ENGR Test 3

Galileo, in his masterwork Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences discusses free fall motion and writes: When, therefore, I observe a stone initially at rest falling from an elevated position and continually acquiring new increments of speed, why should I not believe that such increases take place in a manner which is exceedingly simple and rather obvious to everybody? If now we examine the matter carefully we find no addition or increment more simple than that which repeats itself always in the same manner. This we readily understand when we consider the intimate relationship between time and motion; for just as uniformity of motion is defined by and conceived through equal times and equal spaces (thus we call a motion uniform when equal distances are traversed during equal time-intervals), so also we may, in a similar manner, through equal time-intervals, conceive additions of speed as taking place without complication; thus we may picture to our mind a motion as uniformly and continuously accelerated when, during any equal intervals of time whatever, equal increments of speed are given to it. Thus if any equal intervals of time whatever have elapsed, counting from the time at which the moving body left its position of rest and began to descend, the amount of speed acquired during the first two time-intervals will be double that acquired during the first time-interval alone; so the amount added during three of these time-intervals will be treble; and that in four, quadruple that of the first time-interval. Question: in this excerpt, Galileo tries to show that: Both 1 and 4 are correct 1-A free falling object continues to fall with the same speed that it gains after one second. So, if its speed after a second is X, it falls with the same speed X all the way down. 3-A free falling object's speed increases in a constant increment or it accelerates in a constant rate 2-A free falling object's speed varies based on its shape and volume, which are two main parameters defining the amount of friction of the object with air. 4-free falling object travels equal distances every second

3-A free falling object's speed increases in a constant increment or it accelerates in a constant rate

A new breed of machines emerged toward the end of the seventeenth century, developing through the eighteenth and into the early nineteenth. Clock makers and inventors, and their philosophical audiences, turned theories about animal- and human- machinery into an experimental program: they built androids and automata that reproduced as closely as possible their natural subjects. These machines, like Dr. Reisel's artificial man, seemed active, and self-moving. All these human-like machines or androids unsurprisingly had a decidedly Cartesian meaning: According to Descartes, a machine "could never use words, or put together other signs, as we [humans] do in order to declare our thoughts to others. He also says that "automaton would lack general reasoning abilities." However, Descartes says that the functions of animals follow from the Automaton and machine. A Cartesian machine is a collection of bodies whose operations can be explained on mechanical principles alone: its parts are just parts of extension, and their motions are entirely subordinated to the laws of nature. These automata, like Dr. Reisel's artificial man: Group of answer choicesFollowers of Descartes believed that a similar spirit is responsible for the motion of human being, and by its discovery, all androids would be self-moving machines.were clockworks, built based on scientific study of the subject. Though they were not able to act like a thinking person, Descartes believed that progress in technology soon or late would make them thinking and reasoning machines.As Descartes believed, the source of motion in animal bodies was an extremely volatile fluid, called animal spirit or the vital principle, distributed through the nerves.They signified the lack of a rational soul, of a capacity for reason and intellect. the movement of their heart, the play of their lungs, the swallowing of food, though seemed natural, they never crossed the Cartesian boundary between mechanical body and rational soul.

As Descartes believed, the source of motion in animal bodies was an extremely volatile fluid, called animal spirit or the vital principle, distributed through the nerves.

A series of intellectual conflicts between theologians and philosophers unfolded across the thirteenth century, culminating in the condemnation of 1277, wherein the bishop of Paris with the backing of the pope condemned the teaching of 219 execrable errors held by some Aristotelians and subjected anyone who held or taught them to excommunication. Some investigators argue that by freeing medieval thinkers from the yoke of strict obedience to Aristotle, the condemnation of 1277, in effect, liberated them to conceive new alternatives in solving longstanding problems in Aristotelian science and natural philosophy. These scholars argue that the Scientific Revolution has its roots in the condemnation of the 1277. In the generation after the Condemnations of 1277, a number of philosophers developed ideas about motion and astronomy that one can argue that those ideas appeared in a way or another in the heliocentric model or new physics. Question: which one of the following statement or statements seems correct? B-From this point of view, the Scientific Revolution did not begin with Copernicus in the sixteenth century, as is usually held, but 250 years earlier with Catholic scientific intellectuals and their response to the condemnation of 1277. A-Because of the condemnation of 1277, scholars tried to find reasonable non-Aristotelian ides to explain some natural phenomena. For example, Jean Buridan (1297 to 1358) and Nicole Oresme (1320 to 1382), among other medieval scientists, examined the possibility of the earth's daily rotation on its axis, and each offered what seem like compelling rational arguments for admitting that such motion occurs in nature. None of these statements is correct. All of these statements in A, B and C are correct. C-The condemnations allowed science to consider possibilities that the great philosopher (Aristotle) never envisioned. The condemnations seem definitely to have promoted a freer and more imaginative way of doing science.

B-From this point of view, the Scientific Revolution did not begin with Copernicus in the sixteenth century, as is usually held, but 250 years earlier with Catholic scientific intellectuals and their response to the condemnation of 1277.

Guido Panciroli (1523 - 1599), the Paduan professor who composed the Nova reperta (1599), raised a question which has ever since troubled students of the origins of cannons. He asked: Guns as well as Printing were found out by the Chinese many Ages ago. But how is it possible or credible that an Instrument so necessary for the besieged to repel the Attacks of their Enemies should lie dormant so long? Whereas, as soon as ever the Use of Guns was known to the Venetians in 1380, it was presently communicated to the other Peoples so that now nothing is more common throughout the World. In your opinion, which option can offer an appropriate answer to Panciroli's question? Group of answer choices Since chemistry was one of the seven liberal arts taught in European universities since the 12th century, European chemists were able to produce the best gunpowder and other explosive substances by the beginning of the 13th century. Because Europe, unlike China, was composed of competing states and nationalities involved in intense religious and cultural hostilities that China did not experience. Rapid progress in technological advancement has more often occurred in a context of tension and war than in the quiet of isolation and peace. Even Chinese neighbors did not have cannons or firearms to initiate a competition and cause innovations. Panciroli did not know that much about history of China. Chinese used gunpowder in their muskets, rifles and cannons, and printed inexpensive books by typesetting before Europeans and these technologies were by no means dormant. Actually, Chinese transferred this technology to Latin West and even the Americas. Chinese didn't use cannons and rockets for a long time because of their peace treaties with neighboring states.

Because Europe, unlike China, was composed of competing states and nationalities involved in intense religious and cultural hostilities that China did not experience. Rapid progress in technological advancement has more often occurred in a context of tension and war than in the quiet of isolation and peace. Even Chinese neighbors did not have cannons or firearms to initiate a competition and cause innovations.

The new weaponry appearing in Europe in the fifteenth century required large increases in the budgets of European governments. During the second half of the fifteenth century, for example, as the Military Revolution took hold, tax revenues in western Europe apparently doubled in real terms. From the 1440s to the 1550s, as a further example, the French artillery increased its annual consumption of gunpowder from 20,000 pounds to 500,000 pounds, and the number of French gunners rose from 40 to 275. Infantry, now bristling with handguns, once again became a dominant arm on the field of battle. As a result, over the next two centuries the size of standing armies of several European states jumped dramatically from the range of 10,000 to 100,000 soldiers. During the last 70 years of the seventeenth century alone the French army grew from 150,000 to perhaps 400,000. European governments poured money into the development of these new and expensive systems of fortifications, but they strained the resources of even the richest European states. Offense and defense alternated in an escalating pattern of challenge and response. Question: Why did the Military Revolution shift power from local feudal authorities to centralized kingdoms and nation-states? Group of answer choices Because only larger political entities, notably centralized nation-states with taxing power or other mercantile wealth, could afford the new weaponry and its attendant fortifications. Because local feudal authorities and knights united and established bigger regional powers, composed of thousands of knights. None of these is correct. Because by the establishment of centralized kingdoms Europeans gained enough power to defeat Muslims. The reconquer of the Holy Land in th third crusade was a direct result of this unification.

Because only larger political entities, notably centralized nation-states with taxing power or other mercantile wealth, could afford the new weaponry and its attendant fortifications.

Fill the blank: Before Greek and Islamic science could provide the basis of a scientific curriculum for the university, that corpus of knowledge had to be made available through extensive programs of translation into Latin. The great Muslim city of Toledo fell to the Christians in 1085 (another indication of the new power of an expansive European civilization), and Toledo became the center of translation activity where teams of translators rendered classic scientific and philosophical texts from Arabic into Latin and Hebrew. (BLANK) intellectuals in Spain played an important role in this activity by translating from (BLANK) into (BLANK) for themselves and into Spanish for their Christian collaborators and patrons, who would further render the work from Spanish into Latin. A. Italian, Greek, Arabic B. British, Greek, English C. Jewish, Arabic, Hebrew D. German, Arabic, Greek

C. Jewish, Arabic, Hebrew

Agriculture was not the only activity in which technology contributed to the rise of medieval Europe. In military affairs technological innovations produced some of the unique developments that characterize European feudalism and that begin to account for Europe's eventual global dominance. One of the definitive figures of European feudalism, the armored knight mounted on an armored charger, was created by a key piece of technology: the stirrup. In Europe prior to the eighth century the mounted warrior remained mounted only until he reached the field of battle, where he dismounted and fought on foot. Without stirrups to provide stability only the most skilled horsemen could fight as true cavalry and could swing a sword or stretch a bow without losing his mount. The Chinese invented the stirrup in the fifth century AD, and it thereafter diffused westward. With no moving parts, the stirrup is a deceptively simple piece of technology, but in stabilizing a warrior on his horse it allows for fighting on horseback without dismounting. With stirrups, a rider with a lance hooked to his armor became a formidable unit where momentum replaced muscle in a new style of warfare, (mounted shock combat). Then, this armored warrior, the knight, found a special place in European feudal setting. The feudal system was based on rights and obligations. In exchange for military protection and other services, a lord, or landowner, granted land called a fief. The person receiving a fief was called a vassal. Feudalism depended on the control of land. The structure of feudal society was much like a pyramid. At the peak reigned the king. Next came the most powerful vassals—wealthy landowners such as nobles and bishops. Serving beneath these vassals were knights: In the following statements, which describes the role of knights better and looks historically correct? A. To control a state, the new European armored fighters or knights, had to take fortified towns, regardless of whether they defeated their enemies' field armies. As a result, the most common battles of the era were sieges, hugely time-consuming and expensive affairs. Storming a fortified city could result in massive casualties and cities, which did not surrender before an assault, were usually destroyed by cannons or naval blockade. B. United as a guild, the new European armored fighters or knights, established the first battle-hardened and well-trained, well-equipped military in the world. Because they had to fight with neighboring countries, they improved all of every basic training program and evolved into first military systems of countries like Germany, France and England. They also developed new types of muskets, cannons, and hand-held firearms. C. The new European technology of mounted shock combat meshed easily with the manorial system brought about by the Agricultural Revolution. The knight replaced the peasant-soldier common in the early Middle Ages, and being a knight became a full-time job. The cost of equipping the traditional knight in shining armor, while substantial, lay within the means of a local lord. D. The system resulted in truly feudal relations, wherein vassal knights pledged their loyalty and their arms to a higher feudal lord in exchange for part of the lord's domain to be governed and taxed in the lord's name. Such local relations were especially apt for the decentralized character of European societies in the Middle Ages. E. As the most powerful organization in the administration of the society and the only sector to control firearms, gunpowder and cannons, knights were able to structure the society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labor. None of these is correct

C. The new European technology of mounted shock combat meshed easily with the manorial system brought about by the Agricultural Revolution. The knight replaced the peasant-soldier common in the early Middle Ages, and being a knight became a full-time job. The cost of equipping the traditional knight in shining armor, while substantial, lay within the means of a local lord. The system resulted in truly feudal relations, wherein vassal knights pledged their loyalty and their arms to a higher feudal lord in exchange for part of the lord's domain to be governed and taxed in the lord's name. Such local relations were especially apt for the decentralized character of European societies in the Middle Ages.

The development of European civilization created new external conditions for science and natural philosophy and set the stage for a vital new culture of learning that emerged in Europe. In what is known as the "Renaissance of the twelfth century," European scholars came into contact with, and themselves began to build on, the philosophical and scientific traditions of antiquity and its continuation. And just as Europe was singular in its method of intensifying agriculture and in its use of machinery, it was also singular in founding an institution to harbor higher learning—the university, which was basically secular and independent. The university had a loose connection with the church and state authority. Against the background of weakly organized learning in the early Middle Ages, the appearance of the European university in the twelfth century and its rapid spread across Europe mark an institutional watershed in the history of science and learning. Instruction in medicine arose in the independent principality of Salerno in Italy in the ninth century, but the union of students and faculty that developed at Bologna usually ranks as the first university in Europe. The University of Paris followed by 1200, Oxford by 1220, and perhaps eighty additional universities appeared by 1500. The rise of the European university coincided with burgeoning cities and growing wealth made possible by the Agricultural Revolution, for universities were decidedly urban institutions, not rural like the monasteries, and they depended (and depend) on an idle student body with the means to pay for and the job prospects to justify attending universities. Mark the correct option: E-None of the above C-They were not state organs, but rather remained independent, typically feudal institutions—chartered corporations with distinct legal privileges under only the loose authority of the church and state. Privileges included the institutional right to grant degrees and freedom from town control. As essentially autonomous, self-governing institutions, universities thus fell in a middle ground between the total state control typical of the bureaucracies of the great empires and the wholly individualistic character of Hellenic science. B-Despite occasional claims to the contrary, the European university was a unique institution. Modeled after the craft guilds of medieval Europe, universities evolved as nominally secular communities of students and master teachers, either as guilds of students (as in Bologna) who employed professors or as guilds of master teachers (as in Paris) who took fees from students. Moreover, universities did not depend on state or individual patronage like the scribal schools of antiquity or the Islamic madrasa. A-Europeans established their universities upon Islamic higher education institutes or madrasas. The word university is a translation of the Arabic term al- Jame'a which roughly means a place for higher education. Europeans became aware of these institutes through their contacts with Muslims in southern Spain by mid-11 century. The influence of Islamic higher education system on European universities is evident in the curriculum (the Seven Liberal Arts), administration and even the name of the 11-century European higher education institute. D-Both B and C are correct

D-Both B and C are correct

The appearance of new technologies in Europe after the 11th century produced a variety of social consequences, both progressive and problematical. For example, the heavy plow made it possible to farm new lands, particularly the rich, alluvial soils on the European plain, and this ability helps account for the northward shift of European agriculture in the Middle Ages. Then, because the heavy plow and its team of oxen or horses was an expensive tool, beyond the capacities of individual peasant farmers to own, it brought a new type of ownership and patterns of communal agriculture and communal animal husbandry, thus solidifying the medieval village and the manorial system as the bedrock of European society at least through the French Revolution. Among the social impacts of the employment of the heavy plow and its traction animals on equipment ownership, one can refer to A. Because the heavy plow and its traction team was expensive tool and individual peasant farmers were not able to own it, it brought collective ownership and patterns of communal agriculture and communal animal husbandry. B. Increase in production and wealth, created a bipolar society with very rich and very poor people. The gap between the rich and poor increased and later caused several social turbulences and revolutions. C. The need for more heavy plows had impact on iron production and manufacturing methods of the agricultural tools. To solve these practical problems, the first automated factories to produce agricultural tools appeared in Western Europe in the 15th century. D. The possibility of farming in cold and heavy-soil lands in northern Europe caused a massive migration towards the north. As a result, local wars and formation of new city-states changed the political setting of Europe, mainly in Scandinavia.

D. The possibility of farming in cold and heavy-soil lands in northern Europe caused a massive migration towards the north. As a result, local wars and formation of new city-states changed the political setting of Europe, mainly in Scandinavia.

From the 4th to 13th Centuries, European knowledge and study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music was limited mainly to Boethius' translations of some of the works of ancient Greek masters such as Nicomachus and Euclid. All trade and calculation were made using the clumsy and inefficient Roman numeral system, and with an abacus. By the 12th Century, though, Europe, and particularly Italy, was beginning to trade with the East, and Eastern knowledge gradually began to spread to the West. Robert of Chester translated Al-Khwarizmi's important book on algebra into Latin in the 12th Century, and the complete text of Euclid's "Elements" was translated in various versions by Adelard of Bath, Herman of Carinthia and Gerard of Cremona. The great expansion of trade and commerce in general created a growing practical need for mathematics, and arithmetic entered much more into the lives of common people and was no longer limited to the academic realm. In the 15th and 16th centuries European mathematics underwent a reorientation in a practical direction to meet the new requirements of bankers and businessmen who had to deal with a vastly increased supply of money and a rapid rise in the numbers of transactions they completed. The mounting requirements of technicians in navigation, gunnery, astronomy, military architecture, and art also increased the demand for improvement of calculation techniques. To meet these demands more effectively the writers of arithmetic books and other practical manuals quickly turned to a simpler numeral and reckoning system which they learned from their Eastern neighbors. This system was: Calculus Hindu Arabic reckoning system Logarithm AbacusAlgebra

Hindu Arabic reckoning system

There is an idea that there is a corresponding similarity in pattern, nature, or structure between human beings and the universe. This concept is found throughout the history of thought from ancient times through the Renaissance, and in various religious traditions including Buddhism and the Upanishads. Similar concepts were held by hermetic philosophers like Paracelsus, and by Baruch Spinoza, Leibniz, and later by Friedrich Schelling (1775-1854). Paracelsus believed that there is a structural similarity between the human being and the cosmos as a whole. With this introduction, the name Paracelsus reminds you: Astrolabe; Cross-Staff; Sextant; Longitude; Mechanical clock Geocentric system; Ptolemy; Planetary Hypothesis; Navigation; Rhumb line; Declination; Magnetic needle Macrocosm-Microcosm relations; materia medica; Neo Platonism, the Kabbala,

Macrocosm-Microcosm relations; materia medica; Neo Platonism, the Kabbala,

Europe possessed an advanced technology in scientific instruments at the beginning of the 16th century. During and after the 16th century, the clockmakers were among the most innovative and ingenious of Europe's craftsmen. But they, like other instrument makers, concentrated upon improving and perfecting existing creations rather than experimenting with the manufacture of new devices. Technical advance slowed down in the second half of the sixteenth century in all branches of mechanical endeavor. [The most conspicuous aspect of this slowdown was the fact that they were learning about each other's productions and were trying to mimic those technologies.] This deceleration in innovation may have been connected with Absence of teaching modern technology in universities. Technology and engineering had no place in Liberal Art Continues wars between city states forced artisans to make more weapons than clocks Progress in communication, migration of artisans from place to place, and publication of books with detailed illustrations had the effect of forcing the conscientious artisan to read about the works of his colleagues elsewhere before undertaking experiments on his own. The statement is incorrect: there was no slowdown in mechanical endeavor of the 16th century.

Progress in communication, migration of artisans from place to place, and publication of books with detailed illustrations had the effect of forcing the conscientious artisan to read about the works of his colleagues elsewhere before undertaking experiments on his own.

In the 15th century, explorers took to the high seas in search of new worlds and exotic treasures. To navigate, seafarers could determine their latitude by using a sextant to observe the position of the sun at midday or bright stars at night. Unfortunately, determining longitude was more difficult. Because the earth rotates, measuring longitude requires both a sextant and an accurate clock. In the 15th and 16th centuries, clocks were insufficiently accurate to navigate with any certainty, and this all too often led to disaster. Visibility of this burning maritime issue was heightened in 1707 when Admiral Sir Cloudesly Shovell miscalculated his position and wrecked his flagship and 3 other British warships off the Scillies, losing nearly 2,000 lives, including his own. Even though his main error was in latitude estimation, exacerbated by the persistent fog so that he could see neither night sky or daytime sun, longitude continued to be, generally, the biggest source of error. In 1714 Sir Isaac Newton explained "for determining the Longitude at sea, there have been several projects, true in theory, but difficult to execute...one is by watch,...but by reason of the motion of the ship,...variation of heat and cold...such a watch hath not yet been made." Spurred to action, the British government established an official body, The Board of Longitude, in 1714. The board offered the longitude prize (£20,000 or about $2,000,000 US today) to the person who could contrive a means of resolving position at sea to within 30 nautical miles after sailing to the West Indies. This required a clock that could keep time to within 3 seconds per day. This text says that to find the latitude we need an accurate clock and by the early 1700s we were not able to determine time accurately. This text says that to find the longitude we need an accurate clock and by the early 1700s we were not able to make a clock to work accurately on the ship. This text says that to find the celestial equator we need an accurate clock and by the early 1700s we were not able to determine solar day accurately. This text says that to find both latitude and longitude we need an accurate clock and by the early 1700s we didn't have enough astronomical knowledge to calculate the length of day accurately.

This text says that to find the longitude we need an accurate clock and by the early 1700s we were not able to make a clock to work accurately on the ship.

The Antikythera Mechanism has been called an "ancient calculator," but there is so much more to it than meets the eye. The shoebox-size device has a complex gearwheel system of 30 intricate bronze gear wheels used to run a system that displayed the date, positions of the sun and moon, lunar phases, a 19-year calendar and a 223-month eclipse prediction dial. This makes it an analog computer of great complexity. No other machine of known existence shows a similarity in advanced engineering for at least another 1,000 years. The device has been dated as coming from the second or early first century B.C., according to research published in the science journal Nature. Research, published in the journal Archive for History of Exact Science in 2014, found that the mechanism was timed to begin in 205 B.C. The calendar scale represents a 360-day year and is divided into 12 months of 30 days each plus a five-day extra period, which corresponds to the Greek-Egyptian calendar. Group of answer choicesWe can conclude that the Antikythera Mechanism was made in Hellenic Greece based on Babylonian calendar.We can conclude that the Antikythera Mechanism was made in Hellenistic Greece based on Greek-Egyptian astronomical parameters.We can conclude that this ancient calculator was working based on a calendar in which there were 354 days in a lunar year and11 intercalary days, and the mechanism was able to predict the eclipse time of planets, the sun and the moon.We can conclude that the Antikythera Mechanism was made in Hellenistic Greece utilizing advanced Ptolemaic-Islamic astronomical tables.

We can conclude that the Antikythera Mechanism was made in Hellenistic Greece based on Greek-Egyptian astronomical parameters.

The alchemy of medieval Europe and the Islamic countries was derived primarily from the Hellenistic tradition. Like so many other matters, the alchemical ideas of the East were eventually transmitted to Europe through the medium of Arabic writings undertaken in the later Middle Ages. The Sino-Indian concept of the elixir of life first appeared in Western texts of the twelfth century, but it didn't find followers because of religious conflicts. However, in Christian Europe alchemy found application in medicine by: Group of answer choicesthe quest concentrated mainly on metallurgy and mineralogy, and finally connected to astrology. In this new interpretation of alchemy, the idea of macrocosm-microcosm connections became more dominant.the quest was directed to finding preparations to lengthen life and alchemy mainly was used to serve medicine in finding new medications and healings.the quest was subsequently directed to the occult science and magic, which finally led to the appearance of Neoplatonism and Pythagoreanism in Europe.

the quest was directed to finding preparations to lengthen life and alchemy mainly was used to serve medicine in finding new medications and healings.