Ethical Reasoning: Chapter 4: Moral Theories

The theory that the morally right action is the one covered by a rule that if generally followed would produce the most favorable balance of good over evil, everyone considered.

Rule-utilitarianism

__________________-____________________. on the other hand, says that morally right actions covered by a a rule that is generally followed would produce the most favorable balance of good over evil, everyone considered.

Rule-utilitarianism

A _________________ __________________ that conflicts with existing knowledge (well-established facts, scientific laws, or extensively confirmed theories( is not likely to be true.

Scientific theory

Ethical egoism says that the morally right action is the one that produces the most favorable balance of good over evil for oneself. True/False?

uerT

A moral theory can crystallize important insights in morality and thereby give us general guidance as we make judgements about what?

Cases and issues

A command that we should follow regardless of our particular wants and needs; also, the single principle that defines Kant's ethical system, from which all additional maxims can be derived.

Categorial imperative

Immanuel Kant wanted to establish as the foundation of his theory a single principle from which all additional maxims can be derived a principle he called the ___________________ _____________.

Categorial imperative

A good moral theory is also useful-it helps us solve moral problems in real-life situations. It helps us make conflicts among what?

Conflicting judgments, principles, and theory itself

In general, consequentialists moral theories say that makes an action right is its what?

Consequences

Moral philosophers have traditionally grouped theories of morality into two major categories. What are they?

Consequentialist (or teleological) and nonconsequentialist (or deontological)

A moral theory asserting that wha makes an action right is its consequences.

Consequentialist theory

A good scientific theory should be what?

Conservative

A moral theory is supposed to explain what makes an action right, and the data relevant to that issue are our what?

Considered moral judgements

Any moral theory that lacks usefulness is a what?

Dubious theory

In science, the interaction between a theory and the relevant data is _________________.

Dynamic

The theory that the morally right action is the one that advances one's own best interests.

Ethical egoism

In other words, universalizing the breaking of promises would result in a logically contradictory state of affairs, a situation that makes moral sense. True/False?

False - a situation that makes no moral sense

Moral theories and theorizing are easy to avoid. True/False?

False - are hard to avoid

Moral theories and moral arguments often do not work together. True/False?

False - often work together

We occasionally commit wrongful acts. Whatever or views on morality, few of us would deny that we do not in fact have this experience. True/False?

False - that we do in fact have this experience

We often give reasons for particular moral beliefs. Whatever or views on morality, few of us would deny that we do not in fact have this experience. True/False?

False - that we do in fact have this experience

Another criterion is _________________: how many successful novel predictions the theory makes. The more such predictions the more plausible he theory is.

Fruitfulness

A theory asserting that the morally right action is the one done in accordance with the categorial imperative.

Kant's theory

A theory asserting that the morally right action is the one that follows the dictates of nature.

Natural law theory

A moral theory asserting that the rightness of an action does not depend on its consequences.

Nonconsequentialist theory

Utilitarianism insists that everyone affected by an action must be included in any proper calculation of what?

Overall consequences

A moral theory that is inconsistent with trustworthy judgments is at least dubious and likely to be false, and in need of drastic what?

Overhaul or rejection

But neither can we dispense moral theories and rely solely on judgments about particular what?

Particular cases and issues

The ultimate goal in this give-and-take of theory and judgement (or principle) is a kind of close coherence between the two-what has come to be known as _________________ ________________. They should fit together as closely as possible, with maximum agreement between them.

Relative equilibrium

Nonconsequentalist theories say that the rightness of an action does not depend entirely on its consequences. True/False?

True

Our considered judgements (including principles or rules sanctioned by those judgment) by themselves, however, are sometimes of limited use. They may conflict. They may lack sufficient justification. True/False?

True

Recall that considered moral judgments are views that we form after careful deliberation under conditions that minimize bias and theory. They are therefore thought to have considerable weight as reasons or evidence in moral matters even though they can be mistaken and other considerations *such a an established moral principle or a well-supported theory) can sometimes over rule them. True/False?

True

Testing the premise may require examining one or more supporting principles or perhaps the most general norm (the theory) itself. True/False?

True

The categorial imperative, Kant says, is self-evident-and therefore founded on reason. True/False?

True

The principle and the maxims derived rom it are also universal (applying to all persons) and absolutist, meaning that they are moral laws that have no exceptions. True/False?

True

The right action maximizes the good (however good is defined) better than any alternative action, everyone considered. (utilitarianism) True/False?

True

To a consequentalist, telling a lie may not be considered wrong because it leads to more unhappiness than other actions do. True/False?

True

To a nonconsequentalist, the balance of good over bad that results from an action may matter little or not alt all. True/False?

True

To discover which one is the best they must judge each theory according to some generally accepted standards-the scientific criteria of adequacy. True/False?

True

To reject all moral theories, to deny the possibility of objective morality, or to embrace a subjectivist view of right and wrong broadest sense constitutes a moral theory or part of one. True/False?

True

Usefulness is a necessary, tho not sufficient, characteristic a good moral theory. This means that all good theories are useful, but usefulness alone does not make a moral theory good. True/False?

True

We act, we feel, we choose, and in our best moments, we are guided by the sifting of reasons and the weighing of arguments. True/False?

True

We must make an informed judgment about the importance of particular criteria in each new instance. True/False?

True

We occasionally have moral disagreements. Whatever or views on morality, few of us would deny that we do in fact have this experience. True/False?

True

We sometimes make moral judgements. Whatever or views on morality, few of us would deny that we do in fact have this experience. True/False?

True

A theory asserting that the morally right action is the one that produces the most favorable balance of good over evil, everyone considered.

Utiliarianism

Classic ________________ is an example of a simple moral theory, one based on a single, all-encompassing standard: right actions are those that directly produce the greatest overall happiness, everyone considered.

Utilitarianism

__________________ says that the morally right action is the one that produces the most favorable balance of good over evil, everyone considered.

Utilitarianism

There are several consequentialist (teleological)theories, each differing on who is to benefit from the goods or what kinds of goods are to be pursued. But two theories have received the most attention from moral philosophers: ________________ and _______________ _____________.

Utilitarianism and ethical egoism

Categorial Imperative

A command that we should follow regardless of our particular wants and needs; also, the single principle that defines Kant's ethical system, from which all additional maxims can be derived.

Nonconsequentalist Theory

A moral theory asserting that the rightness of an action does not depend on its consequences.

Consequentialist THoery

A moral theory asserting that wha makes an action right is its consequences.

Kant's Theory

A theory asserting that the morally right action is the one done in accordance with the categorial imperative.

Natural Law Theory

A theory asserting that the morally right action is the one that follows the dictates of nature.

Utilitarianism

A theory asserting that the morally right action is the one that produces the most favorable balance of good over evil, everyone considered.

The theory that morally right actions are those that directly produce the greatest overall good, everyone considered.

Act-utilitarianism

To a nonconsequentalist, telling a lie may be considered wrong simply because it violates what?

An exceptionless rule

Moral Theory

An explanation of what makes an action right or what makes a person or thing good.

By nonconsequentalist lights, an action could be morally right even though it produces less good than what?

Any alternative action

By far the most influential nonconsequentialist theory is that of who?

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

In act-utilitarianism, each situation calling for _______________ _______________ is unique and demands a new calculation of the balance of good over evil.

Moral judgement

Our deliberations may even work the other way around: _______________ ___________ may help us mold moral principles.

Moral judgements

Whatever else the moral life entails, it surely has what at its core?

Moral reasoning

Considered judgments help shape theory (and its principles or rules), and a good theory sheds light on judgments and helps adjudicate conflicts between judgments and other __________________ ________________.

Moral statements

From a ___________________ __________________ we cannot derive in strict logical fashion principle or judgements that will solve all the problems of our real-world cases.

Moral theories

A ______________ ______________ provides us with very general norms and standards that can help us make sense of our moral experiences, judgements, and principles.

Moral theory

A ___________________ _______________ is inconsistent with the moral life if it implies that we do not have one or more of these basic moral experiences.

Moral theory

A major reason for devising a what is to obtain this kind of practical guidance?

Moral theory

A what is not like a mathematical axiom?

Moral theory

An explanation of what makes an action right or what makes a person or thing good.

Moral theory

To try NOT to think much about morality but to rely on your default moral theory-the one you inherited from your family or culture-is of course to live the lights of a what?

Moral theory

Another notable nonconsequentalist view is the theory of ______________ ______________.

Natural law

Because moral theories are by definition general and theoretical, they cannot by themselves give us precisely what?

Tailored right answers

The theory is designed to explain the data, so the data help shape what?

The theory

Act-Utilitarianism

The theory that morally right actions are those that directly produce the greatest overall good, everyone considered.

Rule-Utilitarianism

The theory that the morally right action is the one covered by a rule that if generally followed would produce the most favorable balance of good over evil, everyone considered.

Ethical Egoism

The theory that the morally right action is the one that advances one's own best interests.

Moral theories concerned with rightness and wrongness of actions are called what?

Theories of obligation

Moral theories concerned with goodness of persons or things are known as what?

Theories of value

To wonder what makes an action right is to what?

Theorize

As in science, we should strive for a strong logical harmony between ________________, ________________. and __________________ _______________.

Theory, data, subordinate principles

We are morally equal. Whatever or views on morality, few of us would deny that we do not in fact have what?

This experience

We are sometimes mistaken in our moral beliefs. Whatever or views on morality, few of us would deny that we do in fact have what?

This experience

A consequentialist theory may define the good in different ways-as for example, pleasure, happiness, well-being, flourishing. True/False?

True

A moral theory is an explanation of what makes an action right or what makes a person or thing good. True/False?

True

A plausible moral theory should be consistent with moral background knowledge-with what we take to be fundamental facts about or moral experience. True/False?

True

According to the most influential form of this theory (traditional natural law theory), the natural world, including humankind , exhibits a rational order in which everything had its proper place and purpose, with each thing given a specific role to play by God. True/False?

True

Act-utilitarianism says that right actions are those that directly produce the greatest overall good, everyone considered. True/False?

True

Both the theory and the data contribute to the process of search for the truth. True/False?

True

But the judgements-if they are indeed trustworthy-can compel us to reconsider the theory. True/False?

True

For Kant, every action implies a rule or maim that says, in effect always do this in these circumstances. True/False?

True

In the field of ethics, most philosophers agree that carefully made moral judgements about cases and issues are generally reliable data that we should take very seriously. True/False?

True

Kant's Theory, then, is the view that morally right action is the one done in accordance with the categorial imperative. True/False?

True

Many philosophers who reject utilitarianism, for example, also believe that it makes a valuable point that any theory should tae into account: the consequences of actions do matter. True/False?

True

Moral philosophers distinguish two major types of utilitarianism, according to whether judgments of rightness focus on individual acts (without reference to rules) or on rules that cover various categories of acts. True/False?

True

Moral theories focus is not the rightness or goodness of specific actions but the very nature of rightness or goodness itself. True/False?

True

More often, an argument's moral premise is ultimately backed by a moral theory from which the moral premise (principle or rule) is derived. True/False?

True

Nevertheless, applying the criteria of adequacy and reach the verdict on the worth of a theory: you reject it. True/False?

True

Nonconsequentalist (deontological) theories also take various forms. They differ on among other things, the number of foundational principles or basic rules used and the ultimate basis of those principles. True/False?

True