English Language- Child Language Acquisition key terms, English Language: Language Levels, English Language: An analysis of Spoken Language, English Language: Rhetorical Language Features, English Language: Mode and Computer Mediated Communication (C...

Richard Gentry's (1987) *stage one* of spelling acquisition

*Precommunicative stage/ non alphabetic writing*: random letters and symbols appear on a page with no letter to sound connection

Barry Kroll's (1981) *first stage* of writing development

*Preparation (0-6)*: basic motor skills are learnt alongside the principles of spelling

Give an example of sentences using the directive function

"Door!" uses the exclamatory mood to get someone to shut a door; "I want that pen" uses the declarative mood to get someone to give the pen.

Jeanne Chall's *stage three* of reading development

*Reading for learning (9-14)*: reading for knowledge and information becomes the motivation

Richard Gentry's (1987) *stage two* of spelling acquisition

*Semi-phonetic stage/ partial alphabetic writing*: letters might be used to represent whole words. Writing will generally be formed from left to right and there is some letter to sound connection

What did Bellugi suggest as the third stage of negative formation in children

Children are then able to attach the negative particle to an auxiliary verb or the verb 'to be'

What to look for in data which may support usage based theory

"Joint attention" between adult/child - interacting together on a shared task Adults using repeated sentence frames (structure) that provide children with constructions they can then adopt/edit themselves Children using sentence frames but adapting them to their needs - 'slot and frame'

What did Daniel Lefkowitz say in respect to CLA?

"One of the most amazing things about language is the way that children learn it in the first few years of their life. By the time children reach 3-5 years of age they have mastered most of what is complicated to learn about a language - no matter what language"

Richard Gentry's (1987) *stage four* of spelling acquisition

*Transitional stage*: spelling will combine phonetic approaches as well as visual approaches. Silent letters might start to be acknowledged within words

Give an example of utterances used in the Telegraphic stage

- "daddy swing me" - "want nice milk"

Give examples of speech associated with the Two-Word stage

- "look mummy" - "on head" - "she cold" - "build tower"

What cases are there against Cognitive Theory?

- 'fis' experiment suggests that a child's cognitive understanding can be present but their physical development still impacts their ability to use language - Recent Harvard University research (Professor Elizabeth Spelke) - concepts like number and object permanence are actually there from birth ('core knowledge') - not gradually learnt as Piaget proposed

Is punctuation used in transcripts?

No

Label the clause elements in these children's utterances: Mummy eat breakfast

S V O

What are the pre-verbal stages of speech acquisition?

- Vegetative stage - Cooing stage - Babbling stage - Proto-words stage

Example of categorical overextension

"apple" for all fruits

2nd stage of negation acquisition

"no" and "not" move inside the sentence

The two main types of semantic errors:

- over-extension - under-extension

What are the 3 variables of personal pronouns

- person (1st/2nd/3rd) - number (plural/singular) - case (subject, object)

Inversion

"where daddy gone" --> "where is daddy" the noun and verb or auxiliary verb switch places

Describe what a verb is:

'Doing words'. Might be dynamic (jump) or stative (believe). Might come with auxilaries (will be jumping). Often the second element of a sentence. It will often add inflections (-s, -ed) to change its tense etc...

Non-lexical onomatopoeia

'Non-words' that nonetheless are intended to signify some meaning through their sound.

What did Bruner (1978) say about scaffolding?

'[Scaffolding] refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of acquiring'

What are common features of the written mode?

- planned & drafted - monologue - formal - permanent - asynchronous - standard English - complex sentences

Jeanne Chall's *stage zero* of reading development

*Pre-reading and pseudo reading (0-6)*: when children pretend to read by turning pages and showing physical signs of reading while repeating stories. There may be some letter and word recognition.

Ritualised activities

(repeated 'performed' actions) e.g. Peek a Boo, bedtime stories, mealtimes

Jeanne Chall's *stage two* of reading development

*Confirmation and fluency (7-8)*: children can learn texts more quickly, accurately and fluently . They pay more attention to the meaning of words and texts. Around 3,000 words understood

Barry Kroll's (1981) *second stage* of writing development

*Consolidation (7-8)*: writing is similar to spoken language. In this stage, children have not fully understood the dynamics of writing are different from speech

Jeanne Chall's *stage five* of reading development

*Construction and reconstruction (18+)*: reading selectively and forming opinions on what they have just read

Richard Gentry's (1987) *stage five* of spelling acquisition

*Conventional stage/ correct spelling*: difficult spellings have been learnt and words with alternative spellings are known

Barry Kroll's (1981) *third stage* of writing development

*Differentiation (9-10)*: children understand that there is a difference between writing features and spoken features of language. They develop a strong understanding of audience and purpose

Requesting

*Dores language functions*: asking for something to be done for them

Calling

*Dores language functions*: getting attention by shouting

Greeting

*Dores language functions*: greeting someone or something

Labelling

*Dores language functions*: naming a person, thing or object

Protesting

*Dores language functions*: rejecting requests from others

Repeating

*Dores language functions*: repeating an adult word or utterance

Answering

*Dores language functions*: responding to an utterance to another speaker

Practising

*Dores language functions*: using language with no adult present

Regulatory

*Halliday's function of speech*: language is used to infuence the behavours of others

Imaginative

*Halliday's function of speech*: language to explore the imagination

Interactional

*Halliday's function of speech*: language used to develop social releationships and ease the process of interaction

Representational

*Halliday's function of speech*: language used to exchange information

Personal

*Halliday's function of speech*: language used to express personal preferences and identity e.g. I like

Heuristic

*Halliday's function of speech*: language used to learn and explore the environment

Instrumental

*Halliday's function of speech*: when language is used to fufil a need on part of the speaker

Jeanne Chall's *stage one* of reading development

*Initial reading and decoding (6-7)*: children can read simple texts containing high frequency lexis, starting the process to learn the relationship between phonemes and graphemes. Around 600 words known.

Barry Kroll's (1981) *fourth stage* of writing development

*Integration (mid teens)*: individuals writing is controlled and they are able to make appropriate linguistic choices

Jeanne Chall's *stage four* of reading development

*Multiplicity and complexity (14-17)*: responding critically to what they have read and analysing the texts

Tomasello's Usage-Based Theory

*Nurture Inspired *Children attend to and understand other people's intentions and then imitate other person's intentional communicative actions to learn language. • Usage-based theories put less emphasis on language instinct - it is not a 'special instinct' • So language is no different from any other kind of skill (Chomsky said it was) • Learning language is more to do with the human instinct to be co-operative and sociable • We are still active learners • Adult input is important

Richard Gentry's (1987) *stage three* of spelling acquisition

*Phonetic stage/ full alphabetic writing*: spelling will be based on the sound of words

What studies limit behaviourist theory?

- 'fis' phenomenon suggests that children can hear and understand the correct pronounciation but simply can't produce it themselves at that stage - Skinner's research on positive and negative reinforcement was conducted on rats and pigeons not humans - Skinner was thinking more generally about human behaviour, not specifically about language development - it's more of a philosophical idea than one closely tied to language evidence/data

What studies support nativism?

- 'wug' test; suggests that children are able to apply grammatical rules and have an understanding

Give an example of 'adverbs of time';

- (I'll meet you) soon - (He spoke to me) after several minutes

Give an example of 'adverbs of place';

- (The gate creaked) at the bottom - (The cat is stuck) up the tree

Give an example of 'adverbs of frequency';

- (The man walked) rarely - (The dog had a walk) sometimes

Give an example of 'adverbs of manner';

- (The man walked) slowly - (The children stared) with great unease

What are are the 2 sub-catergories of common nouns?

- Abstract nouns (they refer to general ideas or concepts) - Concrete nouns (they can be seen or touched)

Cases that support Cognitive theory

- Brown's morphemes - Bellugi's stages of pronoun and negative formations

What are the arguments against behaviourist theory?

- CLA too fast and complex to be explained as a limitation - A child will only verbalise something when they understand its meaning - children do not always respnd to correction or reinforcement from adults - CLA comes from innate structures which are similar in any langauge (universal grammar) - children make phonological errors for physiological reasons e.g. the vocal tract is not formed - children need to develop at similar rates regardless of levels of interaction - children say something they're unlikely to have heard an adult say

Arguments against social interactionist theory

- Children that come from cultures which do not promote interaction with children (e.g. samoa) can still become articulate and fluent language users without adult imput - Children's language acquisition is too fast and too complex for itneraction alone to account for it - Children learn at similar rates

What are the 3 types of multi-clausal sentences?

- Compound sentences (formed through coordination) - Complex sentences (formed through subordination) - Compound-complex sentences

What studies can be used against nativism?

- Genie; challenges Chomsky's early argument that acquiring language is innate as it shows that some interaction is necessary to fully develop language

Cases that support Social Interactionist Theory

- Halliday's research into the functions of language supports the importance of social interaction - Vincent, a hearing child born to deaf parents, learned to communicate using sign language. As a hearing child he enjoyed watching television, but ignored the sounds. He did not start to speak until he went to school, where people talked to him (suggesting that language only develops when there is a need to speak and environments which encourage social interaction)

What are negative politeness strategies? (NEGATIVE FACE)

- Hedging (er... could you, er, perhaps, close the, um window) - Form 'V' function (Would you close the window) - Deference (Excuse me sir/Dr Jones woudl you mind...) - Apologising (I'm terribly sorry to put you out, but would you mind) - Impersonalising (The management requires all windows to be closed) - Hint dropping (It's a tad cold in here) - Indirectness (I'm looking for a pen) - Asking for forgiveness (You must forgive me but...) - Pluralising responsibility (It looks like some of us haven't understood)

What are the Verbal stages of speech acquisition?

- Holophrastic stage - Two-Word stage - Telegraphic stage - Post-Telegraphic stage

What are the basic functions of speech according to Halliday's Taxonomy

- Instumental - Regulatory - Interactional

What is divergence?

- Occurs when people's speech styles move further apart - Has the effect of emphasising the distance between peopele

What is convergence?

- Occurs when we move our speech closer to that of the other person - It has the effect of decreasing the social distance between speakers

What are the advanced functions of speech according to Haliday's Taxonomy?

- Personal - Representational (Informative) - Heuristic - Imaginative

What did Wareing suggest was the three main types of power and explain

- Political Power (comes from the state e.g. governmental role) - Personal Power (comes from a role e.g. job, parent, friend) - Social Group Power (comes from a variable such as age, gender, ethnicity or class)

What are the different types of nouns?

- Proper nouns (denoted by the use of capital letters) - Common nouns (refer to a whole class of things)

How can questions be formed?

- Rising intonation - Add auxiliary verb 'did' with the past tense transferred from the main verb ('you saw') - wh' question word added to create an open question - Inversion of S and V - (tag question)

What was the effect of Genie's ability to use language as a result of her isolation?

- She eventually learned to recognise many words and speak in basic sentences. Eventually she was able to string together two word combinations like 'big teeth' then three word 'small two cup'. She didn't however, learn to ask questions and didn't develop a language system that allowed her to understand English grammar. - Four years after she began stringing word together, she is still unable to speak fluently. As an adult she speak in short, mangled sentences like 'father hit leg' 'big wood' and 'Genie hurt' which when pieced together can be understood. - She initially learnt lots of words, but acquiring grammar was a skill she could never master - Lack of contact/stimulation meant her brain (left hemisphere - language) had lost its ability to use language in an adult way.

What should be considered when analysing graphology?

- Use of space - Layout - Colours - Fonts/ Typography - Images

What to look for in data for Nativism?

- Virtuous errors (eg goed, mouses) - evidence that children are able to think for themselves and not merely copy what they've heard - Children resist correction - don't just copy - something more going on - Children fitting into predictable patterns for acquiring language - follodwing predictable stages (despite all having differing inputs from adults) - Children produce combination of words they've never heard before (eg at 2 word stage)

Give some examples of the discourse conventions you'd expect in a CMC

- abbreviation/shortening of words - usernames - lack of proper capitalisation/punctuation - advertisements (graphology) - low register - semantic field relevent to the sites focus - many participants (from around the world) - a report button - expect it to be more synchronous than the written mode - non-standard spelling/grammar - headers on tabs for ease of use

What are the lexical features of CMC?

- acronyms - intialism - blend - compound - clipping - conversion - phonetic spelling - letter/number homophone - paralinguistic restituton

What are the structural features (turn-taking) of spoken language?

- adjacency pairs - overlap - interruption - question types - speaker select - discourse marker - back channelling

What are the main three types of word formations by children?

- affixation - conversion - compounding

What might Lakoff's maxims of politeness lead to?

- apologising and giving explanations to lessen the imposition of requests (e.g. I'm sorry to bther you) - forming elaborate questions when out function is basically a request so as to give the hearer the option of complying or refusing (e.g. 'would you mind opening the door?'/'it's entirely up to you'/'i won't be offended if you don't want to' - using praise, thanks, approval and other expressions of solidarity to make our hearers feel good e.g. 'what would i do without you>'/'I'd really like your advice on this'.

Arguments for Cognitive Theory

- can't grasp aspects of language until they are ready; stages of development supports this - produce utterances which increase in complexity as they work towards mastering a rule

What are the three types of over-extension?

- categorical - analogical - mismatch/predicate statements

What are the arguments for 'Nativism'?

- children experience the same stages of development at the same pace - children resist correction - children create forms of language that adults don't use (overgeneralisation) (intelligent mistakes) - children make their own rules for language use that seem to undertsand that all languages have grammatical rules - The human vocal tract is more sophisticated than that of other animals - speakers off all languages are born with the ability to learn grammatical functions (universal grammar)

Arguments against nativism:

- children learn rules gradually, not all at the same time - children eventually stop making intelligent mistakes - children need skills other than grammar (e.g. politeness, understanding, language in context(pragmatics)) which develop through interaction - children deprived of proper care develop language at a slower rate

Arguments against Cognitive theory

- children with cognitive difficulties can still manage to use language beyond their understanding - children acquire language without having an understanding of it, particularly during the early stages of development

List the types of phonological errors:

- deletion - substitution - addition - assimilation - reduplication - consonant cluster reductions - deletion of unstressed syllables - final consonant deletion - simplification of 'th'

What grammatical features are in spoken language?

- ellipsis - non-standard grammar - We talk in utterances not sentences: sentences are a convention of writing and there are no clear sentecence boundaries in spoken language

Arguments for CDS

- encourages children to develop their language into the more standard form - helps the child to learn the right pronunciation of certain words/phrases

What are non-fluency features?

- fillers - hedging - unintentional repetition - pauses - false start - repair - anything that stops a conversation from flowing naturally

What are the arguments for behaviourist theory?

- imitate accent and dialect - learn politeness and pragmatic aspects of language - repeat language they have heard around them and incorporate it into theirs- lexical knowledge must be gained from being told the right labels - children less likely to repeat behaviour for which they are punished - evidence that humans, like animals, can be conditioned to repeat behaviour that produces reward

What are the two main aspects of behaviourism?

- imitation - reinforcement

How is chronological discourse used?

- imperatives are the key feature of the text, presenting the actions in a timely order. Where might the text be from? Danger text interpreted as patronising in some contexts?

Arguments for social interactionist theory

- languager is social; "children learn language initially to get what they want, to play games, to stay connected with those on whom they are dependent' Bruner 1983 - There is evidence that childrens language development and enriched and accelerated according to the quanitty and quality of their social interaction with adults - evidence that children depreived of language learn at a slower rate e.g. Genie and Oxana - Through interaction, children learn the pragmatics of langauge use e.g. politeness strategies - routines + rituals teach children language discourse e.g. turn taking - role play/ pretend play suggests that more interaction with carers can affect vocabulary

What are Aristotle's 3 types of rhetoric

- logos - pathos - ethos

How are consonant sounds affected?

- manner of articulation - place of articulation - voice

What are the two main types of vowel

- monothong - diphthong

How did Katherine Nelson categorise 'first words'?

- naming things/people - actions/events - describing/modifying things - personal/social words

Other than possibly CDS in what ways may adults hinder their child's language development?

- not paying attention (too busy, on iphone..), - regional accents

What are positive politeness strategies (POSITIVE FACE)

- shared dialect - informal lexis and grammar ('in' words and expressions, solidarity) - giving compliments - taking an interest in their well-being - showing we enjoy their company - using first names (boss inviting employee to call her Barbara is an expression of positive politeness, reducing social distance) - using diminutives ( someone teelling you to call them Joe rather than Joseph, Charlie rather than Charlotte) - using nicknames (sense of belonging to a group)

Lexis of spoken language

- slang - colloquialism - contraction - elision - cliche - expletives - deixis

Arguments against CDS

- sometimes the care giver hinders the childs ability to use language creatively as they do the difficult part (actually getting the right phrasing) for them.

What are common features of the spoken mode?

- spontaneous - dialouge - informal - ephermeral - synchronous - non-standard English - grammatically simple

What are prosodic features/ non-verbal communication?

- stress - intonation - tempo - volume - accent

What are the benefits of interaction for children?

Children begin to learn the practical uses of communication. Able to learn new words

Arguments for Usage based theory:

Children's books are often based around very repetitive sentence structures - giving children nice 'slot and frame' structures. Social Interactionist ideas.... Input important WHATEVER APPLIES TO INTERACTIONIST THEORIES APPLIES HERE

Give an example of an anaphoric pronoun reference

Sarah is a chef. She currently works in London. Explanation: pronoun 'she' refers back to noun 'Sarah'

Progressive aspect

When a verb uses an -ing suffix with a part of the verb 'to be' to show that an action is or was on-going. e.g. is eating

How is a verb phrase created?

When an auxiliary verb is used with the main verb, e.g. I (have bought) a new dress/ I (might go) to the party

Phonetic spelling

Words are spelled as they would be pronounced aloud: I no, playa, fone

Why is understanding morphology important in CLA?

Children's early speech won't have these morphemes, e.g. marking tense, showing possession, pluralisation etc. Gradually they will appear. You might comment on the absence or the presence, or inconsistent use of these morphemes.

What would happen without interaction?

Children's language may be impaired and their ability to establish relationships

Lexical Development: How many words (approx) can children say by 12 months old? (productive vocabulary)

50

Nouns outnumber verbs ....

5:1 in most dictionaries

At what age are children at the Babbling stage?

6-12 months

At what age are children at the Proto-words stage?

9-12 months

Antithesis

Contrasts drawn between two opposing concepts or ideas; adds emphasis and helps to shape an argument

Bound morphemes:

-s -ed un- -ly E.g. the free morpheme 'help' can have bound morphemes added to it to form the 4-morpheme word, 'unhelpfully.'

Initialism

A word made from initial letters, each being pronounced e.g. TBH,LMAO,IMHO

Katherine Nelson suggested that naming things/people accounted for.......

.... 60% of first words

What phonemes are produced by a bilabial plosive?

/b/ and /p/

What phonemes are produced by a labio-dental fricative?

/f/ and /v/

What phonemes are produced by a palatal approximant?

/j/

What phonemes are produced by a velar plosive?

/k/ and /g/

What phonemes are produced by a alveolar approximant?

/l/ and /r/

What phonemes are produced by a bilabial nasal?

/m/

What phonemes are produced by a alveolar nasal?

/n/

What phonemes are produced by a alveolar fricative?

/s/ and /z/

What phonemes are produced by an alveolar plosive?

/t/ and /d/

What phonemes are produced by a palate-alveolar affricate?

/t̠ʃ/ and /d̠ʒ/

What phonemes are produced by a bilabial approximant?

/w/

What phonemes are produced by a dental fricative?

/ð/ and /ɵ/

What phonemes are produced by a palatal nasal?

/ŋ/

What phonemes are produced by a palate-alveolar fricative?

/ʃ/ and /ʒ/

Give some examples of the sounds children can use by age 6:

/θ/ and /ð/ (th), /ʃ/ (sh), s, l, z, r, 1/ʒ/ (the s in leisure)

What are Robin Lakoff's 3 maxims on politeness

1) Don't impose 2) Give options 3) Make the reciever(s) feel good

List the stages of Aitchison's 'building meanings' theory

1) Labelling 2) Packaging 3) Network building

Colloquialism

A word or phrase (including slang) used in everyday conversation and informal writing but that is often inappropriate in formal writing (y'all, ain't, mate)

Order in which inflections are learnt

1. -ing 2. plural -s 3. possessive -s 4. "the" and "a" 5. past tense -ed 6. third person singular verb ending -s 7. Auxiliary "be"

What to look for in data to support Social Interactionist theory

1. Look at caregiver's language. e.g aspects of CDS (child directed speech) - use of interrogatives, frequent use of child's name, referring to self as 'mummy' or 'daddy'. 2. Look at vocabulary (child's) - is a particular semantic being explored? 3. What kind of feedback does the caregiver give? - e.g. how encourage? How do they suggest an answer rather than just correct. 4. DO NOT MIX UP WITH REINFORCEMENT AS IN SKINNER'S THEORY.

Modifier

A word or phrase that quantifies another: the open-minded, cigar smoking woman, who I met at the over 25s evening. These show pre-modification: the modifier comes before what it quantifies. Post-modifiers come after: the woman is open-minded.

Adjective

A word that describes a noun. They will either be pre-modifiers (the ------- hat) or post-modifiers (the hat is ------)

At what age are children at the Holophrastic stage?

12-18 months

At what age are children at the Two-Word stage?

18-24 months

When was Jean Berko Gleason's Wug Experiment

1958

When was the Berko and Brown 'Fis' Phenomenon?

1960

When was Noam Chomsky's Nativist theory developed?

1965

When was Howard Giles' Accommodation Theory developed?

1970s

When did Urusla Bellugi develop her theory on childrens development of pronoun use ?

1971

When was Katherine Nelson's categorisation of 'first words' theory developed?

1973

When did Halliday develop his taxonomy?

1975

When was Brown and Levinson's face theory developed?

1978

Catherine Snow and The Language Rich Environment: When ?

1998

Collocation

2 or 3 words that regularly occur together as part of a set phrase: eg free-kick, off-side trap, mobile phone, digital camera

Lexical Development: How many words (approx) can children say 36 months old? (productive vocabulary)

2,000

Lexical Development: How many words (approx) can children say by 24 months old? (productive vocabulary)

200

When did Tomasello propose his CLA theory?

2003

At what age are children at the Telegraphic stage?

24-36 months

At what age are children at the Cooing stage?

4-7 months

Antithesis

A 2-part contrast between 2 ideas: eg we can move forward to hope, or back to despair, Man Utd are finishing strongly, while Arsenal falter

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

A Swiss developmental psychologist, known for his work on cognitive development, who published The Language and Thought of a Child in 1926.

Describe the Vegetative stage

A child gets valuable vocal practice through crying at times of hunger/pain. At first, the crying is a reflex action, and involuntary, though gradually over several months babies begin to learn that their noises entail a response

intention reading

A child's ability to recognise the intentions and mental states of others

What conclusions can be made from the Berko and Brown 'Fis' Phenomenon?

A child's comprehension is often in advance of their physiological capacity to produce a sound. The child above knows that the word should be pronounced 'fish' and can hear the distinction, but even though she can't pronounce it herself

Relative clause

A clause that starts with a relative pronoun: eg the man, who I met, is 17. A relative clause doesn't make sense on its own.

Subordinate clause

A clause that starts with a subordinate conjunction: eg I like cheese because it tastes nice. A subordinate clause doesn't make sense on its own and is dependent on the main clause it follows or precedes.

Diagraph

A cluster of two letters that represent one sound (for example "ch")

Phrases

A cluster of words in a sentence that serve a grammatical purpose: NP, AdjP, AdvP, VP. The stage higher than the word in sentence level analysis.

Imperative

A command in form: eg Get me that chair

Subordinating conjunction

A conjunction used to introduce a subordinate clause: eg I believe that I can win; I am confident because I am good). Leads to complex sentences.

What is ethos?

A form of persuasion which attempts to appeal to audiences values. It depends on the attributes of the speaker which they need to be credible.

What is pathos?

A form of persuasion which attempts to appeal to the audiences emotions.

What is logos?

A form of persuasion which attempts to appeal to the voice of reason within an argument. It makes sense, uses facts and evidence, and is structurally coherant.

Litotes

A form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. (i.e. it is not wrong to say)

Asynchronous

A gap occurs between sending and receiving message (e.g. letters, postcards)

Rothery's categories: Narrative

A genre where the scene is set for events to occur and for a problem to be restored at the end. The hardest for children to master

Genie

A girl found at 13 that had had no interactions with anyone, could not learn complex grammar

What is a verb phrase?

A group of words built around a head verb. e.g. 'could have played'. The verb "play" is the head word, variously pre-modified by auxiliary verbs

Clause

A group of words made up of a number of phrases. A clause may comprise a whole sentence.

Semantic field

A group of words that fulfil the same kind of role and function in speech and writing

What is an adverb phrase?

A group of words that provides information about the verb: where, when, how... in the corner (where) yesterday (when) enthusiastically (how)

Cliché

A hackneyed, overworked phrase that slides off the tongue with little thought required: eg "at the end of the day...believe you me".

Catherine Snow and The Language Rich Environment: What ?

A language rich environment is a place where everyday activities get talked about. Where teachers and caregivers ensure that children are involved in 1-1 conversations about things that are of interest to them. A place where language and print is incorporated in playful ways into everyday activities.

Acronym

A lexicalised word made up from the initial letters of a phrase e.g. LOL, YOLO, FOMO

What is intertextuality?

A literary device that connects a relationship between two different and separate works.

Virtuous Error

A mistake in a child's speech, which, nevertheless, demonstrates understanding of grammatical rules, e.g. "i falled over" or I saw some sheeps"

Describe what a noun is:

A naming word for someone (Paul), something concrete (boat), or, abstract (dream). You can insert the/a/an in front of any noun (except proper noun)

Noun

A naming word. A determiner like my or the can be placed before most nouns (not true of proper nouns).

Fillers

A non-verbal sound that acts as a pause in speech; either to signal uncertainty or simply breathing space, e.g. er/erm

Consonance

A pattern of repeated consonant sounds for effect

Sibilance

A pattern of repeated fricative sounds especially /s/ for effect

Assonance

A pattern of repeated vowel sounds for effect

Preverbal Stage

A period of time that involves experimenting with noises and sounds without producing actual recognisable words

What is a noun phrase?

A phrase where the noun acts as the head word, e.g. 'the blue sea'

Tag questions

A question added onto the end of declarative statement that lessens the impact of that statement and to gain reassurance

Interrogative

A question in form: eg Can I have that chair?

What is the grammatical development in children during the post-telegraphic stage?

Children can combine clause structures by using coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions to make complex and compound sentences. Manipulate verb forms more accurately, for instance passive voice, e.g. 'The car was followed by a lorry'. They can construct longer noun phrases e.g. 'the two big red buses'

Simple sentence

A sentence of 1 clause, consisting of subject and verb

Compound sentence

A sentence of multiple clauses, all of which are joined by co-ordinating conjunctions

Compound-complex sentence

A sentence of multiple clauses, joined by a mix of co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions.

Complex sentence

A sentence of multiple clauses, with 1 main clause and one or more relative or subordinate clauses.

What is a symbolic sign?

A sign that represents the thing it stands for without resembling it

Declarative

A statement in form: eg I am a capricorn

Hypernyms

A subheading of terms: eg colour. Some books may refer to this as superordinate.

Give a description of the constituent element (of a clause): verb (v)

A subordinate clause that functions as an adverbial (The verb, as before)

What do double colons (::) represent in a transcript?

A sustained vowel sound, e.g. icecre::am today

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

A system for showing the different sounds possible

Intertextuality

A text that 'borrows' the conventions of another genre. This may be the layout conventions, but also other things.

Slang

A type of language that consists of words and phrases that are regarded as very informal, are more common in speech than writing, and are typically restricted to a particular context or group of people.

Auxiliary verb

A verb that complements the main verb: eg He must have been playing.....

Dynamic verb

A verb that implies a physical action of some kind: eg to jump, kick, talk, reach, laugh

Diphthong

A vowel sound that is the combination of two separate sounds, where a speaker glides from one to another

Accent

A way of pronouncing words that indicates the place of origin or social background of the speaker.

Conversion

A word changes its word class without adding a suffix: to google, a tweet, whatsapp me

Analogical overextension

A word for one object is extended to one in a different category, usually on the basis that there is some physical or functional connection

Clipping

A word is produced by shortening an existing one: gov, dis, fam

Pronoun

A word that stands in the place of a noun. It can stand alone as a singular element in a sentence. The most common category is personal pronouns, describing people. These can be: singular or plural; first, second and third person; object or subject pronouns (see below). Other useful categories are reflexive pronouns (eg himself), demonstrative pronouns (eg this: as in have a look at this), relative pronouns (eg which, who, that).

Onomatopoeia

Words in which the sound of the word reflects the sound of that which is being described: eg bang, the snake slithered

Indefinite article

A, an. A category of determiner.

The importance of sociodramatic play:

Children develop understanding of abstract concepts through interaction with environment. As understanding develops, children use symbolic language where one thing stands for another. This then helps them understand situations in their own lives

Sensorimotor (up to 2 yrs)

Children experience the physical world through senses and begins to classify things (concrete nouns). Object permenance develops.

Discovery learning

Children find things out for themselves, but they need to be provided with an environment which makes this possible.

Synonyms

Words of the same, or nearly same, meaning: eg brave/valiant, idle/lazy, happy/joyful

Formal operational (11+yrs)

Abstract reasoning skills develop

Describe what a determiner is:

Add detail or clarity to a noun (the, a, an, my, his)

Define and give an example of addition:

Adding to a world e.g. 'doggie'

A common mistake children make with personal pronouns

Children in the two word stage often place the object first person pronoun in the place of the subject first person pronoun "me drink milk" instead of "I drink milk"

How is a fricative produced?

Air whistled through a small gap

What is a limitation to Lennenbergs proposal on a critical period of language acquisition

Although much language learning takes place during pre-school years, it continues into adulthood. Therefore, young children's proficiency in language does not seem to involve a biologically critical period.

Proper noun

Always starts with a capital letter. Typically names a person/place. Something that's a one-off: eg London, Hampshire, Sarah, Four Weddings and a Funeral.

Give an example of convergence

An RP speaker may tone down her accent when interviewing a working class job applicant so as to put him at ease

Initialism

An abbreviation, using the first letters of words in an expression, that results in a non-pronounceable outcome: eg IBM, LBW, SFC

Acronym

An abbreviation, using the first letters of words in an expression, that results in a pronounceable outcome: eg scuba, laser, NATO

Comparative adjective

An adjective comparison of 2 things: eg he is fatter than me, she is more dynamic than him

Under extension

An error that occurs when a child restricts the things a word refers to e.g. using 'white' to only describe snow, or 'car' only to refer to the family car.

Over-extension

An error that occurs when a word is extended to other objects and given a broader, moer general meaning than it should have.

Taboo

Words or expressions considered rude in certain (typically formal) situations: eg f##k, s##t

Exclamatory

An exclamation, typically ending in !: eg Damn! F**k!

Simile

An explicit comparison signalled with 'like' or 'as'

Idiom

An expression where the meaning is not derived from literal translation: eg pull your socks up, kick the bucket, bury the hachet, in the same boat

Determiner

An item which specifies the number and definiteness of a noun. It precedes a noun (eg the cars), or an adjective and noun (eg the red cars). Determiners can then be further subdivided...

Phonics approach

Children learn the different phonemes of a word and the corresponding phonemes that are made by the graphemes of the word. They are also taught to blend these sounds together

What is imitation?

Children learn to speak by imitating their parents. Through imitation, they will eventually learn the 'right' way to say things.

Syntactic cue

Applying knowledge of word order and clauses to work out what a word might be in the context

How can you link AO3 to the AO1 feature 'concrete 'proper nouns':

Are assumptions being made about the audience knowledge of people/places? Is the writer hoping they appear in control of the topic area?

How can you link AO3 to the AO1 feature 'concrete '2nd person pronouns':

Are they positioning an audience as engaged in an issue? Are assumptions made an audience will agree with a view? Does the direct address make the writer seem confident/overly-direct/presumptuous? Is it assumed the audience will share a view?

How can you link AO3 to the AO1 feature 'adjectives':

Are they seeking to be descriptive/evaluative, and therefore objective/subjective? What might this show about a text's purpose? Is there a reason for information being provided quickly? How are they positioning the audience to draw conclusions?

What does Bloom (2004) argue about the great number of nouns in the productive vocabulary of children

Argues that the supposed noun bias in early children's vocabulary merely reflects the relative frequency of nouns in the vocabulary.

What is reinforcement?

Children learn to speak, and are motivated to continue learning by being rewarded or punished according for their utterances. Rewards might include being praised, told that something is right or given a relevant answer. Reinforcement of desirable behaviour will lead to it being repeated.

Supporting evidence for behaviourist theory

Children repeat words said by their parents, learn swear words said by parents older siblings, often have regional accents like parents

Grice's Cooperative Principle

Assumption that in conversation speakers will make a sincere effort to collaboratively exchange information

Describe the Telegraphic stage

At this stage, 3 or more words are combined into utterances resembling short sentences. This stage is so called because the utterances resemble an adult telegram where all but the key words are omitted.

3rd stage of negation acquisition

Attaches the negative to auxiliary verbs "I do not want this"

What to look for in data to support behaviourist theory

Attempts by adults to correct children's grammar/lexis/semantics/phonology either working or not working? Adult praise of children's correct language use. Adults ignoring children's language errors and not correcting - more interested in content/truth of what said than language? Child clearly using language they've picked up from exposure to language around them - repeating phrases they've heard

How is the general-specific discourse used?

Audience interest aroused by initial picture, large text and superlative adjective 'largest', but then lots of specific details emerge, especially though adverbs of place ('at St James's Gate') and multiple adverbs of time in quick succession ('on Saturdays at 11 am')

From approx 36 months old, how do children form questions? Give an example

Auxiliary Verbs acquired, e.g. Where is daddy going? And Did he go? The Inversion Rule, e.g. He is sad - Is he sad? (But then they have to learn that this rule doesn't always apply - we don't say 'Went he to town'? )

Hedging (Hedges)

Words or phrases that soften or weaken the force with which something is said, e.g. 'perhaps'/'maybe'/'sort of'/'possibly'

What are the key theorists associated with 'Behaviourist / Imitation'?

B. F Skinner (1904 - 1990)

Main theorist for the behaviourist theory

B. F. Skinner

Who champions 'behaviourist' theory ?

BF Skinner

Describe the Proto-words stage

Babbling starts to resemble adult language, i.e. word-like vocalisations, which lead to the child's first words, although these may not be understandable. Meanings begin to emerge, e.g. using 'mmmm' to mean 'give me that'. Often understood only by the child's carers.

Cognitive Theory

Based on the idea that language follows understanding, so as a child gets to know his / her environment and the wider world, language will follow.

Fronted conjunction

Beginning a sentence with a conjunction. Often a sign of an informal register. Some books may refer to these as initial position co-ordinators.

What theory does the whole word approach link to?

Behaviourist theory

How can an an adult or more experienced speaker help a child's phonological development and suggest limitations

Break words down into sound units - phonic approach - encouraging children to 'sound out' words David Crystal 'language play' with rhyme. Repeat the correct pronunciation (recasting) Correct children whenever they make mistakes (is this feasible though? do children just go through a stage of making these mistakes anyway, regardless of what adults do?)

How are pauses shown in transcripts?

Brackets are used to record the length of the pause. e.g. (.) means momentaey pause (or micropause) of less than half a second. (0.5) means half a second /(2) means two seconds show longer pauses as a figure of seconds a pause which includes an audible intake of breath = <h>

Describe the Holophrastic stage

Children start using words at about 1 year. By 18 months they will speak about 50 words, and understand around 250. The majority of these first words tend to be proper or concrete nouns for toys/family/animals. Typically, children use holophrases at this stage.

Understanding

Children understand the correct pronunciation before they can learn to say the correct pronunciation

Pattern finding

Children use several techniques to look for patterns in adult speech; they learn that certain phrases communicate certain intentions and they learn to group these together

How did Vygotsky advocate the importance of interaction?

By coining what is now known as the Zone of Proximal Development' to refer to what children can achieve on their own compared with what they can achieve with the help of caregivers or a more knowledgeable other (MKO).

3rd stage of pronouns

Children use the I and me pronoun in the correct places in sentences

Two word stage

Children will begin to use two words to represent a larger grammatical construction. They mostly use verbs and nouns and leave out grammatical function words (determiners, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, prepositions) however, children often place these words correctly in a sentence

How is a plosive sound formed?

By forcing air out of the mouth; air is trapped and then suddenly released

Criticisms of cognitive approach

Children will repeat words without knowing what they mean

David crystal's addition to the negation stages

Children will use "maybe" or another indirect way of saying no, copied from parents

When is the 'Chronological' discourse structure typically used?

common in narrative and instructions

Whole word approach

Children are taught to memorise the shape of words and their corresponding word that is said

Verb (V)

Can express a range of meanings - actions, processes, states and so on. They are the most important clause element and cannot be omitted (except in the case of a minor sentence): (The elephants) stampeded (The policeman) didn't believe (me)

What is the effect of falling intonation

Can signal disappointment or the end of a comment

Free morphemes:

Can stand alone as words, eg. pig, bark, mother, please

Concrete operational (7-11 yrs)

Can think logically about objects and events Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9) Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along a single dimension such as size.

Social interaction theory

Child language is acquired through interactions with adults

Analytical phonics

Children are taught to break down whole words into their phonemes and look at phonetic or orthographic patterns

What to look for in data that would help support Cognitive Theory

Children's language showing understanding of a concept - possession ('s), time (using tenses), seriation (eg comparative adjectives) - Piaget would suggest children have first gain the conceptual understanding before their language has revealed this. Children moving from an egocentric approach to being able to see the world from different perspectives.

Juxtaposition (graphology)

Choices over the proximity of pictures/text within a text.

What is a limitation of Chomsky's argument?

Chomsky was thinking more generally about human behaviour, not specifically about language development - it's more of a philosophical idea than one closely tied to language evidence/data

Rothery's categories: Recount

Chronological sequence of events written subjectively by using the subject first person pronoun "I" Usually follows the pattern: Orientation > Event > Reorientation

How is claim-counterclaim used in advertising?

Claim-counterclaim - it is to do with competing views (you can be subjective sometimes, but facts are objective). The syntactical parallelism helps the message, particularly through repeating the subject (everyone-they), verb (is entitled - are not entitled) and final noun (opinions-facts)

What theory of CLA does Piaget support?

Cognitive theory

How may an adult help a child develop the interactional function?

Communicating with them

What is Computer-Mediated Communication?

Communication that takes place via the medium of computers

What's a superlative adjective?

Comparing more than two things and stating which is most extreme with regard to some quality. E.g. most annoying/biggest (friendliest, most handsome)

Main clause

Complete with subject and verb. It makes sense on its own: eg I played tennis yesterday.

What are complex sentences?

Complex sentences contain one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses usually begin with a subordinating conjunction (such as after, while, before, where, because, so as to, so that, if, unless, when), a relative pronoun (such as who, which, that), or a verb (past participle, present participle, or infinitive form). e.g. 'he workers left the building [when they heard the fire alarm]'/'To finish the day off, we went for a midnight stroll.'

What are compound sentences?

Compound sentences contain two or more main clauses linked by co-ordinating conjunctions (and, or, but). Sometimes, the subject in the second (or third, fourth, and so on!) main clause has been omitted. e.g. 'Dickens wrote many stories in his lifetime and he is still popular.'/'We could go to the park or visit the museum.'

What are compound-complex sentences?

Compound-complex sentences contain more than one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. e.g. 'When Janie and Jimmie got home from school, Janie ate the cake, which had been sitting out on the counter for a week, and Jimmie cried because there was none left for him. '

What is deontic modality?

Concerned with degrees of obligation, permission, ability and necessity in terms of freedom to act. (e.g. must/shall/should)

Mixed mode

Contains elements of both speech and writing

What are capital letters used for in transcripts?

For proper nouns or abbreviations

Repair

Correcting an aspect of what is said. Error may be grammatical, use of wrong word, either by accident or mentioning something inapporpiate

What is the effect of the present progressive?

Creates a sense of immediacy, something happening at that moment.

Define and give an example of deletion:

Deletion of a syllable e.g. 'puter' for computer

Give a description and example of Packaging (Aitchison)

Exploring what labels can apply to. Over/under extension occurs in order to understand the range of a word's meaning. Are all small round things apples? Is Daddy just the man who lives with us?

1st stage of negations according to Bellugi (1966)

Dependence on "no" and "not" either used independently or at the beginning of a sentence

Anchored

Describes a relationship existing in the 'real world' as well as online

Non-anchored

Describes a relationship existing purely online

Object (O)

Describes something that is directly affected by the verb. You can check which part of the clause is the object by asking who or what is affected by the action or process of the verb: (The cook chopped) the carrots (The cook made) the dinner

Subject (S)

Describes the person or thing who/which does the action of the verb. Check which part of the clause is the subject by asking who or what is 'doing' the verb: e.g.; I am (happy) The green grass (grew everywhere)

Describe what an adverb is:

Describes the verb in some way. Might be an adverb of: Manner (how; e.g. quickly), Time (when; e.g. yesterday), Place (where; e.g. there), Frequency (how often; e.g. usually). Adverbs often end in -ly (of manner especially)

Metaphor

Describing something or someone in terms of someone or something else. Effective in drawing comparisons perhaps by focusing on a specific trait.

Brown's (1973) study

Determined that inflections are acquired by children 20-36 months in a certain order

Grammatical function words

Determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliary verbs

What are closed word classes?

Determiners, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns

Volume

Differences in volume could convey a number of possible emotions as well as emphasising certain parts of words that a speaker wants to emphasise

What are stative verbs?

Express state of being or internal processes, e.g. want/exist/am/anticipate/expect

Describe what a preposition is:

Expresses a relationship between 2 parts of a sentence (in, on, under, to...)

Preposition

Expresses a relationship between 2 things. In terms of time (at, after, by) or space (under, to, on)

Cooing

Distinct form of crying but not yet forming recognisable vowels and consonants

Simplifications: Deletion

Dropping consonants, unstressed syllable or consonant clusters within a word

How is emphasis shown in a transcript?

Either underlined, put in bold, or in capital letters

Stress

Emphasis on a word

Dysphemism

Expressing something in a maximally unpleasant way: eg using kick the bucket rather than euphemistic pass way.

Euphemism

Expressing something unpleasant in a more pleasant, or neutral manner: eg visit the bathroom / spend a penny (go to toilet), pass away (die), collateral damage (killing civilians in a war), down below/in the private region

What doe FTA stand for?

Face Threatening Act

What device is used in the following joke: What's the internet's favourite animal? The lynx!

Homophone; 'lynx' is meant to sound like 'links' i.e. internet web links.

Hyperbole

Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally; done so for effect.

Hyperbole

Exaggeration for effect; emphasises an idea

What three things are necessary for a child to learn writing?

Fine motor skills, directionality of writing and cognitive awareness

Bloom's (1970) study

Found that the term "mummy sock" used by their two year old was used to refer to two different situations.

At what age are children at the Vegetative stage?

From birth to 4 weeks

List some of the function words used by children in the Post-Telegraphic stage:

Function words such as pronouns, prepositions and auxiliary verbs are used.

Give a summary of the 'Genie' case study:

Genie was born in 1957 and was a victim of severe social isolation. From the age of 20 months her father kept her locked in a room forbidding anyone to interact with her. She was discovered at age 13. Genie could not speak or stand upright. She had spent every day bound naked to a child's potty seat and could move only her hands and feet. At night she was placed in a kind of straightjacket and caged in a crib with wire mesh sides and a cover. Whenever Genie made a noise her father beat her. He never communicated with her in words; instead he growled at her and barked at her instead.

Complement (C)

Gives extra information about the subject - Usually follows a stative verb (appear, seem, be): (I am) happy (She seems) nice (The painting was) a masterpiece

Adverb

Gives extra information on a verb, typically ends -ly: eg the man laughed loudly, she ran quickly. There are adverbs of manner (how? quickly, lazily), time (when? yesterday, later), frequency (how often? regularly, never), place (where? here, there).

Polysemy: Definition and Example

Having more than one meaning; e.g. hide, book, pupil

How did BF Skinner contribute to behaviourism?

He believed that our actions as humans, and the probability that we will repeat them, are determined by the consequences of previous actions. He called the use of reinforcement to strengthen behaviour operant conditioning. The main principle of operant conditioning is positive and negative reinforcement. Skinner did an experiment with a rat and a lever - if it pressed the lever it received food (positive reinforcement) or turns off an electric shock (negative reinforcement).

What is the 'Referential' function of speech?

In referential speech, factional knowledge/information is conveyed.

What are auxiliary verbs?

Helper verbs; they express nuances of meaning or tense

Pauses

Hesitations and brief silences in speech or conversation

Define 'Nativist / Innateness'

Humans have an inbuilt capacity to learn language

Give examples of how negatives are formed during the 3-4 word (telegraphic) stage according to Bellugi: STAGE 2 OF NEGATIVE FORMATION

I can't catch you I no want envelope He not little I don't want it No pinch me!

Give examples of how negatives are formed during the (4 + words/post-telegraphic stage) according to Bellugi: STAGE 3 OF NEGATIVE FORMATION

I gave him some so he won't cry I am not a doctor No, I don't have a book

Example of a Homonym

I have *read* (rɛd) / I will *read* (riːd)

Example of a Homophone

I have put the dog on the *lead* (concrete noun) / I will *lead* you (verb) Go over *there* (a place) / that is *their* apple (ownership)

Give examples of 1st person pronouns

I/we

Give examples of singular pronouns

I/you/he/she/me/it/him/her

Give a description of the constituent element (of a clause): adverbial (a)

Identifies 'the circumstances of a verb process in terms of time, place or manner' • usually an adverbial phrase • versatile (can go in different places)

Give a description of the constituent element (of a clause): object (o)

Identifies 'the entity being acted on by the action of a verb process' • usually a noun phrase • the thing affected by the verb

Voice:

If the sound is voiced/unvoiced (whether or not the vocal chords are vibrating or not vibrating).

Stative verb

Implies a state of being or process in which there is no obvious action: eg to be, have, know, understand, believe

What is the 'Transactional' function of speech?

In a transactional conversation, something gets done, e.g. a sale takes place or a business deal is closed

Criticisms of behaviorist theory

It would be impossible to learn all the combinations of words, and overgeneralization would not occur

Slang

Informal expressions that have a fashionable sense, particular to a certain age group: eg lush, bling, pull, fit, prangy

Colloquialism

Informal expressions. A more informal, everyday way to describe something that could be said with a more formal word: eg "pub (rather than public house), CD (compact disk), bird (woman), OK (fine), TV (television).

What are Halliday's 7 functions?

Instrumental, regulatory, interactional, personal, representational, imaginative, heuristic.

When is the 'Dramatic - less dramatic' discourse structure typically used?

common in news articles where a headline will often pick out the most dramatic event and then go into less important details later.

What issues were raised by Genie's ordeal in respect to child language acquisition?

Introduces the nature v nurture issue - how important actually is the initial interactions we have when learning language. Critical age hypothesis - idea that we need exposure to language (by about early puberty) for our brains to be 'activated' - without it (as with Genie), and chance for language is lost

Describe the Cooing stage

Involves the articulation of (mainly) vowel sounds often isolated (one syllable). Lacks 'adult' intonation (usually monotone). Sounds tend to be 'coo' or 'goo'

How can you link AO3 to the AO1 feature 'concrete '1st person plural pronoun':

Is the text receiver being positioned as sharing similar values to text producer, thus inclusive? Or is it more exclusive, suggesting text producer is writing on behalf of others, detached from the receiver? Are assumptions made about what an audience may think?

Give a description of the constituent element (of a clause): subejct (s)

It 'acts as the key focus of the clause and is often the focus of a relational verb process (stative) or the agent of a material verb process (dynamic)' • usually a noun phrase • it agrees with or 'does' the verb

What is the effect of an anaphoric reference

It allows the reader to understand what the subject of the sentence is

What does Brown and Levinson's Face Theory concern?

It considers our public image, it involves positive face and negative face

Describe what an adjective is:

It describes the noun in some way. An adjective can appear before or after the noun

What does 'glottal' mean in terms of sound production?

glottis closes

Give a description of the constituent element (of a clause): complement (c)

It is 'the attribute of a subject in a relational verb process (stative)' • usually a noun phrase • provides information about the subject or object

What is a FTA?

It is what's produced if you do not respect positive and negative face by not using politeness strategies. It infirnges on the hearer's need to maintain his/her self-esteem.

Criticisms of social interaction theory

It lacks ecological validity as other cultures do not have CDS yet children still acquire language

What effect can rising intonation have?

It may be used to show excitement

Arguments against Usage based theory

It might be a starting point for language use, but children will need to do much more to actually use language effectively. Unless adult language is very basic, the structures are likely to be lost amongst other language - hard for child to pick them out.

What does 'Positive Face' refer to?

It refers to our need to be liked and accepted by others.

What does 'negative face' refer to?

It refers to our right not to be imposed on by others. It has been suggested that Britain has a culture of stressing negative politeness.

What is an iconic sign?

It resembles the thing it stands for, e.g. a photograph

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view i.e. viewing the world from your own point of view

What is the 'Expressive' function of speech?

It's when feelings and emotions are conveyed.

Main theorist for social interaction theory

J. Bruner

Main theorists for Cognitive approach

Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky

What are the key theorists associated with 'Social Interactionist'?

Jerome Bruner (1915 - ) Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934)

What does LASS stand for?

Language Acquisition Support System

What is the LAD

Language Acquisition device; It enables us to learn language, based on universal grammar, regardless of culture or environment. He suggested that the acquisition of language is a natural process up to the age of about six, from which point learning language (or other languages) becomes more of a conscious effort.

Pre-operational (2-7 yrs)

Language and motor skills develop and become more competent; language is egocentric

Behaviourist theory

Language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement

Define 'Behaviourist / Imitation'

Language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement

Define 'Social Interactionist'

Language is developed through interaction / communication with others

Define 'Cognitive'

Language is part of wider development of understanding that develops

Instrumental function

Language is used to fulfil a speaker's need. Directly concerned with obtaining food, drink, comfort, etc, e.g. 'I want'

Define 'Usage-based approach'

Language structure emerges from use; linguistic patterns are formed and become what we know as grammatical constructions

Representational (informative) function

Language used to communicate information. Relaying or requesting information, e.g. 'I got a new doll'

Interactional function

Language used to develop social relationships and ease interaction (build and maintain relationships). The phatic dimension of talk e.g. 'hello'

Imaginative function

Language used to explore the imagination. May also accompany play as children create imahinary worlds/ may arise from story telling. Also jokes, songs, etc...

Personal function

Language used to express personal preferences/the speakers identity. Sometimes refered to the 'here I am!' function- conveys attitudes, expresses feelings

Directive

Language used to get someone to do something. In Halliday's terms, the regulatory function.

Regulatory function

Language used to influence the behaviour of others (control others and your environment) Persuading/commanding/requesting other people to do as you want 'daddy push' (child on swing)

Heuristic function

Language used to learn and explore the environment. Using language to learn- this may be questions or answers or the kind of running commentary that accompanies child's play. This is the curious function and interrogatives are used to facilitate this. (DIDN'T DEVELOP FOR GENIE)

Synthetic phonics

Learning each of the individual phonemes (up to 44) individually, and learning to put them together and blend them

What does behaviourist theory suggest?

Learning takes place as children learn that particular actions (or uses of language) will produce positive or negative consequences. It supports the nurture side of the nature / nurture debate. Suggests that learning takes place as people realise that actions will produce particular consequences. People can therefore be conditioned or 'programmed' into behaving in certain ways through expectation of reward or fear of punishment.

How is pattern finding important to Usage Based Theory and how does this contrast to Chomsky

Learning to fill the slots in these frames gives the child a foothold into more complex language Whereas Chomsky believed in 'the poverty of the stimulus', this approach emphasises its richness/usefulness for children acquiring language

Who identified some of the typical patterns of over-extension and when?

Leslie Rescorla in 1980

Omission

Letters are missed out of words (especially where double consonants appear)

Letter/Number homophone

Letters or numbers are substituted for words or parts of words, e.g. gr8, nice 2CU

What are the key theorists associated with 'Cognitive'?

Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934) Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980)

What features do reading schemes include in their texts to encourage reading development?

Lexical repetition, syntactical repetition of structures, simple verbs, one sentence per line, anaphoric referencing, limites use of modifiers, text image cohesion

Register

Lexis appropriate for a given situation, typically judged in terms of formality level. It can be defined in terms of mode (spoken or written format), manner (participants in the exchange) and field (topic being covered).

How important are care givers in developing a child's pragmatic understanding?

Likely very important. Adults can insist children are polite for instance. Adults can model expected behaviours for this. Having an inconsistent approach from both parents (in that circumstance) could lead to mixed messages though. Culturally variant.

Expletives

Linguistic term for swear word

Give a description and example of Labelling (Aitchison)

Linking words to the objects to which they refer Understanding that objects can be labelled

Triadic Structure (Tricolon)

List of three

Visual cue

Looking at the pictures shown in the text to interpret the story and unfamiliar words

Graphophonic cue

Looking at the shape of words, linking the shape to other similar graphemes/ words

What are the most common contexts of interaction for a child?

Mainly likely to take place in the home, school, or playgroud

Give a description and example of Network Building (Aitchison)

Making connections between words - understanding similarities and opposites in meanings. E.g. distinguishing between 'cup' and 'glass', 'jacket' and 'coat'. Exploring a semantic field. Hierarchical relationship between things - fruit/apple.

Phonological manipulation

Making creative changes in sound patterns to give certain effects

How are overlaps in speech shown in a transcript?

Marked with square brackets [ ]. They mark where the overlap begins and ends using vertical alignment to show that the words overlap

What does 'labio' mean in terms of sound production?

Means lips are used

Synchronous

Message is sent and received simultaneously ( e.g. face to face talk)

What are the key theorists associated with 'Usage-based approach'?

Michael Tomasello Paul Ibbotson

What are minor sentences (also known as elliptical sentences)

Minor sentences lack some of the clause elements discussed so far, generally speaking either a subject and/or a verb. They may be abbreviated declaratives such as: 'The blue sky. The warm sunshine. A perfect summer's day. They may be exclamations, questions or commands such as: Congratulations! What a day! Ok? Over here!

Inflections

Modifying verbs to create different tense, showing possession and making plurals

Describe the Babbling stage

More advanced 'sound making'. There's a greater range of sounds (more consonants now). Typically there is consonant/vowel reduplication: bababa, dadada. Sometimes the consonant varies: baba, gaba (variegated babbling). Even deaf babies babble (suggesting that intitally this is instinctive behaviour), though they will gradually stop doing so, implying that listening to sounds around them is important in order for babies' babbling to become more sophisticated. Babies who can hear start to specialise in sounds of the language around them.

James Britton's types of writing: Poetic

More advanced type of writing. Involves creative writing and exploration of the structure of writing and its dynamics by including rhythm and alliteration

1st stage of learning pronouns

Name use, children will refer to themselves as third person

Concrete noun

Names something that can be seen/touched: eg chair, boat, leg.

Abstract noun

Names something that can't be seen/touched. It typically names a concept: eg happiness, dream, conscience.

Constructivism

New knowledge needs to be built on existing knowledge i.e. structure in learning enables ideas to be organised, sequenced, and corrected. This is shown through reading for example.

Give examples of how negatives are formed during the 2-3 word stage according to Bellugi: STAGE 1 OF NEGATIVE FORMATION

No wipe finger No the sun shining More no Wear mitten no Not a teddy bear

What are the key theorists associated with 'Nativist / Innateness'?

Noam Chomsky (1928 - )

Main theorists for Nativist theory

Noam Chomsky, Steven Pinker

What words types tend to remain in an utterance during the telegraphic stage?

Nouns, adjectives, and main verbs

Ellipsis

Omission of elements of a sentence that would be required if we were writing formally: eg "you ok?" ('are' missed) "tea?" ('do you want' missed).

What is a phrase?

One or more words functioning as a unit in a sentence. It contains a head word and accompanying modifiers

Mismatch statements

One word sentences that seem quite abstract; a child makes a statement about one thing but refers to another

What type of questions would be used in a 'language rich' environment?

Open questions. Questions that ask how or why clearly help them to think about using language in ways they never would have if only asked questions thhat require predetermined answers. E.g. when reading a book ask 'what do you think about this'

Labov's narrative structure

Orientation > complication > resolution > coda

At what age are children at the Post-Telegraphic stage?

Over 36 months

Categorical (over-extension)

Over-extension based on a category e.g. calling all foods 'apple' or all colours 'blue'

Analogical (over-extension)

Over-extension based on a property, e.g. calling all round things 'ball'

Supporting evidence for the cognitive approach

Overgeneralization (the 'fis' phenomena), overextension and underextension all show that language requires deep thought processes

Cliche

Overused phrase/expression e.g. 'avoid like the plague'

Overgeneralization of spelling

Regular spelling rules are applied even when its not accurate to do

Para-linguistic features

Relating to body language- it is the use of gestures, facial expressions and other non-verbal elements [such as laughter] to add meaning to the speakers message beyond the words being spoken

Jargon definition

Special words or expressions used by a profession or group that are difficult for others to understand

Jargon

Special words or expressions used by a profession or group that are difficult for others to understand.

Adjacency pairs

Parallel expressions used across the boundaries of individual speaking turns. They are usually ritualistic and formulaic socially. For example 'How are you?'/ 'Fine thanks'

Tempo

Speeding up might convey a speaker's excitement or anger, while slowing down might convey their uncertainty or a lack of commitment towards a proposition

Who helped influence Bruner's theory?

Piaget and Vygotsky's ideas about cognitive development

What did Piaget believe in respect to CLA

Piaget believed that language develops as children experience and come to question the world around them - they experience something, then realise it has a name. As understanding develops, language becomes more complex.

What did Piaget suggest in respect to CLA

Piaget suggested that language develops as understanding develops, and that language cannot precede understanding - for example, a child cannot use words like 'smaller' and 'smallest' until he/she understands the concepts of size and scale

How is an approximate produced?

Produced by bringing the tongue or the lips close together without actually touching as in 'r' and 'w'

What did Lenneberg (1967) propose in respect to CLA?

Proposed that language depends on maturation and that there is a critical period between about 18 months and puberty during which time a first language must be acquired. Lenneberg especially thought that the pre-school years were an important time frame as this is when language develops rapidly and with ease.

What is the effect of a cataphoric reference

Provides an interesting insight into understanding the context of a text or the way it is representing content. Sometimes can cause tension

How is 'I falled over' an example of a virtuous error?

They understand how to add the past tense suffix to the present tense verb in order to make it match the tense of the sentence yet they made a mistake as the past tense version of to fall is fell.

Closed questions

Questions that ask for specific information and elicit a short, one- or two- word answer, a "yes" or "no," or a forced choice

How may an adult help a child develop the imaginative function?

Reading them a story

Anaphoric reference

Reference back to something previously stated: eg Bob is 17 and he plays badminton

Cataphoric reference

Reference forward. Generally to be regarded as informal: eg He's a badminton player is Bob

Exophoric Reference

Referencing where the lexical item points to the wider linguistic context that is assumed: eg That man there

Metonyms

Referring to something by one of its elements: eg legs, skirts (women), wheels (car), wrinklies (old people)

Metaphor

Referring to something in terms of something

What does the Berko and Brown 'Fis' Phenomenon reflect?

Reflects phonological development. The verbal exchange below between adult (A) and child (C) appeared in research conducted by Berko and Brown in the 1960s. A child was asked to name an object - an inflatable toy fish. Adult: What's that? Child: A fis Adult: Is this your fis? Child (getting angry): No. A fis. Adult: Is this your fish? Child: Yes, my fis

Simplifications: Reduplication

Repeating syllables within a word

Alliteration

Repetition of consonant sounds: eg bad Bill bit Bob

Sibilance

Repetition of fricative sounds: eg silly Sarah saw sausages

Assonance

Repetition of vowel sounds: eg my high sky may die

Simplifications: Substitution

Replacing one difficult sound with an easy one

Define and give an example of substitution:

Replacing one sound with another that's easier to say e.g. 'borry' (lorry) or 'beel' (wheel)

From approx 12 months old, how do children form questions? Give an example

Rising intonation to convey a question, e.g. dadda? All gone?

Label the clause elements in these children's utterances: Teddy kiss

S V

Label the clause elements in these children's utterances: "Daddy sit here"

S V A

Label the clause elements in these children's utterances: Jack run fast

S V A

Label the clause elements in these children's utterances: "Daddy go work in car"

S V A A

Label the clause elements in these children's utterances: Mummy is happy

S V C

Label the clause elements in these children's utterances: Me want spoon

S V O

Contextual cue

Searching for understanding in the situation of the story and comparing it to their own experiences or their pragmatic understanding of social conventions

2nd stage of learning questions

Second year: question words are learnt "who, what, when, why, how" however many function words are still omitted

What are Piaget's stages of childrens linguistic development?

Sensorimotor (up to 2 yrs) Pre-operational (2-7 yrs) Concrete operational (7-11 yrs) Formal operational (11+yrs)

Minor sentence

Sentence that lacks one of the key clause element: a subject or verb.

Non-standard grammar

Sentences that intentionally use fragmentation or non-standard spelling in order to create the desired image. This is a prescriptivist term

Active voice

Sentences where the agent (that doing verb) precedes the verb: eg the man kicked the ball

Passive voice

Sentences where the agent comes after the verb, or is omitted. The verb typically acquires a form of the verb 'to be' as an auxiliary: eg the ball was kicked by the man, the ball was kicked

False Start

This is when the speaker begins an utterance, then stops and either repeats or reformulates it. Sometimes called self-correction.

Compound

Separate whole words are joined together to create a new word, sometimes using a hyphen to link them: facebook, database, hashtag

Give an example of a cataphoric pronoun reference

She currently works in London - Sarah, the chef. Explanation: pronoun 'she' refers forward to noun 'Sarah'

The "fis" phenonema

Showed understanding: "this is my fis" "your fis?" "no my fis!" "your fish" "yes"

How may an adult help a child develop the heruristic function?

Showing them a different environment

Paralinguistic restitution

Signs and symbols are used to add emphasis or shades of meaning to what is written e.g. emojis, emoticons ( ;I ), or 'x's' (kisses)

Simple sentences

Simple sentences contain just one clause (known as a main clause), consisting of a subject and one verb phrase. The cook ate. The cook made a large stew for the evening meal.

Jerome Bruner

Social interactionists believe that interaction is vital in helping children acquire language. Children need interaction with more experienced speakers for their language to develop. This helps them develop a grasp of not only the meanings of words, but also the practical realities of communication: turn-taking, pragmatics (what people really mean when they say things) and non-verbal communication. Interaction is said to scaffold children's language development - and provides a Language Acquisition Support System (LASS).

Perceptive discriminability

Some sounds are easier to distinctly hear than others

Ease of articulation (articulatory ease)

Some sounds are easier to pronounce than others

Object

Something affected by the verb's occurrence: eg Ian threw the glass, She passed the parcel, He gave the car to her (2 objects)

Euphemism

Something unpleasant or vulgar that might be described in less unpleasant terms. Has the effect of making the speaker appear empathetic

Fricatives

Sounds articulated with a whistling noise, as air escapes through a small hole: /s/, /f/, /z/, /v/

Plosives

Sounds produced by a build up of air in the mouth, then sudden release: /p/, /t/, /d/, /g/, /k/, /b/

Speaker select

Speaker selects who speaks next

What was Chomsky's suggestions on CLA?

Speakers of all languages are born with the ability to learn grammatical functions - he called this universal grammar. This suggests all languages are fundamentally the same. It is defined as 'the system of principles and structures that are the prerequisites for acquisition of language, and to which every language necessarily conforms.'

Undergeneralization of spelling

Standard rules for particular spelling patterns are NOT followed

Describe what a pronoun is:

Stands in place of a noun. Personal pronouns are the largest category (she, he, I, me, us)

Vague language

Statements that sound imprecise and unassertive e.g. 'and so on', 'or whatever', 'thingummy', 'whatsit'.

How are clauses classified and divided?

Subject/Verb/Object/Complement/Adverbial

Define and give an example of assimilation:

Substitution of a phoneme with another in the same word e.g. 'flala' (flower)

Anaphora (syntactic parallelism)

Successive clauses beginning with the same word or set of words. Effective in foregroudning a particular idea as it adds emphasis.

Superlative adjective

Suggesting the superiority of something: eg he is the fattest, she is the most dynamic

Nativist Theory

Suggests that humans have an inbuilt capacity to learn language

Define Norman Fairclough's (1995) concept of synthetic personalisation:

Synthetic personalisation occurs when the writer sets up a 'fake' relationship with their reader by, for example, using the second person pronoun 'you' to create direct adress.

What is the acronym for the 5 functions of speech?

TRIPE

What is the forbidden experiment?

Taking a child at birth, isolating them from any human contact for a while - then see what happens - if they come out able to use language, it must be down to nature (nurture wasn't needed). This is of course 'forbidden' - a cruel game to play on a child that would likely have life altering impacts (remember Genie...)

What is another word for discourse analysis?

Talk analysis

What is the grammatical development in children during the two-word stage?

Tend to use the concrete noun and adjective in the correct order however may miss the determiner and stative verbs (? CHECK THIS)

Connotation

The associated, symbolic meanings of a word, often relying on culturally shared conventions.

Deixis (N), Deictic (Adj)

Words that 'point' to something relevant in a conversation: to people "she, he, it, them", to time "now, then", to space "there, here". Their meaning would be unclear if written down; they depend on shared knowledge in a context. Also referred to as deictic expressions.

What can we conclude from the Wug study?

That children learn linguistic rules and it proves overgeneralization

What did Bellugi suggest as the second stage of negative formation in children

That children then move the negative particle 'no/not' inside the utterance

What did Bellugi suggest as the first stage of negative formation in children

That children use a negative particle ('no' or 'not') at the beginning or end of an utterance in order to form a negative

What does Nelson's theory on children's 'first words' suggest?

That the largest category is nouns

What does Howard Giles' Accommodation Theory suggest?

That we adjust our speech to 'accommodate' to others. This may result in convergence or divergence

Subject

That which is in agreement with the verb. This will typically also be the agent (who/what is responsible for action of the verb): eg He played for Wigan. However, not in a passive like The dogs were chased by Mary, 'The dogs' is the subject but 'Mary' is the agent .

What is the Nativist theory?

The Nativist theory suggests that language develops from innate processes and that children reach different stages of language acquisition at roughly the same time, regardless of the level of interaction they receive. Nativist theory suggests that language develops from innate processes and that children reach different stages of language acquisition at roughly the same time, regardless of the level of interaction they receive. This supports the 'nature' side of the debate. The ability to learn language is a separate skill from those that do need to be taught e.g. a mathematical process.

Decentring

The ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation

Seriation

The ability to sort objects or situations according to any characteristic, such as size, colour, shape, or type

Unintentional Repetition

The accidental repetition of a monosyllabic word in spoken language/repeating information or individual words

Denotation

The actual meaning of a word, as given in dictionary

Insertion

The addition of extra letters that are not needed for the correct spelling of a word

Phonetics

The area of study that is concerned with investigating how sounds are actually produced by language users

Phonology

The area of study that refers to the more abstract sound system

Phonology

The study of the sound systems of language

Morphology

The study of the structure of words.

Phonology: Definition and Example

The study of visual aspects of text; e.g. layout, iconic sign, symbolic sign

What did Chomsky propose?

The existence of the LAD.

Intonation

The rise and fall of the voice in speaking.

Lexis: Definition and Example

The study of vocabulary; e.g. nouns, verbs, and adjectives

Grammar: Definition and Example

The study of word classes, phrases, clauses and sentences; e.g. morphology, syntax, descriptive, perspective

Modal auxiliary verb

The auxiliaries must, should, will (generally suggesting obligation) may, can, might (suggesting possibility). The first set are called deontic modal verbs, and second set epistemic.

What determines whether the progressive verb is past or present and give examples

The auxiliary verb; present progressive examples include ("I am running", "We are running") , past progressive ("I was running", "We were running")

Describe the Two-Word stage

The baby now starts to string words together in twos. This is the beginning of syntax: a vital move towards being able to communicate fully. Context/listener's best guess aids the meaning as the child lacks the syntactic elements necessary to make meaning explicit. The words are in the same order as in adult speech.

What's a base adjective?

The basic form of an adjectives, describing a quality of a noun, e.g. annoying/big

joint attention

The child attends to the same object or event as the caregiver e.g. reading the same book together

What is the second stage of pronoun development according to Bellugi?

The child recognises the I/me pronouns and that they are used in different places in a sentence, eg., I play toy; me do that. But the two forms are not always distinguished grammatically.

What is the first stage of pronoun development according to Bellugi?

The child uses his/her own name, eg., Tom Play

What is the third stage of pronoun development according to Bellugi?

The child uses pronouns according to whether they are in the subject or object position in a sentence, eg., I play with the toy; give it to me

Describe a 'holophrase' and give examples

The child will often use 1 word to stand for a full sentence: for instance 'cake' may stand for 'give me the cake please', 'on' for put it on the table' and 'gone' for 'it is all gone'. These untterances are known as holophrases and will be understood via their context.

Describe the Post-Telegraphic stage

The child's grasp of English grammar becomes more sophisticated, e.g. they get to grips with inflections such as possessive /s/ and plural /s/ and present/past tense verb endings. This will take a long time to master, and many virtuous errors will be present initially. Sentence length is built up. Function words such as pronouns, prepositions and auxiliary verbs are used.

Foregrounding

The deliberate placing of sentence elements at the start of sentence: eg The rioters were attacked by the police, For 23 games, Newcastle failed to win in London.

How is the active voice formed?

The subject of the sentence is actively doing what the verb denotes e.g. 'the cat chased the mouse'/'the child broke the vase'

Constraints

The disadvantages/limitations of a medium of conversation

Overgeneralization

The errors children make in their grammar by overgeneralising one grammatical rule to other words and phrases

James Britton's types of writing: Expressive

The first type of writing that children develop. It allows children to explore their own identity through writing

From approx 15-18 months old, how do children form questions? Give an example

The first wh-question words appear, often in the following order: • What • Where • Why • When

How is the passive voice formed?

The subject of the sentence is receiving the action denoted by the verb. It is less direct. It shifts the focuses to the object, e.g. 'the mouse was chased [by the cat].'/'the vase was broken [by the child]'

What's a comparative adjective?

The form in which a comparison of a quality is made between two, e.g. more annoying/ bigger

Hyponymy

The hierarchical structure that exists between lexical terms

Hypernym

The term for a general category

Deixis

Words that are context-bound where meaning depends on who is being referred to, where something is happening or when it is happening. Language that points to sptial, temporal and personal features, e.g. 'there', 'that'

Diminutive

The shortening of a person's name: eg "Will...Jen...Charlie...Ben...Em".

Phonemes

The shortest unit of sound

Cohesion

The internal links in a text - pronoun referencing, paragraphing, consistent use of semantic fields.

Register: Definition

The level of formality of a writer or speakers lexical choices

What do phonological errors reflect?

The limitations of physical rather than intellectual development- they may not, for example, show misunderstanding of meaning

Expletives

The linguistic term for swear words.

Mood

The linguistic term for the functions declarative, imperative, interrogative and exclamatory

What is a head word?

The main word in a phrase

What are dynamic verbs?

They express a physical action or event, e.g. run/skip/hop/jump/dance

Homophone

Words that are pronounced the same but have different meaning and may have different spellings

Sound Iconicity/Sonic Iconicity

The matching of sound to an aspect of meaning, i.e. sounds mirror the action that they describe

Elision

The merging of two words to convey a phonetic rendering, for example in a transcript of speech: eg gonna (going to), wanna (want to)

Categorical overextension

The name for one thing is a category is used for all things under that category

Ellipsis

The omission of a word or phrase which is grammatically necessary but can be deduced from the context, e.g. 'coming out?', 'you ok?'

Elision

The omission of an unstressed vowel or syllable to preserve the meter of a line of poetry. For example; gonna, wanna

Contraction

The omission of letters when words are merged in writing, resulting in an apostrophe for missing letter(s): eg I'll, won't, can't, he's

What is the -ing ending of a verb called?

The progressive/continuous aspect. (use progressive)

What is the effect of noun phrases in apposition

The purpose of this construction is to provide extra information quickly making the pragmatic assumption that the reader does not already know the information or may need to be reminded. It's a feature that is often found in journalistic writing: eg "Jeremy Corbyn, Labour Party Leader....Jeremy Corbyn, 70 next year...."

Diminutives

The reduction in scale of an item through the way this word is created, making it more phonologically pleasing or easier to say

Primary Auxiliary Verb

The remaining auxiliaries. These will be forms of to be, have and do.

Epistrophe/Epiphora

The repetition of a word at the end of successive clauses or sentences

Phoneme

The smallest possible unit of sound. Each language has a small,fixed set of phonemes that make up the sounds of that language

How are consonants defined phonetically?

The sounds produced when the vocal tract is either blocked or so restricted that there is audible friction

Hyponym

The specific words or ideas in a category

Emergent writing

The stage at which children can write and draw incoherent/ illegible letters and words that do not represent anything to anyone apart from the child. This may also be called "Precommunicative stage/ non alphabetic writing" according to Richard Gentry's stages of writing acquisition

What theory did Ursula Bellugi develop in 1966?

The stages in which children can formulate negatives

Pragmatics: Definition and Example

The study of how contextual factors influence meaning; e.g. co-operative principle, conversational, implicature

Prosodics

The study of how speakers can shape meanings through emphasising certain aspects of intonation, speed and volume

Phonetics

The study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received

Discourse: Definition and Example

The study of larger stretches of texts; e.g. internal evaluation, external evaluation

Semantics: Definition and Example

The study of meanings; e.g. semantic fields, collocates. fixed expression

What is semiotics?

The study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation

Hyponyms

The types of the hypernym: eg black, blue

Supporting evidence for social interaction theory

The use of child directed speech by parents and other caregivers,

Polysyndeton

The use, for rhetorical effect, of more conjunctions than is necessary or natural. Helps to slow the pace of speech and makes the each point of greater importance

Back-channelling

The verbal signals given by the listener to indicate interest, attention, surprise etc. (eg really, uh-huh, yeah)

What is discourse analysis?

The way in which a text or conversation is structured to communicate with its audience

Discourse structure

The way that the information in a text is organised. e.g. chronological, question-answer.

Co-ordinating conjunction

The words and, but, neither..nor, either..or used to link parts of the sentence. Results in compound sentences when linking clauses together.

Rothery's categories: Observation/ comment

The writer has made an observation and an evaluative comment either by following it with another clause or mixed in with the observation

Definite article

The. A category of determiner.

Egocentric speech

Theorised by Jean Piaget, suggested that children will direct their speech no particular other individual. He suggested this was because they could not differentiate external speech and internal speech

Evaluating the role of CDS: Places where it is not significant

There are some cultures in the world such as Papa New Guinea and Samoa, in which interaction with CDS is not believed to take place, BUT those children still learn language in the same way. Other research, such as Thiessen et al (2005) and Henrichs (2010) have found a positive correlation between interaction with children at an early age and their subsequent educational and/or linguistic achievement.

Criticisms of nativist theory

There is an artificial distinction to separate language acquisition and cognitive processes and puzzle solving Behaviourist argue that because children acquire the same regional accents as their parents there must be other elements to language acquisition

Homophones

These are words that are pronounced the same, but have different meanings.

Why are children more likely to use more plosive/bilabial consonants?

These consonants are produced without the use of teeth (not always developed in babies and young children) which make use of strong lip muscles formed thrugh the suckling mechanism

Adverbial (A)

These give us additional information about time, manner, frequency or place - Answer questions like how? when? where? how often? - Can be adverbs or adverbial phrases: (The cook ate) quickly / in a hurry (She chopped the potatoes) at the table (They are busy) in this restaurant every Friday

Abstract nouns

These have no physical existence. They refer to ideas, emotions and concepts you cannot see, touch, hear, smell, or taste. Example: love, time, fear, freedom. Effective in political speeches and directing poeples thoughts.

What are modal auxiliary verbs

They cannot be used as main verbs. They reflect out judgement or mood about what we are expressing; they often express a degree of possibility or obligation

How may adverts use the problem-solution discourse?

They establish a problem (note here the key negative adjectives 'feverish...dry...aching' in declarative structures) that the audience may have, then suggest a particular product is the obvious solution (note how the mood shifts to imperative 'go to bed....keep warm...' and adjectives now shift to positive 'medically approved', as do the verbs 'lower...relieve...lift'.

What are conjunctions?

They join together two parts of a sentence and can be organsised into two categories; co-ordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions

What links are there between the first consonant a child is likely to use?

They tend to be plosives and often bilabials (or at least pronounced by the front of the mouth)

What is the typical construction of a clause and why would people chose to do so differently:

They will typically begin SV, followed by a combination (or none) of OCA. If a different order is used, this is usually to draw attention to the foreground part of the sentence. Adverbials are pretty flexible and can appear anywhere in a sentence.

3rd stage of learning questions

Third year: children begin to learn auxiliary verbs and inversion

What does the progressive aspect of the verb indicate?

This indicates that an action is/was ongoing (hence progressive) which can be useful in creating a sense of something being done over a period of time.

What is Noun phrases in apposition

This is a common construction where nouns or noun phrases are placed next to each other in a sentence with the second separated by commas and providing more information about the first: eg "Peter Symonds, the biggest college in the UK, is wonderful".

What is the directive function?

This is a term that can be used for any language that intends to get someone to do something. Many forms of language can be used as a directive, each subtly changing the meaning and suggesting a different relationship between producer and receiver.

When is the 'Claim-counterclaim' discourse structure typically used?

This is common when there are competing points of view about a topic.

What is instrumental power?

This is power used to maintain/enforce authority which is indicated by groups or individuals e.g police.

What is influential power?

This is power used to persuade and influence others e.g politicians.

Telegraphic stage

This is the stage where children can say 3 or more words and can make meanings more explicit. This stage is called the "telegraphic" stage as utterances sound like telegrams due to the way function words are often left out. Different sentence types explored during this stage (declaratives, imperatives, interrogatives)

Mode

This is usually used to mean whether a text is spoken or written. It has become an area of study focusing on the features that characterise written and spoken texts.

What is epistemic modality?

This refers to the use of modals which express degrees of possibility, certainty, or probability (e.g. will/may)

Open questions

Those that invite a wide-ranging or imaginative response - the results will be difficult to collate and present numerically

What are primary auxiliary verbs?

Three auxiliaries, be, have, and do, can also be main verbs, but, when they act as auxiliaries, they show the difference between singluar and pluaral, and past and present

What are the past present and future forms of the primary auxiliary verbs?

To be- was/is/will be To have- had/has/will have To do- did/does/will do

What are open word classes?

Verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs

Overlap

To speak when someone else is speaking

Interruption

When a speaker begins to talk before the previous speaker has finished, in an attempt to take over the conversation and gain control.

Give some examples of CMCs

Twitter threads/ emails/ facebook comments/ messages

Give an example of divergence

Two supporters of rival football teams engaged in an argument, unconsiously exaggerate their respective regional accents as a way of asserting loyalty and identity

Blend

Two words are clipped and fused together to make a new one, e.g. frape, instagram, tweep

Minimal pair

Two words that are identical except for one sound, revealing which phonemes are semantically significant

What are discourse conventions?

Typical features of a text or conversation. It is the features we would expect to find in a particular genre.

Object permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed (seen, heard, touched, smelled or sensed in any way).

Semantic cue

Understanding the meaning of words and make connections between words and order to decode what the word might be

Morphemes

Units within words which carry meaning

Convergence and divergence can be:

Upwards (towards the standard/prestige form of language) or Downwards (further away from the standard/prestige) or mutual (moving away/towards mutually)

2nd stage of learning pronouns

Use of I/ me pronouns in sentences. However they are used in the wrong places

What do we use in order to retain positive face?

Use positive politeness strategies to close the distance between friends/family and ensure the other person feels liked and accepted.

When is the 'Problem-solution' discourse structure typically used?

Used in advertising where a product overcomes a problem; can be used in opinion articles

What does 'billabial' mean in terms of sound production?

Uses two lips

Label the clause elements in these children's utterances: "Brush hair"

V O

Vowels

Vowel sounds are made with no closure to the vocal tract or audible friction: air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose

Diphthong:

Vowels where there is a perceptible change in quality during a syllable, e.g. my (/mɑi/) and how (/hɑʊ/). They use two symbols to show the starting and finishing points of the sound

Monothong:

Vowels with a single perceived auditory quality, e.g. dog (/dɒg/)

Who came up with the three main types of power and when?

Wareing in 1999

What do we use in order to retain 'negative face'?

We use negative politeness strategies to avoid imposing on someone, for example, if we were speaking to someone of higher status.

Discourse marker

Well, anyway, I mean, actually. Orient the listener to what will follow by indicating change in topic or a return to the previous topic

From approx 24 months old, how do children form questions? Give an example

Wh- question words used with others, e.g. Where Mummy? What that? More complex questions gradually formed, e.g. Where's daddy going?

How can you link AO3 to the AO1 feature 'concrete 'modal auxiliaries':

What level of power/certainty by the writer is being suggested? How are an audience being positioned to agree with a view? Is a logical argument being conveyed? Is a clear link between cause/effect being suggested?

What should you ask yourself when analayising pragmatics?

What the audience need to know in order to understand the text/ need to know in order for the texts to communicate their intended messages, i.e. the context.

Underextension

When a baby restricts the number of references of a word, usually to the original context in which the word was learnt

Miscue

When a child makes an error when reading and misses a word or substitutes one word for another

Overextension

When a child overextends the meaning of a word

Phonetic spelling errors

When a child spells a word incorrectly by using the phonetic spelling/ spelling a word the way it sounds

What did the 'Wug' experiment show?

When given nonsense words (like 'wug'), children are generally able to make the plural for 'wugs' shows a picture of 2. The accuracy of doing this increases with age. It shows children have acquired the rules of morphology (add -s to noun for plural) and can apply it to something they've never encountered before. This could also be done with other issues (eg making past tenses). This is useful evidence for language being an innate skill (inbuilt) - we just seem to be able to work things out about language without being told!

What is the 'Instructional' function of speech?

When instructions are given

Holophrase

When one word is used to represent a larger and more complex grammatical construction

What is the 'Phatic' function of speech?

When people make social small talk

Apposition

When two noun phrases are juxtaposed, the second giving more information about the first.

Transposition

Where a pair of words is switched around

Substitution

Where the right letter is replaced with another letter (usually phonetically similar in the word)

Place of articulation:

Where the sounds occur, e.g. lips/teeth/roof of mouth etc... or a combination

How can you link AO3 to the AO1 feature 'concrete ':abstract nouns':

Why does a text focus on emotions? Is it creating a sense the writer is has a knowledgeable/thoughtful persona? Why is a text inviting an audience to consider bigger ideas rather than practical issues?

How can you link AO3 to the AO1 feature 'concrete 'dynamic verbs':

Why is a writer focusing on observable actions rather than thought processes? Why is there a desire to create drama? Are the subjects of the dynamic verbs being represented aggressively, and if so why? Are events being over-simplified for an audience?

How can you link AO3 to the AO1 feature 'concrete nouns':

Why might a text be presenting practical examples? Why might an audience been encouraged to see the reality of a situation?

How are unfinished words marked in a transcript ?

With a dash '-'

What is a modifier?

Words that describe the head word or give us more information about it. They can come before the head word (pre-modification) or after (post-modification)

Lexical onomatopoeia

Words that have some associated meaning between their sound and what they represent, e.g. 'sludge' and the connection between the /d3/ sound and the messy, thick mud of the trench. Used in Sassoon's 'A Working Party': "... where the sludge was ankle-deep"

Heterophones

Words that have the same spelling but very different pronunciations and meanings

Describe what a conjunction is:

Words that link clauses (and, but, although, because)

Monosyllabic

Words with 1 syllable: eg rat

Bisyllabic

Words with 2 syllables: eg table, little, carpet

Polysyllabic

Words with 3 or more syllables: eg undertaker, beautiful

Homophones

Words with different spellings, different meanings, same sounds; e.g. great/grate, new/knew

Antonyms

Words with opposite meanings: eg happy/sad, fast/slow

Homographs

Words with same spellings, different meanings, different sounds: eg lead/lead, read/read

Homonyms

Words with same spellings, different meanings, same sounds; e.g. bank/bank, bat/bat

James Britton's types of writing: Transactional

Writing in which the writer separates their own identity from the writing and as a result, writes with an impersonal tone

Graphemes

Written symbols that have phonemes corresponding to them

Mismatch/Predicate Statements (over-extension)

Wrongly labelling something because of an association e.g. calling an empty pond 'duck'

Berko's (1958) study

Wugs- tested the plural -s inflection 75% of 4-5 year olds answered correctly with "wugs"

How is inaudible language shown in a transcript?

[inaudible speech] or [********]

Linguistic Schema

a pattern in language

Child-directed speech

a term used by linguists to denote the speech patterns used by parents and caregivers when communicating with young children. CDS is also sometimes called parentese, motherese or caregiver language.

Importance of stimuli:

actions, pictures and words are important

Affordances

advantages of a form of communication

How is a nasal produced?

air released through the nose only

Give some examples of co-ordinating conjunctions

and/but/or

At what age it could it approximately be said children are able to manipulate verb forms more accurately (e.g. passive voce)

at approximately 8 years old

Give some examples of subordinating conjunctions

because/although/unless/until/after/as

What does 'labiadental' mean in terms of sound production?

bottom lip and top teeth are used

What are the 10 modal verbs?

can/could/shall/should/will/would/may/might/must/ought

Simplifications: Assimilation

children replace one consonant or vowel sound with another

Example of reduplication

choo choo

Intelligent mistakes are errors that

demonstrate that children understand the rules of grammar but not its exceptions

To learn something unconsciously is to

do so without realising it

Example of diminutives

dog > doggie

Example of Assimilation

dog > gog

Give an example of common discourse structures influence the lexis and grammar used

e.g. the co-ordinating conjunction 'but' can signal the shift from claim to counterclaim or problem to solution.

Rothery's categories: Report

factual and objective description of events of things, it tends not to be chronological. Usually objective and in third person perspective or an imaginary characters perspective

"What a child is able to do in collaboration today,

he will be able to do independently tomorrow" - Vygotsky.

Give examples of 3rd pronouns

he/she/they/him/her

Give examples of reflexive pronouns

himself/myself

Give examples of possessive pronouns

his/hers/mine/our

Manner of articulation:

how the airflow release is controlled

Grammar refers to the way

in which we put words together to form meaningful utterances

Physiology

is the study of how living things are made up

How is a change intonation shown in a transcript?

italics

Cognitive approach

language is part of a wider development of understanding

Give some examples of the sounds children can use by age 3:

m. b, j (y), n, w, d, p, h

How is an affricate produced?

mix of plosive and fricative

With whom is a child most likely to interact?

parent/guardians/family members/other children/teachers

According to interactionists...

parents / caregivers engage in collaborative and ritualised exchanges with their children, even before language has fully developed into meaningful words.

sociodramatic play

pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in stories that they create. Children can also be seen to be role playing adult behaviours, e.g. pretending to be a parent and telling their doll to be quiet

Grice's Maxims

quantity [ not speaking too much or too little] , quality [be truthful] , relevance [keep to the point] , manner [speak in a clear ,orderly, and coherant way] (the basic conversational rules in order to have a successful conversation)

Define and give an example of consonant cluster reductions:

removal of a consonant e.g. 'bed' (bread) or 'pider' (spider)

Define and give an example of final consonant deletion:

removal of the final consonant e.g. 'du' (duck) or 'ba' (ball)

Define and give an example of reduplication:

repetition of a phoneme e.g. 'dada'

Example of underextension

saying "boy" only when seeing a brother

Example of analogical overextension

saying "cactus" for all spiky things

Example of mismatch statements

saying "horse" when looking at a empty field

Define and give an example of simplification of 'th':

substitution of the 'th' sound for a phoneme which is simpler to produce e.g. 'ting' (thing) or 'vem' (them)

Give some examples of the sounds children can use by age 4-5:

t, /ŋ/ (ng), k, g, f, v, /t̠ʃ/ (ch), /d̠ʒ/ (j)

Give examples of demonstrative pronouns

this/that

Example of Substitution

th > d / that > dat

Personification

the attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something nonhuman, or the representation of an abstract quality in human form.

Define and give an example of deletion of unstressed syllables:

the deletion of a weak syllable e.g. 'brella' (umbrella)

Supporting evidence for Nativist theory

the fis phenomena, overgeneralization, Genie, the fact that children across the world learn languages in similar way, brain damage can affect language

"children learn language initially

to get what they want, to play games, to stay connected with those on whom they are dependent' Bruner 1983

What does 'alveolar' mean in terms of sound production?

tongue and alveolar ridge used

What does 'palatal' mean in terms of sound production?

tongue and back bit palate velar tongue and velum used

What does 'palate-alveolar' mean in terms of sound production?

tongue and front bit palate used

What does 'dental' mean in terms of sound production?

tongue and top teeth used

1st stage of learning questions

two word stage: questions rely mainly on rising intonation for example "have book?"

Example of deletion

umbrella > umrella

What is the grammatical development in children during the telegraphic stage?

use of prepositions/stative verbs/auxiliary verbs/pronouns/verb/determiners/aware of how to form a negative However some more complex grammatical features remain misunderstood shown as there are some verb conjunction errors.

Babbling

vocal play that involves consonant sounds which can be repeated or varied. For example "dada"

If something is innate

we are born with it

Give examples of plural pronouns

we/us/you/they/them

What is the 'general-specific' discourse structure?

where a text starts off on a general level and gradually goes into more detail.

Homonyms

words that are spelt the same but pronounced differently

Give examples of 2nd person pronouns

you

Possible environmental factors that could have an effect on a child's language

• Age of a child • Who participates in interaction • Location of an interaction (a place where child is more/less comfortable....) • Time of interaction (time of day, other events occurring) • Activity (what is going on during an interaction) • Relationship between children (friends, siblings.... - issues of power) • Relationship with adults (close relative, distant relative, child minder, teacher... - issues of power) • Purposes of speakers • Gender of speakers (conversational research, socialisation etc) • Cultural influences (characters from television, reading books, social experience

What are the features of CDS? Grammar;

• Repeated sentence frames: 'that's a...' • More simple sentences • Fewer complex sentences and passives • Omission of past tense and inflections • More command questions and tag questions • Use of recasting where child's vocabulary is repeated back, sometimes put into a new utterance

What are the features of CDS? Phonology:

• Separate phrases • Speak slowly • Exaggerated sing-song intonation • Exaggerated difference between questions, statements and commands • Higher and wider range of pitch

What are the features of CDS? Lexis and Semantics:

• Use of concrete nouns and dynamic verbs • Adopt child's own words for things (diminutive forms - doggie) • Frequent use of child's name and absence of pronouns

What are the 4 sentence moods?

•Declarative (statement) - eg "The car is parked there" •Imperative (command) - eg "Park the car there" •Interrogative (question) - eg "Where is the car parked" •Exclamatory (exclamation) - eg "Oh damn!"