivators

To the degree that __________________ are present, motivation will occur.

Motivators

When absent, ______________________ don't lead to job dissatisfaction.

Motivators

A need is a ____________ concept.

Nebulous

The problems with ______________ theories are: 1. the definition and measurement of need is impossible. 2. related to 1. need is a nebulous concept, and 3. it oversimplifies work motivation

Need

____________ theory was important because: 1. it revealed that not all individuals are motivated by the same things and 2. it recognized the presence of higher order needs (rather than lower level needs) e.g., money, that concerned Taylor.

Need

What oversimplifies work motivation?

Need theory

Managers need to realize _____________ change from time to time and from situation to situation. People will be at different levels at different times.

Needs

___________________ ____________________ (avoidance learning)-the taking away of a negative consequence when a behavior occurs. This increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future. This person learns by avoiding something negative. It increases the frequency of the behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

UNFAVORABLE EQUITY:

OUTCOMESp < OUTCOMESo INPUTSp INPUTSo

Equity:

OUTCOMESp < OUTCOMESo _INPUTSp INPUTSo

FAVORABLE INEQUITY:

OUTCOMESp > OUTCOMESo INPUTSp INPUTSo

Theory of Equity:

OUTCOMESp-OUTCOMESo INPUTSp-INPUTSo

Equity theory defines equity as:

OUTCOMESp=OUTCOMESo INPUTSs INPUTSo

___________________ implications. Set specific, challenging goals for employees (tailored to the individual's abilities, needs, etc...) that are achievable, and that are accepted by the employee. In addition, use periodic performance review meetings to provide feedback and provide rewards that are valued by the individual employee for goal attainment.

Organizational

Concerning ____________________ in goal setting, research has shown that this in goal setting can have a positive effect on effort and performance when this participation leads to greater goal acceptance (STEP 1) and this greater goal acceptance, in turn, leads to improved performance (STEP 2) Thus, participation in goal setting is characterized by a 2-step model.

Participation

In the equity theory: it is ________________, not actual equity.

Perceived

______________ reinforcement: providing a positive consequence when a behavior occurs. This increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future. It INCREASES frequency of that behavior.

Positive

Problems with ___________________________________ are that is doesn't replace the bad behavior with a good behavior; it may result in aggression against the punisher, negative feelings, apathy of the part of the worker, etc.; the bad behavior may not only occur when the punishment is around (Remember my cookie jar example-once my mom left I was in cookie heaven!). On the positive side, its OK to "term" when the behavior has serious consequences (for example, if safety rule violation can endanger a number of lives then it is OK to "term" this behavior.

Punishment

__________________ is providing negative consequences when a behavior occurs. This will reduce the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future. This will decrease the frequency of the behavior.

Punishment

This theory is based largely upon the work of B.F. Skinner ________________________________________________________ theory, (behavioral approach).

Reinforcement

This guiding principle underlying ___________________ ____________________ is THORNDIKE's law of effect. This principle states that behaviors are followed by positive consequences tend to be repeated whereas behaviors that are followed by negative or no consequences will tend NOT to be repeated. Thus, the consequence or the effect of the behavior determines the behavior's frequency.

Reinforcement Theory. BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

___________________ has NOT supported Herzberg's notions about motivators and hygienes.

Research

Remember....________________!

SCARF

Maslow thought that the drive for __________________________________ _______________________ was Universal, but he also thought that it was RARELY if EVER achieved and NEVER fully fulfilled.

Self-Actualization

Maslow used Einstein, Bach, Lincoln, and Jefferson as examples of:

Self-actualization

_____________ ________________ theories when individuals perform work in exchange for pay, etc...they think about what they contribute to the job (inputs) and when they receive for working (outcome).

Stacey Adams

According to the postulate, managers should provide ___________ rewards (e.g. increased pay,/E needs) for satisfactory performance in relatively unchallenging jobs.

Tangible

In this way, a manager can still maintain MOTIVATION levels of the employee.

Tangible rewards

It revealed that not all individuals are motivated by the same things and 2. it recognized the presence of higher order needs [rather than lower level needs, (e.g. money) that concerned Taylor]

The Need Theory

Failure to provide work-related opportunities for need satisfaction is likely to lead to employee frustration, reduced output, and increased ______________.

Turnover

Alderfer states that these needs consist on a concreteness continuum, with the ______________ needs being MOST concrete and the ___________ needs being the LEAST concrete.

existence, growth

Maslow and Alderfer both agree on "_______________ progression" and once a need is satisfied, you move up the hierarchy (Maslow) or the continuum (Alderfer)

fulfillment

The ______________the satisfaction of a need, the ________________ the importance of that need and the greater the importance of the next higher need.

greater, lower

The theory implies implies that since most employees are motivated by _________-level needs, their jobs should be designed to allow these __________-level needs to be satisfied at work. This runs counter to the recent emphasis on simplification of jobs.

higher

(Maslow) the ______________ the level of need the __________ the strength of the need (the strongest need is physiological and the weakest need is self-actualization).

higher, lower

The other (o) is the:

referent comparison

Research has shown that there is no significant difference than participation in goal setting and the____________ & _____________ method of assigned goal setting in terms of goal acceptance or performance. They are both effective methods for increasing goal acceptance and performance under the proper conditions.

tell & sell

In the equity theory, equity and _________________________ are not the same.

Equality

2 Points about _______________ Theory. 1. It is perceived not actual equity 2. Equity and equality are not the same.

Equity

Organizational/Managerial Implications

1. Managers should keep in mind that MOTIVATION is generally determined by MULTIPLE needs. The belief that only one factor accounts for motivation is usually an oversimplification. 2. Managers must identify MOST important needs and LINK need satisfaction to good performance. So, according to this theory, an organization must be flexible and tailor the incentives 3. Managers need to realize needs change from time to time and from situation to situation. People will be at different levels at different times. 4. Managers need to CREATE a climate in which an employee can maximize his/her potential. 5. Failure to provide work-related opportunities for need satisfaction is likely to lead to employee frustration, reduced output, and increased turnover. 6. The theory implies implies that since most employees are motivated by higher-level needs, their jobs should be designed to allow these higher-level needs to be satisfied at work. This runs counter to the recent emphasis on simplification of jobs.

There are 4 types of Consequences

1. Positive Reinforcement 2. Negative Reinforcement 3. Extinction 4. Punishment

Equity Theory suggests several ways to restore unfavorable inequity to a state of equity:

1. Reduce QUANTITY of work. 2. Reduce QUALITY of work. 3. Convince boss to give you a raise. 4. Convince your co-worker (comparison other) to reduce his inputs/outcomes. 5. Quit your job. 6. Select a different comparison other (one that gives you a state of equity) 7. Distort your inputs or outcomes.

4 Points about Research Finding:

1. Research has NOT been able to find more than 2 to 3 needs, instead of 5. 2. People DON'T climb the hierarchy in the SAME progression. 3. Satisfaction does NOT reduce the drive for self-actualization-in fact, once people have self-actualized they want MORE. 4. They have found NO support that a highly satisfied need is no longer an important motivator of behavior. 5. Failure to provide work-related opportunities for need satisfaction is likely to lead to employee frustration, reduced output, and increased turnover.

4 Criticisms of Herzberg's Theory:

1. Some people's hygienes (pay, etc.) are other people's motivators. 2. The sample Herzberg based his theory on (Accountants and Engineers) is not representative of the total work force. Research has shown differences in work preferences of professional and nonprofessional employees. 3. The manner (interviews using the critical incidents technique) in which Herzberg gathered information for his theory was faulty. People attribute success to their own achievements (job context-hygiene factors). This is known as self-serving bias. 4. It is a one best-way theory of motivation. It assumes that all employees will be motivated by job enrichment.

There are 3 Basic Components of Reinforcement Theory:

1. Stimulus 2. Response (BEHAVIOR) 3. Reinforcement (CONSEQUENCE)

Organizational/Managerial Implications of Herzberg's Theory:

1. The 2-factor theory suggests that an employee can be satisfied and dissatisfied with his/her job at the same time. For example, a physical therapist may love her work (job content) but dislike the policies governing pay increases, continuing education, etc........(job context factors). 2. Managers when confronted with a motivational problem usually change job context or hygiene factors (such as pay). The result of this has often been that employees are still not motivated. Thus, managers may not be getting at the heart of the problem (job content or motivator factors). 3. Herzberg's 2 factor theory offers a direct, simple, and persuasive advice for certain jobs and employees: job redesign. Job redesign offers the promise of motivation due to its changing job content factors or motivators. Herzberg talks about job enrichment as a way to motivate employees.

Empirical Support Organizational/Managerial Implications: Same as those for Maslow's need hierarchy theory (see Maslow).

1. The frustration-regression postulate has major implication for managers who must motivate employees in unchallenging tasks that don't provide opportunities to satisfied relatedness and growth needs. According to the postulate, managers should provide tangible rewards (e.g. increased pay,/E needs) for satisfactory performance in relatively unchallenging jobs. In this way, a manager can still maintain MOTIVATION levels of the employee. It provides a more POSITIVE perspective than Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory for maintaining employee motivation in the face of unstimulating work demands (i.e., need frustration). With employees in this type of R and G needs Alderfer states they they will try to obtain additional satisfaction of E needs. So to motivate employees in jobs that frustrate R and G needs a manager needs to provide opportunities to obtain additional satisfaction of E needs. So to motivate employees in jobs that frustrate R and G needs a manager needs to provide opportunities to obtain additional satisfaction of E needs in order to motivate them, based up the frustration regression postulate.

2 Points about Equity Theory:

1. it is perceived not actual equity. 2. Equity and equality are not the same.

Basic postulates of ERG Theory are:

1. the MORE completely a concrete need is satisfied, the greater the desire is to satisfy the less concrete needs. and 2. the LESS completely a need is satisfied, the greater is the desire to have it satisfied.

1. The ___-factor theory suggests that an employee can be satisfied and dissatisfied with his/her job at the same time. For example, a physical therapist may love her work (job content) but dislike the policies governing pay increases, continuing education, etc........(job context factors).

2

With employees in this type of R and G needs _____________ states they they will try to obtain additional satisfaction of E needs. So to motivate employees in jobs that frustrate R and G needs a manager needs to provide opportunities to obtain additional satisfaction of E needs. So to motivate employees in jobs that frustrate R and G needs a manager needs to provide opportunities to obtain additional satisfaction of E needs in order to motivate them, based up the frustration regression postulate.

Alderfer

___________________ _____________ Theory is a modification and reformulation of Maslow's need hierarchy theory. As a result, these two theories are similar.

Alderfer's ERG

Given that participation does NOT fit with the managerial style of _____________ managers (managers who like to make all the work-related decisions alone), how can this manager assign goals (set goals) to her subordinates so that these goals are maximally accepted. The answer is that this type of manager: 1. Must not only tell subordinates what their goal is, but she must also sell them these goals. 2. The importance of the goals in terms of the subordinates performance, the work units' performance and the overall organization's performance 3. The value of these goals to the subordinate Through use of tell and sell, this type of manager can increase goal acceptance. 4. Research has shown that there is no significant difference than participation in goal setting and the tell and sell method of assigned goal setting in terms of goal acceptance or performance. They are both effective methods for increasing goal acceptance and performance under the proper conditions.

Autocratic

Reinforcement theory has been given the label _________________________________________ because it DOES NOT CARE about COGNITIVE PROCESSES (i.e. it does not care about what you are thinking or feeling)

BLACK BOX BEHAVIORISM

When the employee behaves in a manner that is "good" by your organization, you should provide the employee with positive consequences. On the other hand, when the employee behaves in a way deemed "bad" by your organization, you should provide the employee with no or negative consequences. In essence, you are managing transactions (exchanges) between the employee and the organization. Therefore, you are considered a transactional manager. This scenario also illustrates quite nicely the application of the LAW OF EFFECT.

BLACK BOX BEHAVIORISM

Criticism of __________________ ___________________ ___________________. 1. It focuses too much on extrinsic motivators (pay and promotion) and ignores intrinsic motivators (feelings of accomplishment). 2. It raises ethical concerns. Smacks of employee manipulation-exploitation of the worker. This theory of motivation is considered the most controversial theory for this very reason. 3. By maintaining that human behavior is controlled by external forces outside the individual and that conscious choice is thus irrelevant, it renders concepts such as free-will and moral responsibility meaningless.

Black Box Behaviorism

Research has shown that this theory has been successfully applied in organizations. It has been applied to grocery store clerks to reduce cash register shortages, to department store clerks to increase certain sales behaviors, to industrial organizations to increase safety behaviors, and to air freight business (Emory Air Freight) to increase the utilization of package containers to their full capacity.

Black Box Behaviorism

____________________ __________________ ______________________. This theory is more of a motivational technique than a theory for understanding motivation.

Black Box Behaviorism

Equity theory is also known as:

Cognitive Approach

A state of equity exists when the ratios are equal. So, people _________________ their outcomes/input ratios to other's outcome/input ratio.

Compare

The (p) is the individual with whom you are ________________.

Concerned

Alderfer states that the 3 needs (existence, relatedness, and growth) exist on a ____________________ continuum, with the existence of needs being the MOST CONCRETE and the growth needs being the LEAST concrete.

Concreteness

As a manager, you are a manager of _______________________.

Consequences

Managers need to ___________ a climate in which an employee can maximize his/her potential.

Create

According to Maslow, satisfaction of a need triggers _____________ at the next higher level.

Dissatisfaction

If a need were threatened then it would again become _____________________ and assume an important position in the person's motivational system.

Dominant

It provides a more POSITIVE perspective than Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory for maintaining employee motivation in the face of unstimulating work demands (i.e., need frustration).

Empirical Needs

Hygiene's are _______________ factors.

Entrinsic

OUTCOMESp=OUTCOMESo INPUTSs INPUTSo A state of equity exists when the ratio is ___________. So, people compare their outcomes/input ratios to other's outcomes/input ratio. The other (o) is the referent comparison. The person (p) is the individual with whom you are concerned.

Equal

Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory:

This belief includes: 1. PSYSIOLOGICAL need for food, water, air, and sex. 2. SAFETY need for security, stability, and freedom from fear or threat. 3. SOCIAL-need for friendship, affection, acceptance, and interaction with others. 4. ESTEEM-need for personal feelings of achievement, self-esteem, and recognition 5. SELF-ACTUALIZATION: a feeling of self-fulfillment or the realization of one's potential. (MAXIMUM personal motivation, the need for growth and development, be all that you can be) These 5 needs are arranged in a hierarchy.

This principle states that behaviors are followed by positive consequences tend to be repeated whereas behaviors that are followed by negative or no consequences will tend NOT to be repeated. Thus, the consequence or the effect of the behavior determines the behavior's frequency. PLEASE NOTE that whether a consequence is seen as positive or negative depends upon the person receiving that consequence. Remember one's person pain is another person's pleasure and VICE VERSA.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Alderfer proposes that people have ___ sets of needs.

Three

An _____________________ inequity example: A secretary A types faster, takes better shorthand, has worked for the company longer, has more experience as a secretary then Secretary B but gets paid LESS than secretary B. Secretary A has less outcomes and greater inputs than Secretary B thus Secretary's A's ratio is less than Secretary B's ratio. If our focus in Secretary A you have a case of unfavorable inequity. On the other hand, if our focus is Secretary B then you have a case of favorable inequity.

Unfavorable

________________ equity Example: is a secretary.

Unfavorable

___________________ is a type of inequity that hurts you.

Unfavorable

There are two types of inequity:

Unfavorable and favorable

According to Maslow, people are motivated by the lowest __________________ need in the hierarchy.

Unsatisfied

The less _______________ a need is satisfied, the greater is the desire to have it satisfied.

completely

Process:

concerned with HOW people are motivated.

Content:

concerned with WHAT motivates people.