ENS 112 - Chapter 17

We can recycle materials from landfills

Steel, aluminum, copper, and other metals are abundant enough in some landfills to make salvage operations profitable when market prices for the metals are high enough. Organic waste from landfills could be mined and composted. Older landfill waste could also be incinerated in waste-to-energy facilities to produce energy.

3 steps of recycling

Step 1: collection and processing of recyclable materials through curbside recycling or designated locations - Materials recovery facilities (MRFs): workers and machines sort, clean, shred, and prepare items Step 2: using recyclables to produce new goods - Glass, metal, paper, plastics use recycled materials Step 3: consumers buy goods made from recycled materials - Incentives for further recycling Facilities are built or expanded

Waste stream

The flow of waste as it moves from its sources to its disposal destinations.

Financial incentives

"Pay-as-you-throw" approach: residents are charged according to how much trash they put out - The less waste, the less a person has to pay Bottle bills: Consumers receive a refund for returning used bottles and cans to stores - States with bottle bills have recycling rates about 3.5 times higher than states without them. Container litter is reduced 69-84%

Deep-well injection

- A well is drilled deep beneath the water table - Waste is injected into it - A long-term disposal method - The well is isolated from groundwater and humans but the wells can corrode and leak waste

Life-cycle analysis

- Examines the life cycle of a product to make the process more ecologically efficient Industrial ecology examines how waste products can be used as raw materials - Eliminates harmful products and materials - Creates durable, recyclable, or reusable products

Surface impoundments

- Store liquid hazardous waste - Shallow depressions are lined with plastic and clay - The liquid or slurry evaporates - The residue of solid hazardous waste is transported elsewhere for disposal This storage method is only temporary - The clay layer can crack and leak waste - Rainstorms cause overflow, contaminating nearby areas

Incineration

A controlled process that burns garbage at very high temperatures - Metals are removed, and the rest is burned in a furnace - The remaining ash is toxic and must be disposed of in a hazardous waste landfill - Hazardous emissions are created and released Scrubbers - Chemically treat emissions to remove hazardous chemicals and neutralize acidic gases Fly ash - particulate matter that can be very toxic Baghouse - huge filters that physically remove fly ash Incineration reduces the volume of waste and can generate electricity

Hazardous waste

A liquid, solid, or gas that is either: Ignitable - Easily catches fire (natural gas, alcohol) Corrosive - Corrodes metals in storage tanks or equipment Reactive - Chemically unstable and readily reacts with other compounds - Often explosively or by producing noxious fumes Toxic - Harms human health when inhaled, ingested, or touched Industry produces the largest amount of hazardous waste but waste generation and disposal are highly regulated Households: the largest source of unregulated hazardous waste - Paint, batteries, oils, solvents, cleaners, , lubricants, pesticides, etc.

Waste

Any unwanted material or substance that results from a human activity or process.

Landfill gas

Bacterial decomposition creates a mix of gases that consists of 50% methane that can be collected, processed, and used like natural gas

Businesses are adopting industrial ecology

Businesses are saving money while reducing waste Interface, a carpet tile company, asks customers to return used tiles for recycling and reuse - Reduced waste and adapted its boilers to use landfill gas for energy - Cut waste generation by 80%, fossil fuel use by 45%, and water use by 70% - Saved $30 million/year, held prices steady, and raised profits by 49% Swiss Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives (ZERI) helps businesses—such as breweries—create goods and services without generating waste

Who pays for clean up?

CERCLA operates under the polluter-pays principle: charge polluting parties for cleanup however, the responsible parties often can't be found - A trust fund was established by a federal tax on the petroleum and chemical industries - The fund is bankrupt, and Congress has not restored it; taxpayers now pay all costs of cleanup Fewer cleanups are being completed - 1326 sites remain, and only 375 have been cleaned up - Each cleanup costs $25 million and takes 15 years

Composting recovers organic waste

Composting (Municipal and Home) - The conversion of organic waste into mulch or humus through natural decomposition - Earthworms, bacteria, and other detritivores and decomposers convert waste into high-quality compost to enrich soil College campus composting programs - Ball State University, Indiana shreds surplus furniture and wood pallets to make mulch to nourish on campus plants - Ithaca College, New York composts 44% of its food waste / saves $11,500 disposal fees - Plantings also grow better with the compost mix

Reuse is a main strategy to reduce waste

Consumers have many options for reusing items to further reduce waste. Look at table 17.1 for reference.

Consumption leads to waste

Consumption is greatly increasing in developing nations - Rising standard of living, more packaging, poor-quality goods - Poor people support themselves by selling items they scavenge from dumps Developed countries have improved their waste collection and disposal, and the proportion of waste going to landfills has declined. - This corresponds to an increase in recycling and composting.

Drawbacks of landfills

Despite improved technology, liners can be punctured Leachate collection systems won't be kept up It takes decades for waste to decay The not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) syndrome: residents don't want landfills in their areas - Wealthy, educated people have the political clout to prevent landfills from being sited in their neighborhoods - Landfills are disproportionately sited in poor and minority communities

Steps that precede hazardous waste disposal

Facilities that generate, transport, or dispose of hazardous waste must report to the EPA the type and amount of material generated; its location, origin, and destination; and the way it is handled. - This creates high disposal costs, which result in some companies illegally dumping the waste or exporting it to developing countries

Industrial solid waste

From production of goods, mining, agriculture, petroleum extraction and refining. - Is not municipal or hazardous waste State and local governments regulate industrial solid waste, with regulation generally being less strict than for municipal solid waste. Industry bases most of its practices on economic efficiency instead of physical efficiency, where less waste is produced per product.

Organic compounds and heavy metal pose hazards

Many synthetic organic compounds are toxic because they are readily absorbed through the skin and can act as mutagens, carcinogens, teratogens, and endocrine disruptors. - They are also persistent, meaning they do not break down easily. Heavy metals like lead and mercury are fat soluble and break down slowly, making them prone to bioaccumulate and biomagnify.

Source reduction

Minimize the amount of waste generated (source reduction) - The preferred approach Recover waste materials and recycle them Dispose of waste safely and effectively

Contaminated sites are being cleaned up

In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA). - This created a hazardous waste site cleanup program called the Superfund. Later laws charged the EPA with cleaning up brownfields, lands that contain hazardous materials. The EPA must also clean up brownfields - Lands whose reuse or development is complicated by the presence of hazardous materials Two events spurred creation of Superfund legislation - In Love Canal, Niagara Falls, New York, in 1978-1980, families were evacuated after buried chemicals rose to the surface - Times Beach, Missouri, was evacuated after contamination with dioxin from oil sprayed on roads Once a Superfund site is identified, EPA scientists note: - How close the site is to human habitation - Whether wastes are currently confined or likely to spread - Whether the site threatens drinking water supplies Harmful sites are placed on the National Priority List - Ranked by their level of risk to human health - Cleanup occurs as funds are available - As of 2017, 1336 Superfund sites remained on the National Priorities List, and only 393 had been cleaned up or otherwise deleted from the list.

Landfills can be transformed after closure

In 1988, the U.S. had 8000 landfills - Today there are fewer than 2000, but they are large Cities have converted closed landfills into public parks, stadiums, gardens, wetlands, and festival events

Industrial ecology

Integrates principles from engineering, chemistry, ecology, and economics to maximize both physical and economic efficiency. - The goal is to function more like ecological systems, in which organisms use almost everything that is produced. This involves making several changes to industrial processes.

Methods for hazardous waste disposal

Landfills do not lessen the hazards of the substances but they help keep the substance isolated from people, wildlife, and ecosystems Hazardous waste landfills - Their design and construction standards are stricter than those for ordinary sanitary landfills - Must have several impervious liners and leachate removal systems - Must be located far from aquifers

Leachate

Liquid from trash dissolved by rainwater - It is collected and treated in landfills - Collection systems must be maintained for 30 years after a landfill is closed - Landfills must be located away from wetlands and earthquake-prone faults, and at least 6 meters above the water table.

Municipal solid waste

Nonliquid waste from homes, institutions, and small businesses. Most U.S. municipal solid waste ("trash" or "garbage") consists of paper, yard debris, food scraps, and plastics Most municipal solid waste comes from packaging and nondurable goods (discarded after a short time of use) As we get more goods, we generate more waste - U.S. citizens generate 4.1 lb/person each day - Critics label the U.S. the "throwaway society" - U.S. waste decreased slightly from 2005 to 2012

Reducing waste is our best option

Packaging is a major source of waste that can be easily reduced. - Consumers can buy unwrapped produce or buy food in bulk. - Manufacturers can switch to packaging that is recyclable or reduce the size and weight of their containers. Some governments are beginning to tax and restrict the use of plastic shopping bags, because they persist for so long and are often littered.

A Mania for Recycling on Campus

Recyclemania is a competition that pits educational institutions against one another. Participating colleges and universities win categories such as "highest recycling rate" and "most material recycled." Recyclemania is the biggest of a growing number of campus competitions in the name of sustainability Recycling reduces pollution from the mining of new resources and the manufacture of new goods. - Recyclemania, for example, prevented the release of nearly 2.37 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. Similar competitions have schools compete in other ways, such as savings in water use and energy use. Programs like this have made recycling the most widespread activity among campus sustainability efforts.

Waste-to-energy (WTE) facilities

Use the heat produced by waste combustion to create electricity.

Recycling has grown rapidly

Various programs and efforts have increased recycling rates in the United States from 6.4% of the waste stream in 1960 to 25.7% in 2014. - One example is "trash audits," where trashcans are emptied and recyclable materials are removed. Recycling rates vary greatly from one material to another. Low commodity prices can make municipal recycling programs unprofitable. - These market prices do not reflect external costs of not recycling, such as increased greenhouse gas emissions.

Electronic waste (e-waste)

Waste involving electronic devices - Computers, printers, cell phones, TVs, MP3 players They are put in landfills but should be treated as hazardous waste - Valuable trace minerals can be recovered - the 2010 Olympic medals were made from e-waste! - Cell phone = $1 precious metals

Sanitary landfills

Waste is buried in the ground or piled in large mounds to prevent contamination and health threats - U.S. landfills must meet the EPA's national standards under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 Waste is partly decomposed by bacteria and compresses under its own weight to make more space - Soil layers reduce odor, speed decomposition, reduce infestation by pests - Closed landfills must be capped and maintained

Conclusion

We have made great strides in addressing our waste problems Modern methods of waste management are far safer for people and gentler on the environment Recycling and composting are growing rapidly but our prodigious consumption has created more waste than ever before The best solution to our waste problem is to reduce generation of waste