Environmental Policy Exam #1

What was the Clinton administration distinguished more by in the end?

"in the end, the Clinton administration was distinguished more by its ambitions than by its accomplishments"

Why the shift in the approach to environmental policy?

- ***increasing prosperity = individuals not worrying about issues relating to day to day living, but can now concern themselves with quality of life issues and longer-term thinking - greater prosperity = more leisure time, more leisure time = go out and enjoy the environment (and, hence, worry about its degradation), and well as the time to engage in political activism on behalf of the environment*** - number of authors believe it is related to the rise in American prosperity that occurs after WWII - middle-class and wealth women's groups were motivating forces behind environmental efforts in the 19th century - desire to protect public lands was motivated in large part by the desire to protect recreational land: >30 million people visited national parks in 1950, and there were concerns that the infrastructure of the parks couldn't accommodate so many people

How much land had been given away by 1977?

- 1 billion acres

What year was the first ordinance or law related to the environment or conservation first put into effect in America? Who put it into effect? What was it with regard to?

- 1626 - the pilgrims in plymouth colony - timber wood

When did the Reagan administration sign onto the Montreal Protocol? What did it do?

- 1987 - an international treaty to protect the ozone layer by phasing out production of numerous substances, such as CFCs, that were found to cause ozone depletion.

Clinton signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1998, but the Senate refused to ratify the treaty. Why? What did Clinton do in response?

- Clinton implemented what aspects of it he could using executive powers

George H.W. Bush administration:

- EPA saw an increase in its resource - administration sponsored long needed amendments to the Clean Air Act - Energy Policy Act of 1992 created a comprehensive federal energy plan for the first time

The Three Eras of Environmental Policy:

- Pre 1960s: environmental policy is largely a local (and somewhat state) level thing - 1960s, (especially) 1970s: environmental policy becomes nationalized 1990s and beyond: globalization of environmental issues and policy

Environmental issues such as pollution become a more visible issue, especially in the 1960s. What are two examples of books published regarding the subject?

- Silent Spring by Rachel Carson (1962): warned about the dangers of pesticide use - The Population Bomb by Paul Ehrlich (1968): warned about the dangers of population growth

The growth of urban populations spurred an interest in public parks in urban areas. As explorers and settlers moved west, the movement to preserve public lands begins. What is the first national park? When was it created?

- Yellowstone National Park - created in 1872

What is the "public land question" and why was it a major issue?

- a Public Lands Commission was appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1903 - would nonagricultural lands be distributed to private owners (as had been the case), or would there be more public ownership and management

There are multiple actors involved in policy making. What possible consequences for policy making are there from having multiple actors?

- actors can be different governments, agencies... - lead to confusion and conflicting policies - actors implementing policies are not necessarily the ones who created them - e.g., states and localities have to comply with federal water and air quality laws) - (on the matter of conflicting polices, for example, the U.S. gov has spent billions on climate change, but it's been estimated that direct government subsidies to the fossil fuel industry in the US amount to $20 billion per year)

Reagan also introduced new regulatory oversight. What did he do? OIRA? "Regulatory impact statement"? What was the impact of this oversight?

- all new regulations (not just environmental ones) had to go through the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) for approval - required all agencies to submit a "regulatory impact statement" for any proposed regulations: the agency had to determine the economic impact of the proposed regulation - this new oversight slowed down the regulatory process and made it easier to reject proposed regulations

Barack Obama administration

- appointed officials focused more on environmental protection than economic concerns - worked some environmental policies into bills to deal with the Great Recession - in his first term economic and fiscal concerns predominated - Obama was unable to get environmental policies done through Congress, particularly after Republicans regained control of the House following the 2010 elections - in his second term Obama made extensive use of the president's control of the bureaucracy to implement environmental policies, e.g., Clean Power Plan (2015)

NEPA made environmental impact statements a regular requirement. What is an environmental impact statement? What has been the effect of requiring environmental impact statements?

- before a federal agency can do something, the relevant officials now have to make a detailed statement of what will happen to the environment as a result of doing that something - studies show requiring EIS's has forced agencies to pay more attention to environmental issues than they otherwise would have - has also had a ripple effect where other policy areas also now take impact analysis into account

Rio Summit (Earth Summit) 1992. What did Bush do?

- bush pushed for a watered down agreement on climate change - refused to sign the biodiversity treaty at the summit

Joe Biden administration

- canceled the Keystone XL pipeline and directed agencies to review and reverse over 100 Trump administration actions related to the environment - rejoined the Paris Agreement - appointed officials who emphasized environmental considerations - appointed John Kerry as Special Envoy for Climate Change - pushed for increased spending on the environment, including 800 billion for fighting climate change - Joe Biden administration Suspended (temporarily) new oil and gas drilling on public lands and ordered a review of existing permits - has proposed winding down existing fossil fuel subsidies

After WWII, the federal government focus shifts from _____________ to _____________?

- conservation - preservation

In the 1930s, battles between the preservationists and conservationists picked up once again. Which group predominated?

- conservationists still seem to predominate at the national level

The administration remained divided on the matter of environment versus economy. Explain what the Council on Competitiveness did.

- council on competitiveness reviewed proposed regulations for economic impact

In what year were local efforts first begun in order to address pollution? What year was the first state actions?

- earliest local 1880s - earliest state 1890s

In the late 19th century, environmental issues start appearing more as public policy issues. Why?

- economic development, industrialization, and urbanization - industrialization was very polluting - urbanization created problems in terms of crowded living conditions, garbage, waste disposal, etc.

George W. Bush administration

- ended Clinton's voluntary implementation of some Kyoto Protocol provisions - most of his staffing decisions were seen as more oriented to economic considerations - budgets for environmental agencies were not cut as they were during the Reagan administration, and in some cases were increased significantly - Bush reintroduced Reagan-era-type regulatory oversight

What was one of the man focuses of the Bush administration on?

- energy policy - Bush promoted greater energy efficiency and developing renewable energy resources but also emphasized fossil fuels and nuclear energy as well - on climate change Bush supported more research and technological development rather than mandatory requirements for controlling greenhouse gases

Barack Obama administration (pt. 2)

- entered into an agreement with China for both countries to make significant reductions in carbon emissions - required agencies to take into account the social cost of carbon when implementing new regulations - signed onto the Paris Agreement in 2016 - "Obama became the first president to actively and consistently promote climate change as a major priority in his regulatory agenda, legislative initiatives, and public speeches" - toward the end of his administration Obama blocked the Keystone XL pipeline - banned oil drilling along the Atlantic Seaboard and most of the Arctic Ocean - designated more national monuments under the Antiquities Act than any other president

President Nixon decides to sign NEPA into law as his first action of 1970, and to declare the 1970's as "the environmental decade." What are some other examples of the 1970s being "the environmental decade"

- first Earth Day is in 1970 - Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is created in 1970 - number of major environmental groups are created in 1970-71

When did most of these actions occur in Reagan's term? How did people respond?

- first term - opposition: public opinion polling still showed support for environmental policies

Which approach (conservationist or preservationist) was dominant in the first half of the 20th century?

- for the first half, the conservationist approach was dominant - emphasis appeared to be on efficiency, that is, making the best use of natural resources

Bill Clinton administration: pro or opposing environment? Give examples.

- generally seen as pro-environment - had campaigned on environmental issues - his vice-president, Al Gore, was known for this environmental advocacy - *shifted the focus of regulatory oversight* - staffed agencies with appointees who emphasized environmental concerns over economic ones - settled some controversies carried over from past administrations, e.g., the spotted owl controversy

What was said in 2007 in the Supreme Court during Massachusetts v EPA?

- given the potential damage to its territory from climate change, Massachusetts had the standing to sue the EPA over its refusal to regulate greenhouse gases - greenhouse gases "fit well within the Clean Air Act's capacious definition of air pollutant," and thus could be regulated by the EPA - the EPA could not decline to issue emission standards for motor vehicles based on policy considerations not enumerated in the Clean Air Act

Clinton's proposals were often opposed by Congress. What did he do in response?

- he often resorted to using executive powers, e.g., the Antiquities Act - gives the president the authority to "declare by public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic or scientific interest that are situated on land owned or controlled by the Federal Government to be national monuments" - by the end of his presidency he had preserved more public land in the lower 48 state than any president since Theodore Roosevelt

Some argue that Reagan ended up strengthening environmental forces in the U.S. How?

- his position of reduced regulation and pro-development resource policies created issues that environmental groups could organize around and make appeals to the public over - membership in these groups increased and there was more public support for action on environmental issues

As environmental issues start coming up more frequently in the later half of the 19th century, who is raising these issues? Why that group?

- initially sportsmen: in the early 1870's magazines called for things such as uniform game laws, protection of watersheds, scientific management of forests, abatement of water pollution, etc.

Policies have different aspects to consider. What are they?

- intentions: some people emphasize the process and effects, since intentions can change - different groups with different intentions all feed into the same piece of policy -> things change -> stated intentions become irrelevant. - (e.g., conflict over climate change policy involves intentions; each side suggests bad intent on the part of their opponents - some opponents of proposals to deal with climate change, for instance, have claimed that the advocates of these policies are simply using them as a sort of Trojan horse to impose the sort of left-wing social and economic system they were supporting long before environmental issues came to the fore (there's a even a term used for these people: "watermelons," because they are green (environmentalists) on the outside, but red (socialist) on the inside). There's even some reason to believe that this suspicion about the intent of their advocates is the primary cause of opposition to climate change proposals. - process - effects

What is the significance of the creation of the scientific field of ecology?

- is it seen as something separate and distinct from those things or is it seem as a part of them; if the former, the thing is seen as more significant or important. - in the federal bureaucracy an agency that exists outside of a department, (the EPA), is generally seen as more important than one that exists within a department - ***ecology being seen as a separate branch of study and not just a subfield of biology creates a perceptual shift that elevates environmental considerations***

What are the tools of policy making? In what country are they most used?

- law: the authorized use of power, including coercion; the gov simply tells people to do something or not to do something, with the threat of sanction if people fail to comply - direct provision of services: sometimes gov's simply provide a service they deem necessary or useful (e.g., police, mail, public schools/transportation, etc.) - persuasion: the gov attempts to persuade people to act in a certain way (e.g., the Smokey the Bear ad campaign conducted by the U.S. Forest Service) - monetary tools: gov can lend money -> puts money into the system -> gov, through the Federal Reserve, controls the money supply -> can control inflation to some degree; gov can also guarantee loans, thus making credit available (ex; student loans) and can provide insurance (e.g. flood insurance, which encourages development in flood-prone areas), etc. - direct payments: the government can just give money (ex: through the 2009 Recovery Act, the U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant (EECBG) Program provided $3.2 billion in block grants to cities, communities, states, U.S. territories, and Indian tribes to develop, promote, implement, and manage energy efficiency and conservation projects that ultimately created jobs)

Man and Nature (1864), by George Perkins Marsh

- looked at man's impact on the environment and called for things such as songbird preservation and programs to prevent soil erosion

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834). What does the Malthusian doctrine mean?

- malthusian doctrine: capacity to produce the goods of life increases at an arithmetical rate, the population increases ay a geometrical rate - the population will outstrip the ability to care for the population, leading to deprivation, famine, war, etc.

Where were most of Trump's challenges?

- most of Trump's changes were challenged in the courts, and many challenges were still ongoing by the end of his administration

For most of this period (19th century), most of the public policy regarding the undesired consequences of urbanization and industrialization is being done at a local level. What is the national gov up to during this time?

- most of what the national gov is doing seems to involve resource preservation and public lands

Donald Trump administration

- much more business oriented and pro-deregulation - officials he appointed were more focused on economic considerations than environmental ones - proposed, but did not get, massive budget cuts for environmental agencies - opened up public lands for energy exploration - approved the Keystone XL pipeline - cancelled or rewrote dozens of regulations, froze proposed regulations, required that each new regulation be offset by the repeal of two old regulations that would reduce the compliance cost by the same amount, etc. - repealed the Clean Power Plan and attempted to replace it with the Affordable Clean Energy rule, but the federal courts ruled that the Affordable Clean Energy rule violated the Clean Air Act - pulled out of the Paris Agreement

What are examples of some of the events occurred in the 1970s that helped keep environmental issues in people's minds.

- oil embargoes made energy and energy conservation an issue - Love Canal (1978): a chemical and plastics company used the abandoned canal as a dumping ground for its wastes -> site was later filled in and sold to the Niagara Falls School Board for $1 and a school was built near the site in a residential area ->Health officials later discovered higher than normal incidents of birth defects, miscarriages, and other health problems among people living in the area, and the Carter ended up directing the federal government to purchase the 240 homes nearest the site

Give two examples of actions to preserve timber and other resources that predate the American Revolution, and continue after the Revolution.

- one example is by the late 17th century, the Massachusetts Bay and Pennsylvania colonies were creating forest reservations: this was for resource preservation - colonial gov's acted to preserve other resources as well, such as wild game (e.g., Massachusetts banned deer hunting for four years starting in 1718)

Give two examples of public lands disposal. Did many of these grants of land have resource conservation aspects to them?

- one example is the Morrill Act of 1862: the federal gov gave public lands to states to support the creation of agricultural and technical colleges - another example is the Homestead Act of 1862: people were given 160 acres if they would live on the land and farm it (250 million acres were given away under this act)

Determining policy impacts can be difficult. Why?

- other factors not directly related to the policy can affect the outcome: (e.g., public attitudes, economic factors, etc.) - multiple policies can be in effect that have an impact on the outcome - examples other factor: greenhouse gas emission dropped in 2020 due to economic disruptions of COVID not any environmental policies

What is the difference between national parks and national forests? Which is a more conservationist approach and which is a more preservationist approach?

- parks: public lands used for recreation and education only (hiking, camping, etc.): is reflective of a preservationist approach - forests: public lands used for a wider variety of activities (e.g., logging, mining, grazing, recreation, etc.): is reflective of a conservationist approach

NEPA also set up the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). What is this? What does it do?

- part of the Executive Office of the President, headed by three members appointed by the president - ***Council develops policies which bring into productive harmony the Nation's social, economic, and environmental priorities*** - ***the goal of improving the quality of Federal decision-making; as part of its overseeing of federal agency and department implementation of NEPA it oversees federal agency implementation of environmental impact statements

In the late 19th/early 20th century the environmental movement (such as it is) splits into two camps: on being the conservationists (Gifford Pinchot), "wise management." Explain their position and what this is.

- pinchot was the first chief of the U.S. Forest Service - the U.S. Forest Service is part of the Department of Agriculture is indicative of the conservationist mindset: forestry was seen as tree farming without destroying the long term viability of the forests - "wise management:" idea was that properly managed natural resources could be efficiently used for the benefit of humanity in a sustainable manner without destroying the environment

What are the three levels of public policy?

- policy choices: the decisions made by people in authority - policy outputs: (program) the actual translation of the decisions into policy (e.g., money is spent, regulations are enforced, etc.) - policy impacts: the effect of the choices and outputs when it comes to the real world

What is material policy?

- policy which is designed to have a direct, real world impact: (e.g., money gets spent, people get punished for doing/not doing things, etc.)

What is symbolic policy?

- policy whose primary intent is more a statement of principle than a direct real-world impact: (e.g., the speed limit may be 65 mph but you will rarely get pulled over for going 5 miles over) - unimplemented policies are symbolic policies

In the 1960s the federal government becomes more active regarding many areas of public policy, and environmental policy is one of them. What are some examples of this?

- public is in a more receptive mood, and policy entrepreneurs take advantage - Clean Air Act of 1963 - National Wilderness Act of 1964 - Water Quality Act of 1965 - Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1966 - Wild and Scenic Rivers and National Trails Act of 1968

In the late 19th/early 20th century the environmental movement (such as it is) splits into two camps: on being the preservationists (John Muir). Explain their position.

- public lands should only be used for recreational and educational purposes; all other uses should be prohibited - muir was a naturalist and writer whose efforts played a large role in the creation of Yosemite National Park, and he later founded the Sierra Club.

Why is NEPA a watershed? How?

- rather than dealing with environmental problems in a piecemeal manner, Congress through NEPA chose to deal with environmental degradation at the federal level - by focusing on environmental issues at the planning stage - rather than create a new agency to oversee the impact of government in the environment, NEPA supplemented the charters of existing agencies

Walden (1854), by Henry David Thoreau

- seen as one of the first major environmental texts - among its themes is the idea of man as a part of nature

What was probably the first appropriation of timberland by the federal government?

- since concerns about resource preservation continued after independence: ***in 1799 Congress authorized the purchase of reserves of live oak in South Carolina and Georgia***

After 1 billion acres of public land had been given away, much of the remaining public land was opened up to development, particularly mining and grazing. Debate continues to the present day about how the federal government handles the leasing of public lands for private use. What is the debate?

- some argue the federal government has been too generous and want to tighten the leases up, charge more for them, etc. - the recipients of those leases object to any changes

How did Obama do this? What did it do? Did it survive legal challenges?

- the Clean Power Plan was held up in the courts throughout the rest of Obama's administration - in 2015 the EPA issued a rule mandating tougher emissions rules for trucks and heavy-duty vehicles - entered into an agreement with China for both countries to make significant reductions in carbon emissions - required agencies to take into account the social cost of carbon when implementing new regulations

As part of the general expansion of the federal government in reaction to the Great Depression, the federal government got more involved in environmental policy. What is an example of an agency that was created with specific resource responsibilities?

- the Soil Conservation Service (now the Natural Resources Conservation Service) - it was created in 1935 when Congress stated that "the wastage of soil and moisture resources on farm, grazing, and forest lands... is a menace to the national welfare," - sought to develop methods to ensure soil and water conservation, and prevent future situations like the Dust Bowl

What do we mean by environment?

- the aggregate of surrounding things or conditions; the totality of external influences on an organism - whatever encompasses; specifically, the aggregate of all external and internal conditions affecting the existence, growth, and welfare of organisms; one's surrounding or external circumstances collectively

Clinton's support for the North American Free Trade Agreement irked environmentalists. Why?

- the agreement didn't have the level of environmental protections they sought

What are sumptuary tax/sin tax?

- the gov attempts to discourage certain behavior by taxing it (e.g., fuel taxes)

What are tax loopholes/tax expenditures?

- the gov attempts to encourage certain behavior by not taxing it (e.g., tax credits for building energy efficient homes or for electric cars)

What are two real world examples that focused attention on the environment?

- two oil spills off the coast of Santa Barbara in January and February of 1969 - the Cuyahoga River caught fire in June of 1969

Why did the first federal levels to address water and air pollution come out?

- water: to prepare comprehensive programs for eliminating or reducing the pollution of interstate waters and tributaries and improving the sanitary condition of surface and underground waters - air: an act to provide research and technical assistance relating to air pollution control

When does widespread privatization of public lands end?

- when the Bureau of Land Management was created in 1946 - created in response to concerns that the federal gov had mainly on resource and land management

By the 1880s, localities in the US start staking action to address things like air pollution, garbage, etc. What sort of groups are at the forefront? Why them?

- women's groups were often at the forefront of the movement to clean things up - the Ladies' Health Protective Association formed in NYC in 1884 to get garbage off the streets - upper class women would get together, and say things like "the housekeeping of a great city is women's work," and form societies to do just that - in addition to the Ladies' Health Protective Association in NYC, you see similar societies to ensure clean water, clean air, good nutrition, etc, etc. in other cities as well.

Throughout the 19th century there were concerns America would run out of trees. Why?

- wood was used for everything, and the need for it only increased after the invention of the telegraph and railroads - in 1865 a report by the Department of Agriculture predicted a "timber famine" within thirty years if action wasn't taken - throughout the 19th century and beyond various actions were taken by state and national governments to address these concerns

About how much public land was there? What was the general notion regarding letting the land lie fallow?

- ~1.8 billion acres worth - general notion was that it was it was wrong to let all that land lie fallow, so the federal government would give land away or sell it at extremely low prices

Keep in mind that public policy is often complicated, and given how complex the environment is, crafting environmental policy can be especially difficult. With that in mind, it may be useful to keep three things in mind:

1. The road to hell is paved with good intentions 2. uncertainty is not necessarily a bad thing 3. never attribute to malice what can be explained by mere stupidity

When was the National Park Service created?

1916

The watershed piece of legislation is the _________________________________________ ?

National Environment and Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA)

Which state started formed the first comprehensive air pollution policy and in what year?

Oregon in 1952

When Reagan becomes president in 1981, priorities changed. What was the emphasis now on? How did Congress respond? Who was appointed?

The emphasis was on economic growth and reducing government regulation, and environmental regulation was part of that. Congress wasn't inclined to go along with this cutback on environmental regulation, and so Reagan worked primarily within his executive branch powers. Appointed people who were philosophically aligned with him to key positions in the bureaucracy.

What is the first federal agency to deal with a specific natural resource?

in 1871 the US Fish Commission: - created in order the depletion of natural resources as had been seen by decreasing catches in the Connecticut River

Prior to WWII, efforts to address pollution were at the ____________ ___________?

local level

What levels' efforts increased to address pollution after WWII?

local, state, and federal levels

Did the courts reinstate the Clean Power Plan?

no

The federal government is still concerned about resource preservation but now they start becoming concerned with ____________?

pollution

What are the 1990s viewed as in regards to environmental policy?

the beginning of a new era

What is ecology?

the study of the relationship between organisms and their surroundings

What is environmental policy?

the sum of governmental activities, whether acting directly or through agents, affecting the existence, growth, and welfare of organisms

What is public policy?

the sum of governmental activities, whether acting directly or through agents, as it has influence on the lives of others (particularly citizens)