ESS case studies

6.4: Acid deposition: Evaluate pollution management strategies for acid deposition.

6.4 note

7.1: Energy choices and security: Discuss the factors that affect the choice of energy sources adopted by different societies.

7.1 note

7.3: Climate Change: Mitigation and Adaptation. Discuss mitigation and adaptation strategies to deal with impacts of climate change.

7.3 note

7.3: Climate Change: Mitigation and Adaptation. Evaluate the effectiveness of international climate change talks.

7.3 note

7.2: Climate Change Causes and Impacts: Evaluate contrasting viewpoints on the issue of climate change.

Al gore "inconvenient truth" (ecocentric) - should priotise climate change over other social issues - climate change is happening very quickly - should rapidly respond to the climate change Bjorn Lomborg: "false alarm" - most issues from climate change are unsupported by scientific evidence - points out uncertainties in the data - cost analysis must be done before tackling - accepts humans have caused some climate change - consequences are localised by poor nations

1.4: Sustainability: Evaluate the use of EIAs.

Billund Airport problem: 2 million passengers a year and 1300 homes were exposed to high noise levels - Construction of new runway was suggested but too expensive - Take-off procedure: all airplanes leave as quickly as possible and turned 30 degrees to the right away Shell and the Sakhalin Island - did not heed recommend of EIA; extraction of oil and gas - their own EIAs; did not consider importance of biodiversity - caused many environmental conflicts - death of salmon, river crossing problems, erosion issue

4.3: Aquatic food production systems: Discuss, with reference to a case study, the controversial harvesting of a named species.

Bowhead Whale Subsistence Hunting in Alaska Rights of indigenous people - Whale is source of dense protein for the indigenous people. - Whale meat is considered an Alaska Native soul food International Conservation Legislation - The United States listed all bowhead whales as endangered under the Endangered Species (no commercial hunting) - Traditional subsistence hunt is protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act Biorights & Welfare - Cruel method used for whale hunting - Exploding harpoons to catch and haul whales in high-powered rifles to finish them off.

8.2: Resource Use in Society: Explain the dynamic nature of the concept of natural capital. The concept of a natural capital is dynamic. Whether or not something has the status of natural capital, and the marketable value of that capital varies regionally and over time and is influenced by cultural, social, economic, environmental, technological and political factors. Examples include cork, uranium and lithium.

Cork - harvested from the cork oak tree. - can be sustainably harvested - used as bottle stoppers - consistent demand maintained its sustainable forestry - replaced by plastics - The value of cork has declined and the forests have become threatened as it is no longer viable to manage them with these traditional methods. - Still some demands --- Cultural: cork has a strong cultural value Social: cork may hold more value for people who care about a wider range of factors Economic: cork is slightly more expensive than alternatives Environmental: cork is from a carbon sink and has the lowest carbon footprint for bottle stoppers Technological: technology has been developed to screen corks for potential to taint the contents Political: as sustainability rises in priorities, political bodies support and legislate for this, raising the value of cork as a resource

1.3: Energy and Equilibria: Evaluate the possible consequences of tipping points.

Deforestation of amazon: Scientists warn that the Amazon is approaching a tipping point beyond which it would begin to transition from a lush tropical forest into a dry, degraded savanna. Melting of arctic ice sheets 1.5 °C increase in global temperature triggers a feedback loop that leads to rapid and irreversible loss of its ice into the ocean.

3.3: Threats to biodiversity: Discuss the case histories of three different species: one that has become extinct due to human activity, another that is critically endangered, and a third species whose conservation status has been improved by intervention

Extinct: Dodos in NewZealand - Crewmans of Europe invaded Mauritius island and introduced invasive species, such as rats, pigs and dogs. - Low reproductive potential; lay one egg at one time; all eaten by invasive species - Low genetic diversity/narrow geographical range Critically endangered: Siberian tiger - Poaching, habitat loss due to deforestation, illegal hunting - large body (top predator) large territory and low population density; difficult to reproduce Kiwi: endangered → near threatened - Protection of kiwi eggs / raised baby kiwis in captivity before releasing - Inability of fly, extremely vulnerable (poor dispersed) - Few defenses against introduced predator, habitat loss due to deforestation.

4.3: Aquatic food production systems: Discuss a case study that demonstrates the impact of aquaculture.

Farmed atlantic salmon Antibiotic pollution - Wide range of chemicals are typically used in aquaculture, including antibiotics, parasiticides, pesticides, growth hormones Spread of Disease - higher densities of salmon, increasing contact between them - infected fish are not removed Genetically Modified Salmon Escaping - Genetically engineered salmon can crossbreed with native fish. - Bring new diseases and cause changes to basic food webs and ecosystem processes. Feed (Nutrient) Pollution - Fish waste and excess feed from growing carnivorous fish, like salmon, can cause rapid eutrophication Habitat Loss - To make and accommodate fish farms - Coastal areas cut down such as mangrove forests Biorights & Welfare - Biorights not protected; each organism has intrinsic value apart from human uses.

3.3: Threats to biodiversity: Describe the threats to biodiversity from human activity in a given natural area of biological significance or conservation area.

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Excessive commercial fishing - Destruction of ecosystems by removing herbivores, apex predators - Regulating commercial fishing by limiting entry, requiring a license - Increased green zones to 6% to 33% Tourism - Commercial marine tourism/litter/cruise/snorkelling - pollution, kick up sediments - Managing tourism by requiring permission, including environmental charge in tickets Success - significant reduction in tourism / commercial farming - increased green zones to support biodiversity Limitations - climate change cannot be tackled by regulating the park - pressures from public - already damaged coral reefs

1.1: Environmental value systems: Significant historical influences on the development of the environmental movement have come from literature, the media, major environmental disasters, international agreements and technological developments.

Minamata 1956 - The Chisso Corp dumped 27 tonnes of mercury into Minamata Bay from 1932-1968 - Minamata disease discovery - 3000 people infected who relied on local fish/crops - It was one of the prosperous companies after WWII; government supported the continuation of the corporation. - All members of society must accept the undesirable consequences of their collective judgments. - Landfills and hazardous waste sites must be ethically maintained. - Little power to obtain proper compensation. Silent Spring 1962 The book documented detrimental effects on the environment It spurred : - Led to a nationwide ban on DDT for agricultural uses - Inspired environmental movement that led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. - Public awareness that nature was vulnerable to human intervention Fukushima nuclear disaster 2011 - Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant triggered by the tsunami - The tsunami destroyed the emergency generators cooling the reactors, causing overheating. - the plant had failed to meet basic safety requirements - Anti-nuclear demonstrations in Japan and other countries

6.2: Stratospheric Ozone: Evaluate the role of national and international organizations in reducing the emissions of ozone-depleting substances.

Montreal protocol : role of CFC in depleting ozone recognised - Large number of signatories - Led to changes in individual behaviours - Investment in developing alternatives - staggered timing Success: - Growth of the ozone hole slows down after Montreal Protocol - Reduced rate of ozone depletion - Large number of signatories Limitations: - evidence of black market - some replacement (HFCs) cause climate change - some countries (china) trade illegally - difficulty reducing already existing CFCs

4.2 Access to fresh water: Discuss, with reference to a case study, how shared freshwater resources have given rise to international conflict.

Nile river - Ethiopia and Egypt Reason for the conflict The two countries have limited freshwater supply and thus primarily depend on the water from the Nile river. The rapid filling of a giant dam at the headwaters of the Nile River reduces water supplies to downstream Egypt. Egypt started talking in an increasingly bellicose tone, discussing military action to halt the construction of the dam. Ethiopia refuses to sign a draft agreement that is initialed by Egypt

1.3: Energy and Equilibria: Discuss resilience in a variety of systems.

Predator-prey relationships in Isle Royale: wolves and moose Wolf population increases a few years later after moose population increases. This is because there is more food available for the wolf, and they reproduce and have more offspring. Negative feedback maintains balance to this system; promoting a settling to equilibrium. BUT only one predator/prey; extinction of one species cause extinction of the other.

1.5: Humans and Pollution: Evaluate the uses of DDT. 2.2: Explain the impact of a persistent or non-biodegradable pollutant in an ecosystem.

Pros - control spread of malaria by wiping out mosquitos - agricultural use Cons - strongly absorbed by plants and not biodegradable; biomagnifies along food chain. - potential impact on human health; farmers exposed to DDT had asthma and diabetes. Agricultural use of DDT must be banned New solutions to malaria should be developed

8.1: Human population dynamics: Analyse the impact that national and international development policies can have on human population dynamics and growth.

Reduce population growth =Decrease in CBR - more tax to have more children - stimulate economic growth (parents no longer depend on their children) - education on birth control - woman empowerment (personal and economic independence) Increase population growth 1. increasing CBR - pro-natal policies (eg. free education, health cares, lowering income tax and giving incentives) 2. decreasing CDR - improving healthcare systems & agricultural development

8.2: Resource Use in Society: Outline an example of how renewable and non-renewable natural capital has been mismanaged.

Renewable - fish Newfoundland Canada & Iceland fishing (refer to 4.3) ---- Non- renewable Ogallala Aquifer in USA "Tragedy of commons" - Water pumped for irrigation from the Ogallala Aquifer is the principal driver of the region's mostly agricultural-based economy - Intensive irrigated agriculture is draining the aquifer much faster than rainfall can replenish it. - lack of regulations

2.4: Biomes, zonation and succession: Explain the distributions, structure, biodiversity and relative productivity of contrasting biomes.

Savanna (tropical grassland) - warm throughout year - can be subdivided into categories; dry, wet, thornbush (length of dry/wet seasons varies according to location) - high insolation - Africa - higher productivity - high biodiversity - African Lion < cheetah < giraffe < baobab tree - African Elephant endangered - Poaching of wild animals / clearing land for agriculture Temperate grassland - vary according to seasons - vary according to seasons but generally less precipitation than savanna - intermediate insolation - North America, Australia, New Zealand - lower net productivity -relative low biodiversity but high abundance of each species - Jackal < red fox < Prairie dog < Alfalfa Grass - Giant panda endangered - Developing open areas for farming/urban development; habitat loss / overgrazing

2.4: Biomes, zonation and succession: Describe the process of succession in a given example.

UK Sand dunes (16th century) - started with bare surface of land Pioneer - sea rocket, saltwort, couch - little freshwater / basic soil - few nutrients Intermediate - marram, sand sedge harebell, willow Climax - pines, oaks - decreased calcium carbonate → increased acidity - soil depth increases - continuously moving sands (far from sea water)

8.4: Human population carrying capacity: compare and contrast the differences in the EF of two countries.

USA (MEDC): High Ecological Footprint Relatively low biocapacity Mostly technocentric viewpoint High meat consumption More use of vehicles and planes due to large area Petroleum & Natural Gas (some renewable energy/ nuclear energy) Biotechnology, fertilizers and pesticides, crop and livestock practices, irrigation Congo (LEDC) Low Ecological Footprint (less than 1) Low biocapacity (higher than ecological footprint) Ecocentric (forced) Factories from MEDC Traditional use of biomass LEDC - low consumption small-scale subsistence farming Low meat consumption

5.2 Terrestrial food production systems and food choices: Compare and contrast the inputs, outputs and system characteristics for two given food production systems.

USA Nebraska (USA) corn - Mechanised labours → CO2 - Genetically modified corns → disease / super-bugs - Artificial fertilizers → eutrophication - Both rain and irrigation systems → soil erosion - Pesticides → toxic waste, bee die off and health issues - Monoculture → depletion of soil nutrients, reduced fertility. Soil management - Leftover stalks and leaves protect soil from wind and erosion - Plowing ------ Bontok (Philippines) rice production - Mostly organic fertilizers - but some farmers adopted chemical fertilizers - Organic matter and mineral inputs by pig compost - Physical labour - Irrigation water - Avocado/chilli pepper pesticides - Polyculture - Large land use ; deforestation and loss of biodiversity Soil management - Terracing - Contour farming

4.3: Evaluate strategies that can be used to avoid unsustainable fishing. Unsustainable exploitation of aquatic systems can be mitigated at a variety of levels (international, national, local and individual) through policy, legislation and changes in consumer behaviour.

Unsustainable - Newfoundland, Canada Improvements to boats - Steam and diesel engines became more widespread - These vessels were more efficient allowing crews to fish in any weather. - Workers could process hundreds of tons of fish onboard. Improvement to fishing technology - Workers replaced small open boats with larger and more powerful decked vessels. - Travel further and faster allowing fishers to reach productive fishing grounds with greater ease. - More efficient gear Regulations - International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF) established catch quotas in 1970. - Failed because ICNAF overestimated the abundance of northern cod/ stock's growth rate. ------------ Sustainable - Iceland Regulations - Icelandic fisheries are managed by a catch limitation system that allots each species a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) each year. - Individual vessels are then given a specific share of that catch - The volume, species and fish size of all fish are monitored. - Iceland enforces gear restrictions to protect juvenile and spawning fish. - Discarding bycatch is prohibited in Iceland.