Environmental Geoscience

● Know the differences between the 1960s Environmental Movement and the Conservation Movement from the late 1800s. What factors contributed to both movements? (PART 2)

Conservation Movement from the late 1800s - By the end of the 19th century most of the land and natural resources of the West had been claimed and the frontier had come to a close. - "The perception of abundant unexploited lands teeming with wildlife and fertile soils turned into waste resources and inefficient use." (Merchant, 2002) Timber companies cut trees without reforestation Ranchers overgrazed the grasslands Mining companies also overexploited the lands Awareness of misuse land sparked the conservation movement Conservation: The act or practice of conserving; protection from loss, waste and preservation. The official care and protection of natural resources, as wildlife -"Between 1850 and 1920, concern for the natural world emerged as a complex and broadly popular political and cultural movement in the United States. Newly urbanized Americans were becomingly increasingly aware of the importance of nature as an economic, aesthetic, and spiritual resource, especially as they became convinced that nature's resources were imperiled by industrialization. This movement led to unprecedented public and private initiatives to ensure the conservation of natural resources and the preservation of wildlife and of land" (Wisconsin Historical Society) -"The early conservation movement included fisheries and wildlife conservation, water, soil conservation and sustainable forestry. The contemporary conservation movement has broadened from the early movement's emphasis on use of sustainable yield of natural resources and preservation of wilderness areas to include preservation of biodiversity. The conservation movement is part of the broader and more far-reaching environmental movement" (Wikipedia) Recurring word in these definitions: preservation • Protection • NaturalResources • Sustainability • Human use • Renewal • Preservation • Management *** Future use of resources rather than out of intrinsic value • Common Thread: resources should be preserved (for future use). During the Conservation Movement natural resources were to be protected so they wouldn't be wasted. Some individuals wanted to push for the preservation of beautiful, scenic areas (e.g. John Muir, Teddy Roosevelt). • The consensus was that the land should be preserved for human benefit, whether it means preserving timber for future generations or scenic land for human enjoyment (getting back to "nature", escaping the urban environment, hunting /fishing etc. • Note that in the "conservation" definition there is no language explaining that "nature" should be preserved for its own sake; that "nature" has a right to exist irrespective of whether it is beneficial to humans or not: later with Environmental Movement • Historical context: Earlier, the West was viewed as limitless. The "Conservation" of such a limitless resource was heretical, anti-economic, anti-American • Today, the notion of conservation (ex: National Parks) is commonplace and few would really argue against their existence

● Know the differences between the 1960s Environmental Movement and the Conservation Movement from the late 1800s. What factors contributed to both movements?

1960s Environmental Movement • The Environmental Movement represents a grassroots effort to raise public awareness & help preserve quality of life (Clean Air, Safe Drinking Water, Endangered Species, eliminate lead in gas etc.) • Prompted by the general public as opposed to Conservation Movement, which was more of an upper- class movement to conserve resources • Environmental Movement sought to protect wildlife and nature, not just because they had explicit value to humans, but because the environment should be preserved and protected for its own sake • Intrinsic vs Instrumental value • Spurred by incidents such as Three Other Contributing Factors • Color TV: blue or green toxins spilling into a stream, red whale blood are more dramatic in color • Environmental Ad campaigns on TV, such as "The Crying Indian" where he cries over litter, pollution etc. (YouTube it!) • Apollo 11 landing on the Moon: seeing Earth from space may have helped contribute to a more environmental mindset • Different perspective: planet is a finite object • Disappearance of Wildlife: due to over-hunting, habitat loss, pollution etc., • National symbol: Bald Eagle • Removed from the list of Endangered Species in 2007 • Buffalo, American Alligator, Wild Turkey etc. • The 60s was a time of major social/political change in the US • Civil Rights Movement, Anti-war protests etc. helped fuel and influence the Environmental Movement • People socially conscious & active US Government Response to the Environmental Movement • Duringthelate1960s-1970smuchofthe Nation's environmental legislation was passed • These laws represent one of the first attempts by any major industrialized nation to pass laws to protect the environment • These were sparked by public concern for the environment, recognition of human impact on the environment & intrinsic value of nature • This is a bottom-up(grassroots)as opposed to a top-down movement •US Environmental Legislation of the 1960s - 1970s National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 1969 - Decreed that any "major" or "significant" action by the federal government must consider the environmental impact - Prior to action, there must be an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), which is an investigation into how the proposed action would impact air, water, species, noise, culture, archeology, etc. - This only applies to federal actions (not private development; it also doesn't include military actions), however if a private developer has to get a federal permit, then that becomes a "federal action" that would warrant an EIS - EX: wetlands are regulated by the Army Corps of Engineers (ACE), Department of Defense, as mandated by Section 404 of the Clean Water Act of 1972. If a developer wishes to develop a wetland, the developer would have to get a permit through the ACE. Because this is a federal permit it becomes a federal action, and thus the developer would be required to have an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) - NEPA also created the Council on Environmental Quality (part of the Executive Branch) that is in charge of EIS format, regulations, and reviews.

● What is the Superfund program? Why was Superfund created? Give an example of a Superfund site [either from your local area or from the course]

A superfund site is an area contaminated by toxic and hazardous waste. Superfund National Priority list (NPL): List for priority sites by the EPA Comprehensive Environment Response, Compensation & Liability Act (CERCLA): 1980 According to the EPA, it is law created a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries and provided broad Federal authority to respond directly to releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances that may endanger public health or the environment -Superfund program is responsible for cleaning some of the country's most contaminated land and also responds to environmental emergencies -Under EPA -In charge of emergency response (oil spills), early action (clean drinking water to neighborhood) and long term action (may take years, groundwater cleanup) Example: Ward Transformer §Handled and recycled transformers, switchgear and a variety of electrical equipment §1964 to 2006 §Added to NPL in 2003 §PCB spilled and contaminated land, creeks and lakes 6 miles downstream -Fish tissue, sediment and soil §420,000 tons of PCB-contaminated material found

● Know the differences between the 1960s Environmental Movement and the Conservation Movement from the late 1800s. What factors contributed to both movements? (PART 1.5)

Additional Legislation from Env. Movement: • Clean Air Act 1963: set regulations for air quality • Wilderness Act 1964: legally defined wilderness; set aside close to 9 million acres of Wilderness to be federally protected • Clean Water Act 1972: restricted effluent to waterways, protected wetlands, charged the Army Corps of Engineers to protect all "navigable waterways", set regulations for water quality • Marine Mammals Act 1972: prevents the hunting, killing, collecting, etc. of marine mammals (even within the 'high seas') • Safe Drinking Water Act 1972: Set drinking water standards • Endangered Species Act 1973: prevents government and private individuals from taking, collecting, hunting, molesting, trapping, etc. species that are endangered. It also provides protection for "critical habitat" of endangered species

● Explain how nuclear energy works. Do you support an increase in the use of nuclear energy in the US? Why/why not?

Atoms are the tiny particles in the molecules that make up gases, liquids, and solids. Atoms themselves are made up of three particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons. An atom has a nucleus (or core) containing protons and neutrons, which is surrounded by electrons. Protons carry a positive electrical charge, and electrons carry a negative electrical charge. Neutrons do not have an electrical charge. Enormous energy is present in the bonds that hold the nucleus together. This nuclear energy can be released when those bonds are broken. The bonds can be broken through nuclear fission, and this energy can be used to produce (generate) electricity. -How it works: chain reaction that uses fuel from mined and processed uranium to make steam and generate electricity. It produces a constant supply of power without emitting greenhouse gases and has one of the lowest environmental impacts on land and natural resources -Many power plants run on fossil fuels like coal and gas to generate the heat, but nuclear uses nuclear fission -Good because does not produce greenhouse gas emissions but has risk (like chernobyl) if there is a meltdown • Nuclear reactions: - Fission: one large atom splits into smaller daughter atoms - Fusion: two smaller atoms fuse to form a larger atom • Fusion occurs within the sun where hydrogen atoms fuse to form helium • At this time, fusion is not possible on the Earth - only fission • Electricity generated by harnessing energy released during fission

● What is the Malthusian perspective on population growth? What was Thomas Malthus' main prediction regarding unchecked human population growth? Did his prediction come true? Why or why not?

Human population growth is exponential, but agricultural growth is arithmetic. • Eventually population would outstrip the available resources. • Eventually the power of humans to reproduce would be more powerful than the ability of the Earth to sustain it overpopulation Poverty was consequence of population growth - Population growth leads to poverty when the population increases faster than the food supply - Overpopulation leads to lower wages and a labor surplus, further exacerbating poverty - Malthus believed that the Poor should show "moral restraint" to curb high reproductive habits. Poverty is to be blamed on the Poor. (It's their own fault that they are poor) - Poor should adopt 'middle-class' values to avoid overpopulation - Malthus was skeptical that the Poor where capable of doing this (Social Darwinism), and thus the Poor would remain poor - Opposed welfare because it might encourage more poverty Malthusian ideas have been criticized: • One of the biggest criticisms: his interpretation about the arithmetic increase in the food supply was incorrect. Food production has increased in the last several decades, due to Green Revolution: increase in technological advances (e.g. precision agriculture, development of new resistant crops etc.). Food supply has kept pace (and may have possibly exceeded) human population growth

● What do the terms renewable & non-renewable mean? Be able to describe a renewable and a non-renewable energy source. What are the advantages/disadvantages of each example?

Non: coal, nuclear, oil, natural gas Advantages: very reliable and not subject to weather conditions, advancements are helping make them not as bad for the environment Disadvantages: fossil fuels have a limited supply, can cause environmental impacts (like oil spills), nuclear power plants cause massive risks Major renewable: solar, wind, water, biomass, geothermal Advantages: do not release pollutants into the environment, costs are decreasing as technology gets better Expensive to set up initially and maintain, can be impacted by weather (wind ex) • Renewable energy resources are those that regenerate (on human timescales) • In theory, shouldn't run out • Solar Power • Wind Power • Hydroelectric Power • Geothermal Power • Tidal Power • Biomass • Vehicles Advantages of Renewable Energy • Because these energy sources are renewable, they would provide a 'clean' alternative to fossil fuels - Renewable energy is relatively pollution-free - No GHGs, acid-rain-producing or smog-producing compounds are released during power generation - Renewable energy sources (solar) are readily available and 'reliable' - Produced domestically - FFs eventually depleted "Barriers" for Renewable Energy • Our way of life, economy, power grid, transport system, energy infrastructure built around FFs • FFs "efficient", heavily subsidized, infrastructure • To compete, Renewables need: • Massive 'front-end' investment • Relatively short period of time • Not always practical for large-scale energy • R & D critical: storage etc. • NOT to say they aren't valuable and that we shouldn't be investing in them....... • For each type of energy source, think about: - The advantages: unlimited source, no pollution, etc. - The disadvantages: environmental consequences, limitations to development, other drawbacks - The practicality (or cost/benefit): how likely are these energy sources to provide reliable energy to the masses? How can they be improved? Nonrenewable resources: cannot be replenished on human timescales There are four major types of nonrenewable resources: oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy. Oil, natural gas, and coal are collectively called fossil fuels. Fossil fuels were formed within the Earth from dead plants and animals over millions of years—hence the name "fossil" fuels. • "Fossil:" 'Fossilized' organic matter (plants etc.) buried for millions of years: heat and pressure • "Fuel:" Energy stored within tissues is released upon combustion etc. • Our entire way of life dependent on FFs • Hydrocarbons sequestered for millions of years: consumed in about 200 yrs • Nonrenewable resources: cannot be replenished on human timescales

● What is an invasive species? Why are they considered a major environmental threat? Be able to describe 2 invasive species in detail. How/why were these species introduced? What are the factors that make invasive species 'successful' in their introduced habitat? (PART 2)

Red Fire Ants • Introduced into Mobile Bay in the 1930s from the importation of bananas when ships from South America used dirt (with fire ant nest) as a ballast • When cargo offloaded, ships dumped ballast on shore & fire ants found a 'new' & favorable environment in which to live: without any competition or predation • They have since spread throughout the Southeast (advancing northward) & westward across the Sunbelt • Can 'swim', climb etc. so they are VERY mobile • Range limited by cold winter climates where they cannot over-winter & survive • Fire ants swarm anything that disturbs their nest • Their bite is painful and many people have allergic reactions to the venom (& die) • Fire ants will attack anything: pets, small children, ground-nesting birds, other ground-dwelling insect species, other wildlife etc. - Endangered Attwater's Prairie Chicken vulnerable • Extremely difficult (& expensive!) to combat • Economic impacts up to $6.7 BN in US alone: damage power line poles, chew insulation, kill newborn calves, damage mowers, medical costs, turf agriculture, nest in utility boxes & homes etc. • Biological controls being evaluated: have to be sure about unintended environmental consequences Alligator weed: introduced into alabama via ballast water in a South American Ship in the late 1800s. This vine is spreading throughout the SE US wetlands, ponds as a dense, surface mat of vegitation From monospecific stands the blocks light and out-compete native flora which ends up impacting native fauna. This is damaging to the ecosystem and recreation: boating and swimming. Problem for irrigation and agriculture, aquaculture Health risk increase because mosquito habitat. When vegetation dies: uses DO

● What is biodiversity? Why is it important to preserve biodiversity on Earth? How is biodiversity on earth threatened?

Refers to variety of species living on earth, greater diversity means more sustainability -Important for food, fuel, shelter and medicine (always more to discover) -Extinction threatens biodiversity, humans are big threat because of our growth and destruction of earth • The term "biodiversity" was used in the 1980s & is thought to have been coined by W.G. Rosen • Prior to this, the term 'biological diversity' was used - The term 'Natural diversity' was also common • Term came into popular use after renowned ecologist E.O. Wilson's book "Biodiversity" (1988) • You will be given the opening chapter in the 'Week 11' folder where Wilson discusses the total number of species (known) on earth & why this is so obviously difficult to quantify • See 'catalogued' vs 'predicted' species on earth Loss of Biodiversity • The Center for Biological Diversity reported that 631 species went extinct in N America between the period 1642-2001 A.D. • Global biodiversity losses cost ~$4.5 Trillion/year • Endemic species most at risk: these can only be found in 1 habitat and nowhere else - Rosy Periwinkle from Madagascar is a great example • This is only what we can 'quantify' or what we can place 'value' on • This is also conditional upon the species we have been able to identify and quantify....... • Many species are still being discovered and studied

● What is eutrophication? How does this occur? Why is eutrophication a problem? Describe this issue in the context of point source vs. non-point source pollution.

This is when the environment has extra nutrients. It can be bad in marine areas because of algal blooms that can either produce toxins or layer the top of water, blocking oxygen and sunlight from the creatures below, creating a domino effect • Phosphorus and nitrogen in aquatic systems are usually limiting • In nutrient-poor environments benthic organisms have an advantage over free-floating planktonic ones because they are rooted & can access nutrients within the sediment • Nutrient-poor aquatic ecosystems are called oligotrophic, which translates to "poorly fed" • It is paradoxical that an environment low in nutrients is usually the most biologically diverse! • Eutrophication translates to "well fed", and it refers to aquatic/marine ecosystem with an excess of nutrients • These stimulate the growth of aquatic vegetation • Algae grows rapidly: algal mats block sun to other vegetation (especially benthic species) • The abundance of algae decreases the biological productivity of the aquatic ecosystem • Late summer into autumn, algae dies and decomposes depleting DO • Fish kills (& further decomposition) lead to P+ Feedback that worsens the problem Gulf Coast Dead Zone • Dead Zone: area of hypoxic water that stretches along the Gulf Coast • Mississippi River drains 31 US States and 2 Canadian provinces: huge drainage area! • Drains some of the world's most productive agricultural land: lot of nutrients! • Runoff of fertilizers from this watershed empties into the Gulf of Mexico: algal blooms • Eutrophication often called 'cultural eutrophication' due to role of human activities • Impacts fisheries in Gulf: fish, shrimp, shellfish

● What is an invasive species? Why are they considered a major environmental threat? Be able to describe 2 invasive species in detail. How/why were these species introduced? What are the factors that make invasive species 'successful' in their introduced habitat?

• Definition: a species that has been introduced from another area (usually another continent) that "thrives, spreads out, & perhaps eliminates native species by predation or competition for food or space" They are introduced into an environment with physical conditions similar to their native habitat & that are well suited for their survival. • Not all invasive are clear-cut: don't always know when or where they were introduced & have become 'natural' part of environment. Some brought over for ascetics or economical good. Others unintentional. • We will focus on some clear-cut examples of when a species has been introduced and this introduction has created some sort of an Env. Problem or problem for the Biosphere • Other ways of describing invasive species include: introduced species or non-native species, nonindigenous species, alien species etc. • My least favorite is "exotic species" • Not to quibble too much about the semantics, but to me, the term exotic implies "strange" or "unusual" • Often, the term 'exotic' is associated with being tropical or a strikingly unusual or flashy species • Many of the invasive species that cause environmental issues can be unattractive (sea lamprey) or plain (cheat grass) • Change in species over time: natural occurrence • A population will disperse outside its current range, whether it directly migrates (animals) or whether it sends out seeds (plants). The dispersion is dependent on: - Dispersal capability: the organism has the means to send out colonists to new areas - The suitability of the new environment • The success of the colonist depends on the physical characteristics (temperature, moisture, lack of salinity, etc.) and biological characteristics (having enough food, competition with natives, etc.) of the new environment • A species range will also decrease over time due to local extinctions (geologic disasters, disease etc.)

● (You may want to include some of the following terms: ecological footprint, carrying capacity, population density, Rate of Natural increase etc.)

• Ecological Footprint measures human impact • Estimates the area of productive land (& ocean) required to produce the goods consumed and to absorb waste products • HI economies have higher EF • Each one of us has an EF: food, commute, energy demand etc. • Developing nations have larger families and higher pop. growth due to social, political and cultural reasons • NOTE: these are generalizations - Lack access to healthcare - High IM: ensures some children survive to adulthood - Lack of government safety-net: old age security for parents - Economic asset: Labor to help support the family, bride price - Fewer women's rights: to own land, get education, decide when (or whom) to marry - Cultural influences: male vs. female child, 'valued' for large brood • Generally, these factors must be addressed before TFR declines • Generally, we find population changes over time as a nation industrializes: Demographic Transition Earth's population has doubled in a few decades which could be good because less people are dying, people live longer, etc. Buy simultaneously, pollution increased, resource depletion continued, sea levels are rising. Technology, policies and culture influence population relationship and environment (ex energy usage has changed) Until 1960, developed nations were responsible for most of the consumption, but industrialization in developing nations has increased Policy actions can change impact - like emissions standards Developed populations are not expected to change in population, but developing worlds will see growth The ecological footprint is a measure of how much biological capacity of the planet is required by a given human activity or population (how much renewable resources do we use, how much land and sea is available)... aka how much nature do we have and how much do we use? Carrying capacity is a species population size in a particular habitat. Limited by food, water, shelter, etc and if the needs are not met, the population will decrease. Population density: measurement of population per unit of area Rate of natural increase: difference between births and deaths each year, divided by population and multiplied by a factor (the US is not changing that much but Africa and the middle east are)

● Know the differences between the 1960s Environmental Movement and the Conservation Movement from the late 1800s. What factors contributed to both movements? (PART 2.5)

• Many of the early Conservationists were affluent urbanites from the East that enjoyed exploring, fishing, camping in the Great Outdoors - Outdoor activities were for those who could afford to take vacations (the wealthy) and didn't want environment degraded - Rural people who lived off the land (farmers, lumberjacks, etc.) didn't have the time or resources for these activities - Nature was something to be used - Wilderness was something to be feared, not cherished - Competing views: their livelihood was often threatened • Many Early Conservationists were writers and authors that preached the beauty and virtue of the outdoors • Prominent politicians expressed the notion of sustainable resources and the value of preserving the wild frontier • Naturalists that enjoyed the outdoors • Spiritual, religious experience Summary of the Conservation Movement • Derived from the overexploitation of land during the 19th century: public land converted to private • "Conservation" meant to persevere source for future use or to preserve because it was useful and beneficial to humans • John Muir's influence laid the foundation for a more "environmental" philosophical view of nature, as opposed to a "conservation" philosophy • Our National Parks and many conservation clubs sprung out of the Conservation Movement

● What is the difference between point and non-point source pollution? Be able to give examples of each. Which is more difficult to control and why?

• Pollution: "substance in the environment that, because of its chemical composition or quantity, prevents the functioning of natural processes and produces undesirable environmental and health effects" (Text) • Further subdivided into two sub-classes WRT source: - Point source: discharges of substances from factories, septic tank etc. The source is easy to identify, and thus regulation is manageable - Nonpoint source: (aka diffuse pollution) pollution source(s) more difficult to identify. Nonpoint pollution (NPS) often originates from agricultural and urban runoff, rainfall and snowmelt, storm-water drainage, and atmospheric deposition. Because there are multiple sources, NPS is extremely difficult to manage. Point source pollution is contaminant that enters environment from easily identified place (from pipe, ditch, ship or factory, ex: oil refineries, car factories) Nonpoint is pollutants released in a wide area (fertilizers and pesticides from ag, runoff from energy production, ex car pollution)

● Describe the relationship between population growth and environmental stress (& degradation). Compare and contrast developing vs. developed nations in this regard.

• The increase in human populations is an environmental concern for several reasons: 1) More waste 2) Pressure on resources 3) Increased land development: amount and intensive use 4) Higher energy demands 5) Greater pressure on wildlife (land and marine) • Human population growth is the biggest threat to the environment • Human population growth may possibly be the greatest threat to humans as well • Human Carrying Capacity? • Depends upon: - Region and resource access -Great Lakes vs Sahel - Sustainability - Standard of living - Limiting factors: water, pollution, climate etc. Less Developed Nations • Of the rural poor in developing nations, many engage in subsistence farming • Environmental Consequences of Rapid Growth: - Land reform and ownership for 'landless poor' - Intensive cultivation & land degradation for cash crops - 'New' arable land & destruction of rainforests, wetlands - Illegal activity: exotic species trade, poaching, drugs - Urbanization: over 50% global population urbanized with many in shantytowns - Migration More Developed Nations • HI economies also have an environmental impact • Ehrlich & Holdren: environmental impact (I) is related to human population (P), affluence (A) and technology (T) I = P x A x T • More affluent countries, even though they have smaller population, have greater environmental impact • They use more resources, produce more waste etc. • Pop. differences between developed and developing nations may not be the sole reason for environmental degradation • Smaller & affluent population can have a large impact • Globalization & Trading Economy: impact distant areas