ENGL 3630 - Final Study Guide

What word means "seeing again"?

Revision

What is the name given to the phase that children go through where they may understand most of the discourse addressed to them in a second language, but are unable to (or choose not to) respond?

The Silent Period

Once in a while in the Editing Stage, students change a correct spelling and make it incorrect, but they correct far more errors than they create.

True

Personal word books are great places for students to record words for things they want to write about but are likely not in a dictionary.

True

Second language learners, like first language learners, may overgeneralize plural formation or regularize irregular verbs.

True

Students between the ages of five and twelve may have a cognitive advantage over younger children because they are more mature and they already know a first language.

True

Students overwhelmingly prefer to look up the definition of words using online dictionaries rather than print resources.

True

Teachers should introduce Writing Center materials gradually so as not to overwhelm their students.

True

Teachers should limit the number of revision suggestions they make and should make all suggestions specific.

True

Teaching students how to use the Internet is a priority so that they can become fully involved in today's digital world.

True

The products of on-going assessment can serve the dual purpose of instruction and assessment.

True

The writing process is recursive, not linear.

True

Match each of the types of writing from the Collins Writing Program on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Type 1: Capture ideas D. Students write one draft to get a minimum number of ideas down on paper in a set amount of time. Writing is evaluated as complete or incomplete. Type 2: Respond correctly A. Students write one draft to demonstrate understanding. Writing is evaluated for correctness of ideas. Type 3: Edit for focus correction areas (FCAs) C. Students write a draft with attention to up to three targeted writing skills (e.g., topic sentence, conclusion, supporting details, content-specific vocabulary, varied sentence structure, punctuation). Writing is evaluated for content and relative to FCAs. Type 4: Peer edit for FCAs E. Like Type 3 writing but critiqued by a peer. Type 5: Publish B. Students produce a publishable piece. Writing is evaluated for content and form.

What does Weaver (1996) define as correctness, or using the appropriate word or phrase in a sentence or the socially preferred way of using language within a dialect?

Usage

It is important to correct all surface grammatical errors of English Language Learner's (ELLs) writing, since it will lead to significant improvement in subsequent writing tasks.

false

Like in English, the composition conventions in all languages dictate that a written composition must begin with a thesis in the first paragraph.

false

Normally in the editing stage, all errors are corrected. You should do the same for low-achieving students.

false

Overall, teachers can expect English Language Learners (ELLs) to write perfect papers every time.

false

Portfolios require very particular scoring procedures.

false

Students should never be involved in assessing their own writing and that of their peers.

false

Teachers should avoid talking about the similarities between the reading and writing processes because it just confuses students.

false

The English oral language skills of English Language Learners (ELLs) have the most impact on word-level writing skills.

false

There is no proven relationship between English Language Learners' (ELLs) ability to express themselves orally and their ability to express themselves in written English.

false

When working with low-achieving students in the drafting stage, you should emphasize correct spelling, capitalization, handwriting, and the appearance of the paper.

false

During which stage of the Writer's Workshop should students choose the final form, make a final copy of the writing, and share pieces by reading them aloud?

publishing stage

It is important that a text be 100% free of errors before it gets to the publishing stage.

false

Practicing using keyboarding software for how many minutes at a time can help children develop the skills they need?

10 to 15 minutes

How long did it take the Internet to reach a user base of 50 million people?

4 years

What percentage of writing time does Murray (1982) believe should be spent on prewriting?

70%

Books read with what percentage of accuracy while conducting a running record are considered to be at the frustration level and generally are not appropriate for either guided or independent reading?

89% or less

Books read at what percentage of accuracy while conducting a running record are considered to be at the student's instructional level?

90-94% accuracy

Match the type of sentence on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

A Simple Sentence B. A sentence that contains only one independent clause. A Compound Sentence A. A sentence that has two or more independent clauses. A Complex Sentence D. A sentence that contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. A Compound-Complex Sentence C. A sentence that has two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

What are the two parts that a sentence must have?

A Subject and a Predicate

Match the type of on-going assessment on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Anecdotal Notes: These are teacher notes describing a child's behavior. In addition to the child's name, the date, and the classroom area, the specific event or product should be described exactly as it was seen and heard. Vignettes or Teacher Reflections: Recordings of recollections of significant events make after the fact, when the teacher is free from distractions; are prepared some time after a behavior has occurred and are based on a teacher's memory of the event. Checklists: Observational aids that specify which behaviors to look for and provide a convenient system for keeping records; can make observations more systematic and easier to conduct. Running Records: Essentially a visual recording of the student's reading word by word, enabling a teacher to identify the reading strategies the student may or may not be using and the types of errors the student makes while reading.

What do Britton, Burgess, Martin, McLeod, and Rosen (1975) define as "the manner in which the writer expresses a relationship with the reader in respect to the writer's understanding"?

Audience

What is the name that Graves and Hansen (1983) give to a specially-designated place that students can use to read their stories to their classmates?

Author's Chair

Which of Cummings (1994) two complementary systems are those aspects of language proficiency that are cognitively undemanding and include known ideas, vocabulary, and syntax, and are used in daily routine communicative exchanges?

BICS

Neurolinguistics findings indicate that children who acquire a second before what age will behave like native speakers?

Before the age of five

Which of Cummings (1994) two complementary systems are those aspects of language proficiency are necessary for literacy obtainment and academic success and enable students to have academic, analytical conversation and to independently acquire factual information?

CALP

What type of approach did Emig (1971) use to research her subject's approach to the composing process?

Case-Study

What was the name given to the first modern theory of the composing process?

Cognitive-Process Theory

What is the name, given by Steven Krashen, to modified language that is just a little bit beyond a child's current capabilities?

Comprehensive Input

Match the types of categories that can be found on a checklist on the left-hand side with the types of observations that can be made in each category on the right-hand side.

Concepts about Books: Identify the front, back, top, and bottom of a book; turn the pages of a book correctly, holding the book upright; point to where a reader begins reading on a page. Conventions of Print: Show that a reader reads left to right with return sweeps; find a requested letter or provide the letter's name; ask questions or make comments about letters. Comprehension of Stories: Answer and ask literal questions about story; say new words and dialogue from story; connect information in stories to events in his/her life. Attitude Toward Books: Participate in book-sharing routine with caregiver; listen attentively to a variety of genres; ask adults to read to him/her.

Writers should be sure to revise their rough drafts immediately after finishing them.

False

Under which type of validity are the constructs concurrent and predictive validity included.

Criterion Validity

The purpose of these assessments is to compare student scores against specific criteria such as reading curriculum goals, lesson objectives, or benchmark standards.

Criterion-referenced Assessments

The goal of these tests is for all students to demonstrate mastery of the information and skills they have been taught.

Criterion-referenced Tests

You should specify that all writing tasks will be formally assessed.

False

Match the sentence purpose type on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Declarative Sentences B. They make statements. Interrogative Sentences D. They ask questions. Imperative Sentences C. They issue commands. Exclamatory Sentences A. They communicate strong emotion or surprise.

What type of usage error is a student making when they say "I don't got none" or "Joe didn't see nobody"?

Double Negative

Which of the 12 principles of Portfolio development allows writers to "present a series of drafts leading to an exemplary final product, enabling them to represent their processes as writers and readers as reflected in sequential iterations of their products"?

Evolution Over Time

Match each of the functional category proposed by Britton and his colleagues on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Expressive Writing: The most natural type of writing, meant to express ideas to a known audience. Poetic Writing: A complex discourse between the self and a subject and deals with audience only peripherally. Transactional Writing: It communicates information, but it places the writer in a passive role and engages her in a complex relationship with the audience.

What is the name that Emig gives to the formal writing sponsored by the teacher?

Extensive writing

Match the type of validity in writing assessment on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Face Validity C. Is achieved by ensuring that teachers and students perceive that the instrument measures what it purports to measure. Construct Validity E. Refers to theoretical claims that factors such as development, organization, and issues of grammar and mechanics are major components of proficiency in writing; requires us to measure composing skills by setting writing tasks and assessing the features that we have decided to measure. Criterion Validity D. Indicates how strongly an instrument's results correlate with some external (and more concrete) measure, other than another test. Content Validity A. Implies that a test measures what it is supposed to measure; elicits writing that allows the reader to see a sufficient and accurate sample of what the writer can do with the key ideas and skills to be mastered. Consequential Validity B. Entails the ethical, ideological, social, and economic impact that assessment results may have on students' motivation, attitudes, aspirations, educational progress, and career prospects.

BICS is more challenging than CALP because it takes more time to develop.

False

In the drafting stage, students should be sure to write slowly, being careful not to make any spelling errors.

False

It is highly recommended that teachers avoid using digital readers (e-readers) with students who have disabilities and special needs, such as visual impairments, and with English learners and struggling students.

False

It is impossible to engage students in literacy activities like learning how to take notes through a digital reader.

False

Mechanical skills are best taught during the drafting stage.

False

Online materials are always linear and sequential.

False

Parent-Teacher Conferences should feature a one-way exchange of information - from teacher to parent.

False

Teachers should avoid using a biliterate approach if at all possible, since it only confuses the student.

False

Teachers should avoid using nonverbal communication, such as gestures or mimes, in the classroom.

False

The "standardization" of on-demand assessments causes a decrease in the reliability of the assessment.

False

The current preferred term for students who are acquiring English as a Second Language is "limited English proficient."

False

The results of on-going assessment are not immediately available, so they have no immediate effect on instruction for each child.

False

The goal of these ongoing assessments is to help teachers identify what students have learned during and after instruction and to decide who may need assistance and with which strategies and skills.

Formative Assessments

According to Graves (2004), how much time should children be given to write daily?

Forty-five to sixty minutes per day

What does Weaver (1996) define as the description of the syntax or structure of a language and prescriptions for its use, involving the principles of word and sentence formation?

Grammar

In writing, children using word processors do which of the following:

Have fewer fine motor control problems

Match the type of scoring rubric in writing assessment on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Holistic Rubric B. Rates or ranks writing proficiency as reflected in a given sample; may be comprised of four to ten levels or bands; each band corresponds to a score, a set of descriptors, and benchmark writing samples. Analytic Rubric D. Relies on a rating scale that separates textual features and predetermines their weight; components such as content, organization, cohesion, style, vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and mechanics are pre-assigned a maximum numerical value, with decreasing step scales or bands described within each component. Primary-Trait Rubric A. Focuses on only one salient facet at a time, such as the development of an argument, but not any other facets. Multiple-Trait Rubric C. Focuses on several facets at a time, usually three or four, such as content, structure, and language, but not any other facets.

Match the Internet term on the left-hand side with its definition on the right-hand side.

Hypertext B. What Internet users use to navigate from page to page. Hyperlinks D. The elements that enable users to move on the web and find the information they seek. Uniform Resource Locator C. The more formal name for a website address. A Hit A. What each source that is identified through a keyword search is called.

Match the genre of writing on the left-hand side to the types of writing found in that genre on the right-hand side.

Informational Writing: Autobiographies; biographies; directions; interviews; reports Narrative Writing: Original short stories; personal narratives; retelling of stories; sequels to stories; scripts of stories Persuasive Writing: Advertisements; book and movie reviews; commercials; opinion pieces; persuasive letters Poetry Writing: Acrostic poems; five senses poems; found poems; free verse

What were the "Pre-writing" theories of Rohman and Wlecke primarily concerned with?

Invention

Match the grade level on the left-hand side with the example activities that can be included at that level on the right-hand side.

Kindergarten through Grade 2 B. Language Experience Stories; Interactive Group Stories; Alphabet Books; Community Journals; "All about Me" books; "All about Us" books; Content-Area Topic Books; Riddle Projects. Grades 3 through 5 C. Autobiographies; Biographies; Mini-Research Reports; Timelines; Stories; Newspapers; Scripts; Poetry Forms. Grades 6 through 8 A. Reports in the Content Areas; Expressive Writing; Newsletters; Editorials; Posters and Advertisements; Storyboards.

What type of usage error is a student making when they say "we was" or "he don't"?

Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

Match each of the unique characteristics of online texts on left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Non-linearity: Hypertext lacks the familiar organization of books; its dynamic and can be used in a variety of ways; readers impose a structure that fits their own needs. Multiple modalities: Online texts integrate words, images, and sounds to create meaning. Intertextuality: Many related texts are available on the Internet, and they influence and shape each other. Interactivty: Web pages often include features that engage readers and allow them to customize their searches, link to other websites, play games, listen to video clips, and send emails.

Match the writing activity on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Modeled Writing C. Teacher produces a text in enlarged print on a writing easel, white board, chalk board, overhead projector, or on a computer projected on a screen; the teacher controls the pen and writes the text on her own. Shared Writing D. The teacher controls the pen and acts as a scribe, allowing students to dictate the text and make decisions about the content, vocabulary, conventions, grammar, and style. Guided Writing A. Teacher guides students through a particular writing activity designed to address an area of need within students' writing development; typically starts with a mini-lesson on some aspect of writing. Students then practice the writing principle or strategy they were just taught, under the teacher's supervision, and then share their final written projects. Interactive Writing B. The students and teacher compose the text together; the students share the pen; the teacher begins by guiding the class to form a sentence; then, one word at a time, the teacher helps the students write each word of the sentence slowly.

Match the Internet strategy on left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Navigate: Search for and locate information. Co-author: Impose an organization on the information they are reading. Evaluate: Check the accuracy, relevance, and quality of information on webpages. Synthesize: Combine information from multiple texts.

What is the name of the movement from the 1960s that helped to create the breakthrough for understanding the importance of teaching the composing process?

New Education Movement

What is the term used to describe the requirement that today's students need to become proficient in new ways of accessing, understanding, and communicating information?

New literacies

What type of usage error is a student making when they say "hisself" or "them books"?

Nonstandard Pronoun Form

The purpose of these assessments is to compare an individual student's test scores to another group of students who took the same test.

Norm-referenced Assessments

These standardized tests can be used to determine whether a school's curriculum reflects national expectations of what children should know at a specific grade level and to compare students to one another.

Norm-referenced Tests

Match the part of speech on the left-hand side with its definition on the right-hand side.

Noun A word used to name something - a person, a place, or a thing. Pronoun E. A word used in place of a noun. Adjective D. A word used to describe a noun or pronoun. G. A word used to show action or state of being. B. A word or group of words used to show position, direction, or how two words or ideas are related to each other. Conjunction C. A word used to connect words and groups of words. Interjection F. A word or phrase used to express strong emotion and set off by commas or an exclamation point.

Match the language skill on the left-hand side with the strategies and tools that are used to teach the skill on the right-hand side.

Oral Language: Skype; podcasts; presentation software Visual Learning Tools: Virtual field trips; online art resources; visual language software; digital learning games Teaching Vocabulary: Word Clouds; crossword puzzles; comic strips; video clips; scavenger hunts Reading Stories: WebQuests; Digital Storytelling; Literature Focus Units Websites

Match each of the major cognitive operations proposed by Flower and Hayes on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Planning A. Consists of generating information, organizing ideas, and setting various goals. Translating B. Expresses the planned material in the visible language of acceptably written language. C. Involves evaluating and revising the written text to improve its quality.

Which of the 12 principles of Portfolio development allows writers to "explain their learning, how portfolio entries evolved, how entries compare to one another, and how writing has enhanced their literacy skills"?

Reflection

What is the name that Emig gives to the personal writing initiated by the student?

Reflexive writing

This refers to the trustworthiness or dependability of results obtained from assessment administrations given to the same set of students under different circumstances.

Reliability

Match the stage of spelling development on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Precommunicative Stage Children are aware of the purposes of writing but lack the concept of "word" and that words can be divided into phonemes; use scribbles, letter-like forms, and alphabet symbols to represent words. Semiphonetic Stage Children understand that letters represent sounds in words; they begin to use letter spellings to make the association between letters and sounds, making closer approximations to true spelling but omitting major sounds. Phonetic Stage Children are able to represent all the surface sound features of words and spell words they way they sound to them; they have invented a system of phonetic spelling, based on their awareness that letters and words represent sounds. Transitional Stage Children begin to spell conventionally at this stage; in addition to being able to spell based on their awareness of how words sound, they can now spell based on their awareness of how words look; their invented spelling is interspersed with correct spelling. Conventional Stage Children are beginning to spell correctly; their knowledge of word meanings is growing; they are better able to use complicated vowel patterns; however, they are probably still struggling with consonant doubling and word affixes, but have mastered root words, past tense, and short vowels. Morphemic and Syntactic Stage Children increasingly understand how meaning and grammatical structure controls spelling in English; they are better at doubling consonants and spelling alternate forms of the same word and at using word endings; are able to use knowledge of the importance of meaning and syntax in spelling.

Which Principle of Classroom Reading Development states that it is your job as a teacher to locate where each child is in his or her development so you can offer appropriate instruction to continue growth and fill in any learning gaps?

Principle 1: The Teacher's Goal is to Find Out What Children Can Do

Which Principle of Classroom Reading Development states that if you know the highest level reading skills that your students can do alone (X), then you can accurately predict which reading skill they should learn next (Y) with your assistance?

Principle 4: Analyze Students' Assessment Results Using If-Then Thinking

What is the name of the process where students read their rough drafts to locate and mark possible errors?

Proofreading

Sommers (1979) argued that since we can see significant recurring patterns in composing, we can hypothesize that the composing process is both linear and ___________?

Recursive

During which stage of the Writer's Workshop should students share and draw on their own experiences, read or listen to stories read aloud, generate ideas and organize thinking, talk over ideas with others, and brainstorm ideas?

Rewriting stage

Match each of the four Purposes of Reading Assessment on the left-hand side to its description on the right-hand side.

Screening Assessment: Are administered to all students to provide a portrait of where students are in their reading development, as well as any preexisting deficits that may put them at risk for making inadequate progress. Diagnostic Assessment: Purpose is to help teachers identify specific reading problems so they can plan appropriate instructional interventions. Progress-Monitoring Assessment: Teachers assess student progress at least three times during the school year at predetermined intervals. Outcomes Assessment: Used to determine the overall effectiveness of the literacy program for all students.

Match the activity recommended by Killgallon (1997; 1998) on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Sentence Unscrambling A. Teachers choose a sentence from a book students are reading and divide it into phrases. They present the phrases in random order, and students try to duplicate the author's original order by rearranging the phrases and unscrambling the sentence. Then students compare their rearrangement with the author's. Sentence Imitating C. Students choose a sentence with an interesting structure to imitate from a book students are reading. Then students create a new sentence on a new topic that imitates the structure and style of the original sentence. Sentence Combining D. Students combine and rearrange words in sentences to make the sentences longer and more conceptually dense. Sentence Expanding B. Teachers choose a rich sentence from a book students are reading and present an abridged version. Then students expand it, taking care that the words and phrases they add blend in with the author's style.

What do experts call learning a second language after the age of five?

Sequential Bilingualism

What do experts call learning two languages from birth to roughly five years of age?

Simultaneous Bilingualism

According to theorists like Bruffee and Bizzell, even when a writer seems to be just trying to get down some ideas, seemingly heedless of the audience, she is functioning within a _____________ context?

Social

Match the stage of the writing process on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Stage One - Prewriting The getting-ready-to-write stage, where writers start the writing process before they've completely thought out their topic. Stage Two - Drafting The stage where students get their ideas down on paper and write on every other line to leave space for revisions. Stage Three - Revising The stage where students clarify and refine the ideas in their compositions. Stage Four - Editing The stage where students polish their compositions, where the focus changes from content to mechanics. Stage Five - Publishing The stage where students bring their compositions to life by sharing them with classmates, parents, or community members.

Match the type of reliability in writing assessment on the left-hand side with its description on the right-hand side.

Student-related Reliability C. Involves students' psychological and physical state and general readiness to face the cognitive demands of academic tasks such as writing. Inter-rater Reliability B. Entails how closely the scores assigned by two or more raters agree. Test Reliability A. Involves features of the writing task, such as content, format, length, and the comprehensibility of task directions.

The goal of these assessments, which are used after the fact (post-teaching), is to make decisions about the effectiveness of the teaching strategies used.

Summative Assessments

What type of methodology did Emig (1971) use to research her subject's approach to the composing process?

Think-Aloud

Because technology resources make word study fun, students are more likely to spend more time studying targeted words and to deepen their level of vocabulary knowledge.

True

Children who learn a language after puberty (age 12 or 13) tend to speak a second language with an accent.

True

During a Parent-Teacher Conference, when areas of concern are discussed, it is important to provide examples of the child's work or review the observational data to illustrate the point.

True

For English Language Learners, it is important to measure content knowledge without the interference of language, especially when assessing ELLs who are at lower levels of English proficiency.

True

For older learners, literature-based reading instruction can exemplify how written language is used and can thus contribute to grammatical and pragmatic knowledge.

True

On-demand assessments are administered, scored, and interpreted the same way for all test takers.

True

In writing assessment, this refers broadly to the extent to which an instrument truly measures what it is intended to measure.

Validity

This refers to the degree to which an assessment actually measures what it is claiming to measure.

Validity

What is the name of the activity that has students use the Internet to discover answers to questions and allows teachers to plan specific tasks that engage students in analyzing information and demonstrating their understanding of it?

WebQuest

What is another term that is used for on-going assessment?

Work Sampling

Which of the 12 principles of Portfolio development "promotes revision, encouraging students to assume responsibility for their learning by giving them control over how they manage their time"?

delayed evaluation

During which stage of the Writer's Workshop should students put their ideas down on paper, focus on meaning rather than conventions, try out possibilities, and talk over drafts with others?

drafting stage

During which stage of the Writer's Workshop should students proofread, rephrase and refine, check spelling, punctuation, capitalization, usage, form and legibility, and correct the draft to create a final copy?

editing stage

What does the National Writing Project (2010) define as "a compilation of a writer's products, displayed in the form of a Web site, slideshow, or other form of multimedia"?

electronic

Collection is the source of a Portfolio's greater type of which validity?

face validity

According to Martinez and Teale (1987), teachers should always use lined paper when teaching young children how to write.

false

All English Language Learners (ELLs) are familiar with the Roman alphabet.

false

All language transfer from an English Language Learner's first language is "positive" transfer.

false

All writing experts are in agreement that teachers should always assign a topic for students to write about in their Journals.

false

Children dislike sharing their writing with their peers.

false

Definitions must be included with the word in a Personal Word Book.

false

During Shared Writing, the teacher should be sure to just write whatever the students say and how they say it, errors and all.

false

In general, low-achieving students tend to have compositions that are long and wordy.

false

Invented spelling is something that must be explicitly taught.

false

In writing assessment, this refers to the consistency with which a writing sample - traditionally called a test of writing - is assigned the same rank or score after multiple ratings by trained elevators.

reliability

During which stage of the Writer's Workshop should students rethink what they've written, share with others in a reader's circle, conference with the teacher and other students, clarify meaning, and expand ideas?

revising stage

A word wall should be built up throughout the year.

true

According to Leki (1992), a good way to view English Language Learner's (ELLs) grammatical errors is to view second language writing as a kind of foreign accent.

true

As a general rule, journal writing should not be corrected.

true

Children want, and need, to talk to their teachers about their writing.

true

During Interactive Writing, the teacher should not worry about handwriting.

true

During the drafting stage, students should be taught not to spend time worrying about spelling or grammar.

true

During the planning stage, you should have younger low-achieving students use drawing to encapsulate their ideas, because drawing provides them with a stable prompt for suggesting what details they might develop and that taps into another dimension, helping them retrieve details they might not have thought of.

true

During the revising stage, you should demonstrate to low-achieving students the shortcuts they can take.

true

During writing conferences, low-achieving students may reveal the process they are using in their writing, the struggles they are having, and the personal perceptions that may hinder their progress.

true

English Language Learners (ELLs) need ample opportunities to use language in context.

true

For English Language Learners (ELLs) who come from cultures where students conform to the group, sharing personal opinions poses difficulties.

true

If the handwriting of low-achieving students is a serious problem, you can have students dictate their pieces or use a word processor if they have adequate keyboarding skills.

true

It is important to let low-achieving students know that the piece they are writing is ultimately the writer's responsibility.

true

Low-achieving students find writing even more difficult than reading.

true

Modeled writing is an effective tool for teaching new vocabulary to students within a meaningful and authentic context.

true

Reading and writing are reciprocal processes.

true

Reading contributes to students' writing development and writing contributes to students' reading development.

true

Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of teaching spelling every day as part of a student-centered approach to teaching language skills.

true

Research suggests that letter formation and spelling skills may most easily transfer for those literate students whose native language, such as Spanish, French, German, or Tagolog, uses the same alphabet as English.

true

Sentence level errors by English Language Learners (ELLs) may be influenced by their primary [native] language(s).

true

Since low-achieving students may have limited experience selecting topics, teachers should model the process for them.

true

Students should be given options from which to select when compiling their Portfolio collection.

true

Students should include the date on each entry when writing in their Journals.

true

Teachers can demonstrate how expert writers write by talking through what they are doing as they write.

true

Teachers may need to restrict the time spent on assessing each piece of writing to a fixed period, for example, 15 to 20 minutes per sample.

true

The writing development process for English Language Learners (ELLs) is similar to the process for native English speakers.

true

What is appropriate for a fifth grade student born in the United States may not be appropriate for a 10- or 11-year-old refugee English Language Learner student.

true