ENWC 201-EXAM 2 Study Guide

What are three main pest species introduced to America?

zebra mussel, asian carp, snakehead fish, house sparrows and brown rats

Where does air pollution come from, and is it only a problem near point sources?

.Air pollution may take a variety of forms: smoke produced from combustion, fumes from vapors during chemical reactions, dust resulting from industrial and agricultural processes, or mist released in spraying or by the effect of sunlight on automobile exhaust. Various air pollutants can have detrimental effects on human health as well as environmental resources. The major sources of air pollution are transportation, fuel combustion from power plants and space heating of buildings, industrial processes, solid waste disposal, and burning of forests and agricultural lands. Smog caused by traffic and industrial factories in cities may travel hundreds of miles to an otherwise "pristine" area. Air pollution is not only a problem near point sources.

What are the four precursors to the animal rights movement (from Muth and Jamison 2000)?

1. An urban view of nature that is disconnected from the reality of wild nature 2. Popularized interpretations of science on television or in published media 3. Anthropomorphism, the application of human traits, especially feelings, to nonhuman animals 4 Egalitarian notion that assigns the same legal and ethical rights to animals as it does to humans

What is the actual percent of Americans that hunt? Canadians?

6.2% of Americans hunt while 5.2% hunt in Canada

How did this number vary with human population density?

65% of the respondents living in urban areas approved of hunting, as did 67% of those living in suburban residences, 73% of those living in small towns, and 83% of the rural residents. Such results suggest that those people who live closer to nature are more likely to accept killing and eating animals from the wild than those who have lass contact with nature.

Chapter 10 (178-184) According to a recent national survey, what percent of Americans approve of legal hunting?

A national survey reveled that 73% of Americans approved of legal hunting, with 22% disagreeing and 5% remaining undecided.

What is the primary source of sulfur oxides and how has acidity increased in the east‐coast?

Acid deposition (or, more corrrnonly, acid rain) has caused extensive degradation of freshwater and some forested habitats in many countries" In the eastern U.S. and Canada, acid deposition is 30-40 times higher than it was in the 1980s. The primary source is sulfur oxides from power plants buring fossil fuels. Gases transformed in the atmosphere into sulfuric and nitric acids usually remain there for weeks and may travel hundreds of miles before settling on Earth as dry or rained particulates.

What species are most vulnerable to extinction?

Although we do not know the absolute rate of extinction of described and undescribed species today we can describe with greater confidence which types of species are most likely to go extinct. Many attributes can make a species more vulnerable to extinction' including rarity, narrow habitat range, large area requirements, low reproductive rates, extreme specialization or coevolutionary dependencies. Further, species may be vulnerable to different threats, depending on their traits. Many species, particularly in tropical moist forests' have evolved vary narrow ranges of environmental tolerance and highly specialized diets or habits. Often these species are at further risk because such ecological specialization lowers their resilience in the face of perturbations. Top carnivores, with low densities, large body size, high tropic position, and large area requirements are often cited as being particularly vulnerable to extinction, particularly through habitat degradation, and also overexploitation

What are some characteristics of invasive species (the most likely and apparent)?

Any species could, in principle, invade successfully somewhere. But some species seem better at it than others, and it is of great interest to conservation biologists to identify which species or types of species are most likeIy to be successful. We might begin by identifying characteristics that we think are likely to make a species adaptable and fast-growing: for example, high fecundity, ability to spread vegetatively, parthenogenetic or hermaphroditic reproduction or broad physiological tolerances and diet. It is worth noting that the success of some invasions appears to result from a quirk of fate. Individuals of an invading population are a subsample of the native population, and may carry particular genetic traits or experience genetic bottleneck effects that increase their invasion ability. Similarly, a species may through lucky accident shed its natural enemies in the course of invading a new location. Because invasion success depends ultimately on the interaction between the invader and its new community, it may be important to consider both factors simultaneously in evaluating invasion success. It is a general observation that species novelty, such as its ability to use a resource in a new way ,may contribute to its success and impacts. (high fecundity, ability to spread vegetatively, parthenogenetic or hermaphroditic reproduction or broad physiological tolerances and diet)

How were wild turkey populations re‐established? Atlantic puffins?

By the 1930's, wild turkey had been extirpated from much of their range. Most attempts at restocking the empty range failed because unfit breeding stock was released. After several failures, however, success was achieved when the stock consisted of wild-trapped birds of the appropriate subspecies ( the stocked birds were of a genetic lineage adapted to condition in the release area). Population of wild turkey thus were reestablished in much of their former range. Wile turkey has been reestablished in many parts of their former range by releasing wild birds from appropriate genetic stock. The successful restoration of Atlantic puffins illustrates the importance if animal behavior in the practice of wildlife management. In 1887, overhunting eliminates a nesting population of puffins from Eastern Egg Island on the Maine coastline, and while the habitat remained suitable, the birds did not repopulate on the island. By using transplanted nestlings from another colony the birds proved capable of learning the location of the island, to which they later returned to nest. The restoration project used wooden decoys as social attractions to increase the likelihood of having the young birds return to the island which they did.

What are the "new" diseases affecting wildlife today and which animals do they infect?

Conjunctivitis is songbirds caused by the microorganism Mycoplasma gallisepticum also represents a disease not previously detected in wildlife. The infection causes respiratory disease in domestic poultry and other pen-reared birds, but in house finches it produces conjunctivitis characterized by swollen, crusty eyes. "Mad cow disease," (BSE) is a counterpart of a worrisome disease, best know in livestock, now infects mule deer and elk in North America. This disease is one form of a group of infection known collectively as TSE, transmissible spongioform encephalopathies. The pathogens responsible for TSE are prions, which lack DNA and so they do not reproduce genetically s bacteria or viruses. Instead, prions twist normal proteins into abnormal shapes matching their own, and s they accumulate. Microscopic spaces develop in brain tissues and produce the namesake spongy texture. Before dying infected cattle lose condition , become uncoordinated and lurch about, droll, and otherwise behave abnormally. In the 1980s, a type of TSE known as chronic wasting disease (CWD) turned up sporadically in free-ranging deer and elk. The signs of CWD are essentially the same as those in livestock (slobberingm widelegged stance, lowered head, tremors, increases thirst, reduced food intake that leads to a gradual lost of body condition and poor coordination, particularly in the hind quaters.

What are the benefits and drawbacks of corridors for wildlife?

Corridors in ecological terms, are connections between separate areas of similar habitats (pipelines, roadways, and powerlines cutting through forested areas) Corridors increase fragmentation and thereby create barriers, filters, and predator lanes Corridors can link "islands" of desirable wildlife habitat. With suitable corridors, plants and animals may travel between islands, thereby (1) preventing inbreeding depression by maintaining gene flow between various segments of a larger populations and (2) enhancing species richness in keeping with the ideas of island biogeography. Corridors may offset the negative consequences of fragmented habitat. Overriding criticism of of corridors concerns the lack of field data proving the success of their intended purposes. Few data currently are available to show if individuals, as believed, actually move through corridors, if any, on the gene pool of insular populations connected by corridors. Translocation may offer an alternative strategy for corridors. Managers could periodically move animals from one isolated population to another, which would be less expensive than establishing corridors between the populations. Translocation may be useful for several purposes: to bolster genetic heterogeneity of small populations, to establish satellite populations as a means of reducing risk to losses from catastrophes, or to hasten recovery of species following restoration of their habitat. Translocation also may be necessary when habitat fragmentation endangers the composition of natural communities, especially for those organisms whose abilities to disperse are limited. Nonetheless, the best argument for corridors may lie in the assertion that much of the original landscape was interconnected, whereas today, because of human modifications, many species are confined

What are Dominant species, Ecosystem engineers, and keystone species?

Dominant species are those that are very common and that also have strong effects on other members of the community (Examples include reef-building corals, forest trees, and large herbivores, such as deer.) Ecosystem engineers, those species such as beavers or elephants that strongly modify habitat, are also ones whose absence or presence will change communities Generally, both community dominants and ecosystem engineers are relatively easy to identify. A keystone species is a species that has a greater impact on its community than would be expected by the contribution of its overall numbers or biomass. Similarly, large carnivores frequently act as keystone species through their impacts on other predators, a wide variety of prey species, and the competitors of their prey. Ecosystem engineers are usually also keystone species, as defined above. Unfortunately, unlike dominant species whose impacts are easily discernible, often a keystone species is not so easily recognized and is only discovered after its numbers have been reduced and the impacts become obvious'

How is disease sometimes related to habitat?

Ecological conditions that involve habitat quality and quantity commonly are associated with wildlife diseases, as is illustrated by epizootic of botulism in waterfowl. Diseases usually involve several components of an ecosystem, such as invertebrates or soil conditions, as well as the infected animals. Knowledge of these factors and the way they interact with disease transmission is necessary for a full assessment of management options

Chapter 3 (70-89) What is a global extinction vs a local extinction vs an ecological extinction?

Ecological extinction: low density, no longer interacts Local extinction: species lost in only an area or regions (extirpation) Global Extinction: all of earth Extinction can be either global or local. Global extinction refers to the loss of a species from all of Earth, whereas a local extinction refers to the loss of a species in only one site or region. In addition, ecological extinction can occur when a population is reduced to such a low density that although it is present, it no longer interacts with other species in the community to any significant extent All these forms of extinction can affect remaining species, perhaps causing shifts in community compositiory or ecosystem structure and function. Global extinction is the most tragic loss resulting fuom human activities, because once a species is lost entirely, it cannot be recreated.

What were carbon levels like in the Cretaceous?

Estimates from geological evidence show that carbon dioxide in the atmosphere during the peak of the Cretaceous was much higher than now. Thus, the Cretaceous was a time in which the terrestrial plant biome was a huge carbon sink (i.e., living plants took up more carbon dioxide than was released through decomposition),and much of the atmospheric carbon dioxide left over from early in Earth's history became stored as what we now call "fossil fuels."

What is exotic wildlife? What are two main popular game species have been introduced to America?

Exotic Wildlife: foreign animals that live in a new place, pean grouse and black grouse

Chapter 8 What are five major reasons why it is important to consider diseases in wildlife management?

First either domestic or wild animals may serve as reservoirs or as vectors for pathogens that ultimately affect each other or, indeed, humans. A second reason for addressing wildlife diseases concerns the density of animal populations. Many animals are stressed so that they are not predisposed to diseases beyond former levels. Unfortunately, there are indications that efforts to manage wildlife populations sometimes heighten related mortality. Third, diseases may cause serious looses in already small populations of endangered species Fourth, diseases are a part of the whole spectrum of issues facing wildlife managers; that is, diseases are just as much a part of the management puzzle as are food habits, population dynamics, and habitat requirements Finally, the public may become passionately involved with ways in which biologist deal with wildlife diseases

Chapter 2 & 3 How did/does Genesis 1:28 in the Bible affect human attitudes towards wildlife?

Genesis 1:28 (Gods instructions to Adam and Eve) - to "be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the Earth, and subdue it, and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the Earth." Dominion over the creatures and replenishment of the Earth implies some sort of management- or conquest - of wildlife and their environments

Where is warming projected to be greatest and weakest?

Global Climate Models (GCM's) project the greatest warming to occur at the poles and weakest at the the tropics.

What is phenology? What cues drive phenology? What are some examples from the chapter of how phenology has shifted for some species?

Humans have long been interested in the events marking the beginning of spring, such as blooming of the first spring flower, leafing out of popular trees, and nestbuilding by birds. The timing, or phenology, of these events is commonly caused by seasonal temperature changes. Photoperiod (the amount of daylight, which varies predictably over the course of a year), lunar tides, seasonal weather (e.g., floods or monsoons), and the phenoiogies of other organisms (e.g., the arrival of a migratory prey species). Phenologies can often be very precise in their timing and coordination, as with the breeding of corals or the hatching of sea turt1es. Not all of these events would be affected by climate changes, of course. But many species phenologies are driven directly or indirectly by temperature cues.

What is the "Bad luck" case of species extinction?

In addition to these categories, we might also add one for species who simply have "bad luck" These species are not intrinsically vulnerable due to their traits, but rather have the misfortune to be in the wrong place at the wrong time, or of being particularly palatable to humans. That is, living in areas of greatest human impact, such as on arable soils, in river systems that are heavily used for commerce and subject to substantial pollution, or along coasts where human populations congregate, will thrust species that share those locations directly into harm's way.

Chapter 9 (293-316) What are some of the economic benefits AND costs of introduced species?

In terms of their number and ubiquity, the scale of biological invasions is staggering.This influx of nonnative species has utterly changed the biotic makeup of land, freshwater, and marine communities. Although only a small fraction of introduced species establish in their new environments, each one that does has some ecological impact, and a small proportion have dramatic impacts that must be addressed in conservation, economic, aesthetic, and ethical realms. Species invasions affect economics, public health, and biodiversity. Socioeconomic effects of invaders stem from both intentionally and unintentionally introduced species.

How does excess nitrogen lead to Eutrophication, what is eutrophication?

In the aquatic and marine realms, the most common effects of increased nutrient loads are rapid increases in the abundance of algae and aquatic plants, and reduced water clarity. Eutrophication, the transformation of an ecosystem from low nutrient levels to high nutrient enrichment Eutrophication is a widespread outcome of excessive anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen. Although stimulating photoiyr,-thetic organisms increases productivity initially, it can degrade waier resources rapidly through a chain of effects that permeate the ecosystem makes algea grow, creates areas with excess oxygen or carbon dioxide Nitrogen deposition may influence the composition of herbivore communities directly by altering the plant host community. Large-scale changes in herbivory caused by nitrogen deposition can affect ecosystem productivity and carbon storage, as well as the dynamics of the cycling of nitrogen and other elements.

How do those classifications interact with biomass in terms of the effect of their extinction? (Fig 3.5)

Keystone and dominant species can have large impacts on biological communities. Keystone species by definition make up only a small proportion of the biomass of a community yet have a large impact, whereas dominant species have impacts that are more proportional to their biomass or abundance. Reductions in the biomass or extinction of keystone or dominant species can be expected to cause cascade effects in communities. Many rare and common species have low impacts, and changes in their abundance may not have noticeable effects on other species.

Why were many bird populations decimated during the 19th century and how did Roosevelt play a role in protecting birds?

Market hunters often used punt guns, which were little more than homemade cannons mounted on the bows of flat-bottomed boats, one shot from such a weapon into a rift of ducks easily killed or wounded scores of birds. Waterfowl were hunted with little restraint in the days before enactment of the Migratory Bird Treaty in 1916 and Migratory Bird Treaty Act in 1918. Plume hunting destroyed colonies of wading birds in Florida and other states. As a direct result of the campaign against plume hunting, President Theodore Roosevelt issued an executive order in 1903 declaring a small nesting area- Pelican Island, Florida-as the first federal bird sanctuary. Roosevelt's order unleashed a flood of nominations of other sites for similar protection.

What is "market hunting"?

Market hunting represented one of the darkest eras of exploitation of wildlife in the United States. Marketing hunting, however, is more often associated with exploitation of waterfowl, especially on the eastern seaboard, where immense flocks of ducks gathered on such fabled hunting ground as Chesapeake Bay and Long Island Sound and where there was a large demand for fresh meat.

What came out of Mount Pinatubo and why did it cool the earth?

Moreover, forcings can have either natural or anthropogenic origins. Mount Pinatubo in the Philippinei had a major eruption in 1991 that increased globa1 aerosol concentrations. The ash output contained 25-30 million tons of sulfur dioxide that entered the atmosphere during a very short period and which rapidly dispersed across the globe. Mount Pinatubo temporarily reduced global mean temperatures, though within three years the particulate matter had largely left the atmosphere and global temperatures rebounded to their former levels

What kills nearly 1500 fur seals every year?

Nearly 1500 fur seals die annually from entanglement in fisheries debris

How has forest fragmentation aided the brown headed cowbird?

Nest parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds is another concern associated with forest fragmentation and the concurrent declines in several species of songbirds. Cowbirds evolved in grasslands and savannas and rarely penetrate far into wooded areas. the newly open woodlands thereby offer cowbirds additional habitat in areas once covered with unbroken forests. As nest parasites, brown-headed cowbirds lay their eggs in the nests of other birds, other species of wood warblers, which thereafter care for the cowbird eggs and young as if they were their own.

What are some of the shortcomings of this theory?

One shortcoming, for example, lies in the assumptions that all species are treated equally as units in the computations (that is, some species in fact have greater competitive abilities than others. Another is the assumption that the environment on an island remains constant throughout the processes of colonization and extinction. Such a view discounts the possibilities that succession and other types of ecological or physical change will influence the presence or absence of species. Also, no allowance is made for increases in the number of species as the result of evolution rather than by continued colonization.

How long do carbon and methane last in the atmosphere and which has a stronger greenhouse effect?

Not only is CO, produced in much greater quantities than any other of the greenhouse gases, but a carbon dioxide molecule remains stable in the atmosphere for over 100 years. In contrast, methane is 100 times stronger than CO in its greenhouse effects, but a methane molecule is broken down in about a decade. Methane is produced in the low-oxygen conditions of rice fields, from the digestive systems of cattle and other ruminants, and as a by-product of coal mining and natural gas use. (carbon 100 years, methane 10 years stronger)

What are four ways to minimize conflicts between hunters and anti‐hunters (from Kellert 1978)?

Place greater educational emphasis on the ecologistic attitude as a way of establishing a dialogue between hunters and anti-hunters. Is attitude is that his viewpoints compatible with their perceptions of both groups. forever, his attitude discourages anti-hunting sentiment based on anthropomorphic Notions derived from intuitive emotion and imposes hunting practice without regard to the needs of game animals in their natural habitats Encourage greater governmental recognition of different attitudes towards animals as reflecting multiple uses and satisfactions derived from wildlife. Management should be carried out for different types of hunters. There should also be an explicit recognition of the potentially legitimate moralistic in humanistic attitudes concerning cruelty and animal welfares Diversify Wildlife funding sources to include contributions from anti-hunters and other potential non-consumptive uses of Wildlife Resources. if non-consumptive users desire increased attention from Fish and Wildlife agencies, they should share some of the financial burden Increase attention and financial application for nongame research and recreational programs

What does it mean that plastic photo‐degrades rather than bio‐degrades?

Plastics pose a particular problem because they do not biodegrade as most garbage does, but instead "photo-degrade." This means that sunlight breaks them into smaller and smaller pieces, but they do not ever entire1y disappear. Furthermore, these plastics particles are concentrated in areas of the ocean called subtropical gyres, which are created by mountainous flows of air moving from the tropics toward the polar regions. photo-degrade: the sun breaks them into smaller pieces but never disappear bio-degrades: degrade naturally and completely disappear

How did population extinctions of Edith's checkerspot butterflies relate to warming trends?

Population extinction was 4 times higher at southern boundary and 3 times higher at lower elevations, the extinction process shifted the range and it then closely matched the observed warming trend over that region

How is climate change affecting CO2 retention in the Alaskan tundra?

Previously, when plants died, they quickly became part of the frozen layer of organic matter but now it is much warmer and the rate of decomposition of dead matter is often faster than the rate of plant growth - the tundra turns from a net sink to a net source of CO2

What is propagule pressure?

Propagule pressure (also termed introduction effort) is a composite measure of the number of individuals of a species released into a region to which they are not native. (frequency, and quality of organisms)

What two factors will cause sea level rise?

Sea level rise is due both to thermal expansion and to an increase in total water as land ice melts. Thermal expansion is simply the increase in volume of any liquid as it gets warmer. Given the very large total volume of Earth's oceans, a small temperature change can have an important effect. More directly, seas rise from an increase in water. The largest quantity of non-ocean water is locked up in massive polar ice sheets. In geologica1 terms, sudden shifts in sea level have occurred before, as when sea levels rose at an average annual rate of 10 mm per year between 15,000 and 6,000 years ago as glaciers melted and retreated poleward. Melting of the polar ice caps has contributed between 0.2 and 0.4 mm annually to sea level increases over the twentieth century

Where are species most at risk in the world?

Some biomes contain greater fractions of threatened species, particularly biomes that are already species rich. Tropical and subtropical moist and dry forests, grasslands/ savannas shrub lands, montane grasslands, and xeric biomes all have substantial numbers of threatened mammals, birds, and amphibians. As global climate change intensifies, many worry that montane habitats in particular will become unsuitable for many specie, greatly increasing biodiversity losses. Across the globe, there are particularly high numbers of threatened species in South America, Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Oceania, and North America.

What are the hosts and vectors of the sylvatic plague and rabies?

Sylvatic plague os caused by the same pathogen as bubonic plague , but transmission stems from wild rodents (host), not from commensal species; FLEAS are the principal vectors in either instance. Rabies virus is transmitted from the salivary glans of infected animals from there it spreads when an infected animal bites another animal or a human. In India, jackals are important hosts, red foxes and badgers in Europe and bats, foxes, raccoons skunks and other species in the US. Nearly all mammals are susceptible to rabies, but the disease predominates in certain reservoirs, as exemplified by species of carnivores and bats.

How have marine mammals been protected?

The Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972), bolstered by the Endangered Species Act (1973), provides federal protection for marine mammals within the territorial water of the United States. This mandate primarily cover groups known as pinnipeds (seals), sirenians (manatees), and cetaceans (dolphins and whales) and depending on the group, falls under the jurisdiction of either the National Marine Fisheries Service or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

What has been linked to the decline in neo‐tropical migrant songbirds?

The plight of neotropical migrant songbirds-including wood warblers and tanagers-has been linked not only to the destruction of tropical rain forests where these species overwinter, but also to the fragmentation of forests on North America where these species nest. The number of nesting species diminished when the blocks of forests are too small and their populations thereafter drop.

Why did the populations of reindeer on St. Matthew Island, mule deer in Arizona, and white‐tailed deer in Michigan rise then crash?

The animals died of starvation when the supply of lichens-the dominant plants in the diet of reindeer-was depleted by the excessive grazing pressure of the oversized herd. The irruption of mule deer is frequently cites as an example of overabundance. Mule deer in Arizona profited from predator control and protection from shooting during the first two decades of the 20th century. The vegetation could not keep pace with the feeding pressure of so many additional deer. Kaibab deer herd expanded rapidly and then suffered extensive starvation.

Chapter 10 (334-352) What two gasses are most important in maintaining the current energy balance on earth (in addition to water vapor?

The atmospheric gases that are most important in maintaining Earth's current energy balance are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and water vapor gases that cannot be penetrated by radiation in the infrared spectrum. These gases are referred to (with more poetic license than accuracy) as "greenhouse gases" by analogy to the glass of a gardener's greenhouse. Short-wave (UV) energy is allowed td pass through our atmospheric window, but the transformed long-wave (IR) energy is prevented from dissipating back into space.

What are the categories of the IUCN Red List?

The best data on global endangerment are collated in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (www.redlist.org). The Red List classifies all species reviewed into one of nine categories, with three primary categories of endangerment, in order of the risk of extinction: Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), and Vulnerable (VU). Very specific rules have been adopted to standardize rankings of each species, and to allow use of the list to index changes in the status of biodiversity over time These 9 categories are defined as follows: Extinct (EX) A taxon is Extinct where there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual) to the taxon's life cycle and life form, r throughout its historic range have, , failed to record an individual. Extinct in the Wild (EW) A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity, or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the: past range, and there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual in the wild has died, as outlined under EK Critically Endangered (CR) A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A-E in Table A for Critically Endangered species, and is therefore facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild Endangered(EN) A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A-E for Endangered (see Table A) and is therefore facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. Vulnerable (VU) A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A-E for Vulnerable (see Table A) and is,therefore facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Near Threatened (NT) A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable now, but [s close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened Least Concern (LC) A taxon is deemed Least Concern when it has been evaluated against ,the criteria and it neither qualifies for - the previously described designations {Critically Endangered Endangered, Vulnerable, or Near Threatened), nor is it likely to qualify in the near future. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. Data Deficient (DD) A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution, population status, or both. Every effort is made to use this category as a last resort, as this is not a categorY of threat, but only indicates more information is needed to make a status determination. Not Evaluated (NE) A taxon is Not Evaluated if it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. Assignment to one of the three threatened categories (CR, EN, or VU) is made on the basis of a suite of . quantitative standards adopted in 1 994 that relate abundance or geographic range indicators to extinction risk (see Table A). The different criteria and their quantitative values [A-E) were chosen through extensive scientlfic review, and are airned at detecting risk factors across the broad diversity of species that must be considered (IUCN 2001)-Qualification under any of the criteria A-E is sufficient for listing; however, evaluations are always made as completelY as possible:for use in evaluating changes 'in status over time, and for conseruation planning purposes. Thus, the sta* tus of a taxon will be evaluated ' according to most of these crite

What most likely caused the decline in bird species on Guam?

The brown tree snake, Boiga irregularis,is a stunning example of the population- and community level impacts of an introduced vertebrate predator on a naive island population. The snake's native range extends from Australia through New Guinea to the Solomon Islands. Shortly after World War II, it arrived on the island of Guam where the only native snake was a tiny, wormlike insectivore. The invader gradually spread across the island but remained at low densities for two decades until the early 1960s, when it began to appear in large numbers. More and more well-fed snakes were found in chicken coops; others were carbonized on power lines, causing electrical blackouts. During this time, native birds began disappearing. There was considerable debate about the cause of the decline in Guam's birds. Some scientists argued that pesticides were to blame, whereas others believed that avian diseases might be at fault. The native birds might, for example, be susceptible to diseases carried by introduced birds or domesticated chickens and pigeons. Introductions of competing birds could also be responsible, not to mention the familiar list of introduced predatory rats, cats, and other mammals. Today, the cumulative evidence indicates that the nocturnal brown tree snake, which can reach abundances up to 5000/km2, has been largely responsible for eating the birds-now totaling 15 species-to extinction

What criteria must be met for a non‐native species to become invasive?

The dominance of nonnative species on the landscape will be a function of the degree of human modification of the environment. In general, human activity fragments the landscape, favors establishment of nonnative species, increases environmental heterogeneity, may cause species extinctions, and may augment the total number of species on the landscape. High fecundity Dispersal ability Generalist (broad tolerance) Novelty The community where it is established has just as many important factors (Luck)

How did two technological developments, the railroad and the telegraph, hasten the extinction of the passenger pigeon?

The extensive rail network that was in place by the time of the Civil War gave professional pigeon hunters-some 1000 strong at the peak of market hunting-ready access to the major nesting colonies of passenger pigeons east of the Mississippi River. Because passenger pigeons were nomadic, the telegraph kept hunters informed about the location of nesting colonies. Because the rail-roads benefited from their associating with the market hunter, the train companies likely helped transmit up-to-date information concerning places where pigeons might be harvested. Such relentless disturbance of the colonies resulted in large-scale nesting failures year after year, and passenger pigeons steadily diminished.

What are the categories used by Kellert (1976) to classify human attitudes towards wildlife (Table 10‐1).

The four categories used to classify human attitudes are: 1. attitude 2. key identifying terms 3.highly correlated with 4. antagonistic toward.

What are the lasting effects of the Exxon‐Valdez oil spill?

The immediate effect of the Valdez oil spill was disastrous and in the days following the spill between 1000 and 2800 sea otters and 250,000 seabirds died as a direct result of oiling. A further 302 harbor seals died in the days following the spill, likely from inhalation of toxic fumes leading to brain lesions, stress, and disorientation Direct contact with the oil slick killed at least 140 bald eagles, 302 harbor seals, 2,800 sea otters and 250,00 seabirds within a few days. Four people died as part of the clean-up efforts. Its impact on the Alaskan shoreline made it the nation's biggest environmental disaster since Three Mile Island, even though it was only the 34th worst oil spill in history, sub lethal exposure has lead higher mortality rate because of reproductive, health,growth

Chapter 6 (188-197) What are some effects of light pollution? What species are more vulnerable (life history trait)?

The invention and rapid proliferation of electric lights over much of Earth's surface has transformed nighttime for many animals. Sources of light pollution include "sky glow" produced by cities, illumination of buildings, lighting on vessels and offshore oil rigs, and car and street lights. Ecological light pollution alters the natural lighting in terrestrial and aquatic systems and interrupts evolved patterns of behavior-cuing diurnal individuals to be active at night, and suppressing activity of nocturnal species. (it confuses species and the cycles of animals, sea turtles and birds)

What happened to the Labrador duck, the heath hen, and the Carolina parakeet?

The population apparently was never large, and the birds sometime were subject to the pressures of market hunting. Labrador ducks were not eliminated by overshooting but by changes made by humans in the marine environment along the Atlantic Coast. These changes were associated with human settlement that consequently destroyed the food resources needed by the waterfowl. The heath hen was an eastern prairie grouse, one of three races of a once widely distributed species. Heath hens already had been extirpated from mainland Mass. and Connecticut by 1830. Of 2000 birds still present on Martha's Vineyard in 1916, habitat destruction (fire) and disease claimed all but about 25 by 1925. Those losses, coupled with predation, poaching, and a sex ratio favoring males, doomed the heath hen. Carolina parakeet depended on mature forests, the encroaching lumber industry potentially jeopardized the continued existence of the birds. However overshooting and capture were the more direct causes of decline. Flock were quite susceptible to hunting because of the birds' habit of hovering over those already dead. Farmers also hunted parakeets to protect orchards, and large number were trapped while roosting inside hollow trees.

What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?

The resulting greenhouse effect maintains our relatively stable surface temperatures. Natural levels of Earth's greenhouse gases maintain temperatures about 60'F above what it would -be if Earth's atmosphere lacked such gases. In contrast this natural greenhouse effect, any temperature increase attributable to human activity is referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect.

What was the source of lead poisoning in ducks and geese in North America and how has the problem been resolved? What is a second source of lead poisoning in waterfowl?

The source of lead poisoning in ducks and geese in North America resulted from lead shot-estimated 3000 tons per year -deposited in wetlands by duck hunters ( pellets that miss their target, typically several dozen pellets per shot, and simply fall to ground). Feeding waterfowl pic up and ingest the expended shot, which the birds mistake for seeds and grit. Additional evidence indicated secondary poisoning occurred in bald eagles that fed on duck carcasses contaminated with ingest lead shot. In 1976, the Secretary of the Interior rules that duck hunters must use steel shots in certain "hot spot" areas where lead poisoning was particularly severe. (Steel-shot policy) The switch to nontoxic shot proved successful. Waterfowl also faced lead poisoning from another source, fishing sinkers. Lead sinkers have poisoned significant number of common loons in several states. In response, angers in some states where loons breed are encouraged to exchange lead sinkers for nontoxic weights, whereas others placed legal restriction on lead sinkers

Chapter 21 (476-487) What is 'island biogeography'?

The study of natural communities on islands, with an emphasis on species diversity as related to an island's area and its distance from the mainland. Principles apply not only to actual islands, but also to fragmented forests and other patches of habitat. Island biogeography represents a fundamental concept on the theory and practice of conservation biology. Initially based on the number of species established on small or large islands found at varying distances from the mainland, the concept of island biogeography later was applied to the size pf blocks of habitat required for the maintenence of such ecosystems as wetlands or rain forest.

What have ice cores shown us in terms of carbon levels and temperature?

There is a strong correlation between greenhouse gas abundance and mean temperatures. For instance, cores drilled in the Arctic and Antarctic ice sheets contain tiny air bubbles embedded when the ice formed. These bubbles reveal the exact composition of the atmosphere at the time of ice deposition. Not only does this give an exact value for atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, but scientists have discovered that the ratio of two isotopes of oxygen (18O, and 160r; can be used to accurately ca1- calculate atmospheric temperatures at the time the ice was formed.

What two pathways lead to introduction and what are some examples of them?

Through trade and travel, humans introduce species both intentionally and inadvertently. Intentional introductions began long ago, as humans carried crop and livestock species with them across Africa and Eurasia and into the Americas. Diseases and parasites-unintentional and undesirable hitchhikers-were carried along as well. Given the tremendous impacts of some invaders, and our still-developing understanding of the nature of invasive species and vulnerable communities, there is a strong motivation to Prevent and control unwanted species introductions. Unintentionol Pathways Species can hitchhike on any type of human transport from airplanes to cars to shirt buttons made of tropical nuts. For example, the growth of global shipping has shaped-and continues to shape--ecological communities through species invasions lntentional Pathways Species are introduced intentionally for agriculture ' aquaculture, recreation, and ornamental purposes. As European colonizers spread out across the globe, they longed for familiar species from home, and back home/ a growing European market demanded the import of exotic animals from abroad. Many of these intentional introductions have resulted in unfortunate impacts to native species and communities' unintentional: they are brought over by accident, snakes in cargo planes intentional: they are brought over for a purpose to help and ecosystem or as pet, tiger Burmese pythons

What are some of the failings of the bounty system in managing wildlife?

Trappers and hunters received millions of dollars from the public treasury for harvesting what was part of the annual surplus of coyotes. Any death of a coyote caused by a human was rewarded with money. Even with the paid killings of animals there populations remained the same so the money went to waste. In addition to being generally ineffective, bounties also are subject to fraud.

What is the difference in an introduced predator and an introduced competitor?

Two of the main ways that populations interact with one another is by competition and by predation. In competition, individuals seek to obtain the same environmental resource. In predation, one population is the resource of the other. One can conceptualize competition as occurring horizontally on the same resource level, while predation takes place vertically between different resource levels. Competition and predation comprise environmental pressures on the interacting populations. The coexistence of populations under competition and predation indicates that these populations have accommodated themselves to each other's presence and have evolved ways to survive in spite of the pressures. In other words, they have coevolved An introduced predator eats the native species and causes the decline An introduced competitor eats other animals food so there is not enough for native species

What factors lead to the successful management of wood ducks?

When Congress pass the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in 1918, wood ducks were given complete legal protection. In 1939, a biologist in Illinois erected several hundred nest boxes designed specifically for wood ducks. The successful management program for wood ducks can be attributed to several factors: timely recognition of the species' perilous statues; adequete legal protection; habitat improvement using artificial nesting structures and the coincident recovery of beaver populations (i.e., more wooded ponds); and thereafter, careful year-by-year monitoring of the population so that rigorous protection could be forthcoming, as needed, on short notice.

What is known as a "Dead Zone" in the ocean?

World distribution of hypoxic or "dead zones" is correlated to position of watersheds that have greatly enhanced nitrogen inputs, and to major cities. Due to eutrophication caused by excess nitrogen"" discharged from watershed, large areas of hydropoxic bottom water, known as the Dead Zone' are are' current feature in the Gulf during the summer' Hypoxic waters can stress and suffocate marine organisms' therefore affecting commercial harvests and the health of impacted ecosystems, yet these are now widespread (large areas of Hypoxic waters can stress and suffocate marine organisms)

Have butterflies experienced range shifts in North America and Europe?

YES On a continental scale, movements of entire species' ranges have been found in butterflies in both North America and Europe, where two-thirds of the 58 species studied have shifted their ranges northward by as much as 100 km per decade (Parmesan 7996;Parmesan et al. 1999).

How might morphology and behavior be affected by introduced species?

morphology: their body changes in order to survive the new predator snails grow thicker shells to survive green crab behavior: change to compete with new species, bees more attracted to the new flower

What are cascade effects and secondary extinctions?

when a top predator goes extinct and everything that predator controls goes out of whack Where species depend on their interactions with other species, extinction can have ripple effects as these interactions are disrupted. Thus, the loss of key species can spark a suite of indirect effects-a cascade effect of subsequent, or secondary extinctions, and substantive changes to biological communities. Secondary extinctions, those caused indirectly by an earlier extinction, are most likely to occur when species rely on a single or a few species as prey or as critical mutualists' For example, a plant that relies on a single bat species for pollination will not be able to reproduce should that bat go extinct' Similarly, a carnivore specializing on two species of insects may be unable to maintain itself if one of its prey species went extinct. Cascade effects are probable in any community where strong interactions among species occur, be they predator-prey, mutualistic, or competitive in character, and thus are likely to have occurred prior to recorded history as well as in the few recorded cases from recent times