Ethics

Moderate Objectivism (Moderate Objectivist Moral Intuitionism)

"The moral objectivist's account of moral principles is what William Ross (1877-1971) refers to as prima facie principles - valid rules of action that one should generally adhere to but that, in cases of moral conflict, may be overridden by another moral principle." -Pojman (page 76, How Should We Live) Prima facie duties are known self-evidently according to Ross. If it can be shown that at least one absolute moral duty is binding upon the wills of all rational persons, then we have demonstrated that ethical relativism is false and that a limited form of moral objectivism is true. -Pojman (page 76, How Should We Live) Just because some evil or ignorant individuals (such as Hitler or his ilk) claim that they do not like the duties that are truly binding upon all persons, this does not prove that moderate moral objectivism is wrong. "We can give a rational defense for a core set of moral principles [that is] universally binding." -Pojman (page 77, How Should We Live) Pojman then lays out 10 principles that make up this core set of universally binding objective moral rules. The ten rules are: (1) Do not lie; (2) Keep your promises; (3) Do not murder; (4) Respect other people's freedom; (5) Do not steal or cheat; (6) Help other people, especially when the cost to oneself is minimal; (7) Act justly, treating people according to their merit (not their race, or ethnic group except where it is morally relevant); (8) Do not cause unnecessary suffering; (9) Reciprocate good for good, not evil for good; and (10) Obey just laws. -Pojman (page 78, How Should We Live) 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 are like the Golden Rule, that we want to do onto others as we would like others to do onto us. -Pojman (page 78, How Should We Live) "The ten principles are examples of the core morality, principles necessary for the good life within a flourishing community." -Pojman (page 78, How Should We Live) "Sometimes people question whether Rule 7 [...] implies that we should reward and punish on the basis Chapter 7: How Should We Live? PHIL 103: Introduction to Ethics Jennifer Leslie Torgerson of morally relevant criteria, not irrelevant ones like race, ethnicity, or gender. Moral objectivism assumes that there is a common human nature and Pojman tells us that this is, in a sense, an acceptance of the strong dependency thesis (a variety of ethical relativism as discussed in the last chapter). -Pojman (page 81, How Should We Live) Might this also mean that moral objectivism commits the naturalistic fallacy? "Relativists calling themselves 'postmodernists' sometime claim that the idea of a common human nature is an illusion, but our knowledge of human genetics, as well as anthropology and history, provide overwhelming evidence that we are all related by common needs, interests, and desires." -Pojman (page 81, How Should We Live) Moderate objectivism favors prima facie duties, not absolute ones, because "most moral principles can be overridden when they come into conflict with other moral principles in some contexts." -Pojman (pages 81-82, How Should We Live) Compare the list that Pojman has provided here with Ross' list of Prima Facie Duties: (1) Promise Keeping; (2) Fidelity; (3) Gratitude for Favors; (4) Beneficence; (5) Justice; (6) Self-improvement; and (7) Nonmaleficence. -Pojman (page 140, How Should We Live)

Standard Deontic View or Correspondence Thesis

For the standard deontic view "action-guiding principles are the essence of morality. The virtues are derived from [...] principles and are instrumental in performing right action. For each virtue, there is a corresponding principle that is the important aspect of the relationship." - Pojman (page 175, How Should We Live) According to the standard deontic view of ethics, moral virtues do not have intrinsic but have instrumental value. -Pojman (page 177, How Should We Live)

Fundamental Human Rights

Fundamental human rights refer to a small set of basic human rights, and that set includes life, liberty, health and property.

Hedonism

(GK: hedone = pleasure) the principle that pleasure is the sole and proper aim of human action. The earliest and most extreme version of ethical hedonism was first advocated by the Cyrenaics, who claimed that the art of living consists in maximizing the enjoyment of each moment through pleasures of the senses and the intellect. Aristippus being the founder of the school was from Cyrene (c. 4th cent. BCE) In contrast, the Epicureans (Epicurus 341- 270 BCE) laid emphasis on the attainment of enduring pleasures and the avoidance of pain, stressing the role of prudence and discipline in securing the supreme good: peace of mind. Both the Cyrenaics and the Epicureans were egoistic hedonists. [Cyrenaics + physical pleasures; Epicureans -

Pleasure Principle

(What Bentham called the principle of utility) an action is right if and only if the action produces a greater balance of pleasure over pain, or at least as much pleasure as pain, than any other action the agent could have performed. Pleasure is the principle of right action.

Ethical Egoism

(ego = I in Latin) Ethical egoism is also called egoism or egotism. Ethical egoism is the view that an individual ought to act in their own self-interest (at all times). Hobbes callsethical egoism enlightened self-interest. Ethical egoism is the view that (a) each person aims to promote his or her own well-being and interests; (b) the summum bonum of life should be to produce the most satisfactions (pleasures, goals, desires, needs) possible for oneself; and (c) one's own success and happiness should be the primary and ultimate worth and from this principle all other values stem. Hobbes referred to ethical egoism as enlightened self-interest

Deontological Ethics

(from deon = duty and logos = the study of, or body of knowledge in classical Greek) Deontological ethical theorists claim that good actions follow certain rules for proper moral conduct and it is the moral agent's duty to follow the rules (usually, without exception). This is also called duty-based ethics.

Maxim

A maxim is a general rule that guides our actions.

Perfect Duty

A perfect duty, according to Kant, is a duty that is absolute, specific and instructs us not to harm ourselves or others.

Right

A right is a justified claim to protect an individual's important interests.

Virtue

According to Aristotle (384-322 BCE) in the Nicomachean Ethics: "Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i.e. the mean relative to us, | this being determined by a rational principle, and by that principle by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it. Now it is a mean between two vices, that which depends on excess and that which depends on defect; and again it is a mean because the vices respectively fall short of or exceed what is right in passions and actions, while virtue both finds and chooses that which is intermediate. Hence in respect of what it is, i.e. the definition which states its essence, virtue is a mean, with regard to what is best and right an extreme. But not every action nor passion admits of a mean; for some have names that already imply badness, e.g. spite, shamelessness, envy, and in the cases of actions adultery, theft, murder [.]" 1106 b 36 - 1107 a 15.

Hypothetical Imperative

According to Kant the hypothetical imperative is a command one to do X only if you wanted Y. This conditional statement is not absolutely binding. Hypothetical means 'optional', or contingent.

Pure Aretaic Ethics

According to Pojman, pure aretaic ethical theorists claim that "virtues are dominate and have intrinsic value. Moral principles or duties are derived from the virtues. For example, if we claim that we Chapter 8: How Should We Live? PHIL 103: Introduction to Ethics Jennifer Leslie Torgerson have a duty to be just or beneficent, we must discover the virtues of fairness and benevolence in the good person." -Pojman (page 175, How Should We Live)

Act-Deontological theories (Act-Intuitionism)

Act-deontology is consistence with "let your conscience be your guide." Intuition, not general rules, should guide our actions. Judgment of an action is based upon moral perceptions not abstract general rules. Bishop Joseph Butler (1692-1752) is an act-intuitionist.

Absolute

An absolute principle is one that is universally binding and can never be overridden by another principle and there are no exceptions to such principles. Absolute moral principles apply to all persons, at all times. Absolute principles are binding upon the will of every rational person according to Immanuel Kant.

Imperfect Duty

An imperfect duty, according to Kant, is a general duty over which we have some discretion, such as giving charity or developing our talents. An imperfect duty instructs us to be beneficent (or to have good will) towards ourselves and others.

Care Ethics

Care ethics is a type of ethics put forth by feminists that focuses on particular personal relations rather than the universal application of rules.

Nonmoral Virtues

Courage, optimism, rationality, self-control, patience, endurance, industry, musical talent, cleanliness, wit are examples of nonmoral values.

Divine Command Theory (DCT)

DCT claims that morality is derived from the will and command of God. The puzzle presented by Socrates (whether God loves the pious because it is pious or whether the pious is pious because God loves it) is called Euthyphro's dilemma.

Deontic Ethics

Deontic ethics refers to action-based ethical systems like deontological and teleological ethical systems.

Categorical Imperative

Do x! According to Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), the categorical imperative is the necessary and absolute moral law believed to be the ultimate rational foundation for all moral conduct. "So act that you can will the maxim (principle) of your action to be a universal law binding upon the will of every other rational person." Categorical imperatives are absolutely binding. The first formulation of the categorical imperative in the Grounding For the Metaphysics of Morals is: that one should act only on that maxim that can be at the same time willed to become universal law [of nature]. The second formulation of the categorical Chapter 7: How Should We Live? PHIL 103: Introduction to Ethics Jennifer Leslie Torgerson imperative in the Grounding is: that one should always act in such a way that humanity either in oneself or in others is always treated as an end itself and never merely as a means. If a person is treated as nothing more than a means, then (s)he is treated as nothing more than a thing without purposes of his or her own rather than a self-determining agent.

Ethical Absolutism

Ethical absolutism is "the notion that there is only one correct answer to every moral problem." -Pojman (page 213, How Should We Live) The ethical absolutist must provide answers to every possible situation in life, regardless of culture. It seems an impossible task, in any culture, for any theory to provide answers to every ethical problem. Most ethical absolutists, such as Immanuel Kant, limit their absolutism to a narrow and defined class of categorically imperative duties.

Moral Virtues

Honesty, benevolence, nonmalevolence, fairness, kindness, conscientiousness, and gratitude are examples of moral virtues

Human Rights

Important interests that apply to human beings but not other animals or beings.

Intuitionism

Intuitionism is the view that the good or the right thing to do can be known directly via the intuition.

Act Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham (1748 -1832), an English philosopher, had an ethical theory that he called the principle of utility which states: that an action is right if and only if the action produces a greater balance of pleasure as pain, or at least as much pleasure as pain, for the community*, more than any alternative action the agent could have performed. There are not any natural moral rights; all rights and duties are determined by using the principle of utility. This process is called hedonistic calculus (hedons and delors). This is a form of hedonism, because the ethical principle is pleasure. *The community is the most number of people (the majority). *The community is the most number of people (the majority) Bentham focus is upon quantity of pleasure, while Mill is interested in the quality of pleasure (happiness).

Rule Utilitarianism

John Stuart Mill (1806- 1873), an English philosopher, modified Bentham's theory because some, including Mill, found difficulty placing the emphasis of what is the right thing to do upon pleasure. Rule utilitarianism states: that an action is right is and only if the action conforms to that set of moral rules whose adoption would produce a greater balance of happiness, or at least as much happiness as pain, for the community*, than the adoption of any alternative set of rules. *The community represents the most number of people (the majority).

Heteronomy

Kant's term for the determination of the will on nonrational grounds is called heteronomy.

Liberty or Freedom

Liberty or freedom is also called independence, ease of movement. Liberty is a right.

Autonomy Thesis

Moral laws, like the laws of physics and mathematics exist independently from the wills of all rational beings, including God, according to the autonomy thesis. Thus ethics has its own integrity or autonomy. Humans too retain their own autonomy and freedom of will, and are not merely subservient to God's will. Kant's term for the determination of the will based on rational grounds is called autonomy.

Moral Particularism

Moral particularism is the view that particular relations, not abstract universal principles, are the basis of ethics.

Naturalism

Naturalism is the theory that ethical terms are defined through factual terms in that ethical terms refer to natural properties.

Naturalism

Naturalism is the theory that ethical terms are defined through factual terms in that ethical terms refer to natural properties.

Negative Responsibility

Negative responsibility is the notion that we are responsible for the consequences of our actions, and for the consequences of our nonactions.

Intrinsic Values

Pojman defines intrinsic values as "[g]ood in itself. Something that has value in itself as opposed to instrumental value, having value because of its consequence." -Pojman (page 216, How Should We Live) We desire intrinsic values but they are valued because they are good. Our desiring them does not make them good. Intrinsic values are necessary for human flourishing. -Pojman (page 71, How Should We Live)

Prima Facie

Prima facie is Latin for "at first glance" and when applied to morality, it signifies that initial perception in regards to an obligation.

Rule-Deontological theories (Rule-Intuitionism)

Rule-deontology theories hold that our actions must be guided by following universal rules. Sir W. D. Ross (1877-1971) is a rule-intuitionist and an example of moderate objectivist rule-intuitionism. Thus, Ross is not an absolutist.

Complementarity Ethics or Pluralistic Ethics

The complementarity ethical view is "also called pluralistic ethics [... and] holds that both deontic and aretaic models are necessary for an adequate or complete [ethical] system. Neither the virtues nor principles are primary; they complement each other and both have intrinsic value." - Pojman (page 175, How Should We Live)

Consequentialist Principle

The consequentialist principle states that the rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by the goodness or badness of the results that flow from it.

Naturalistic Fallacy

The naturalistic fallacy is the false claim that what is the case ought to be the case, when there is no other reason or evidence offered. Just because something is said to be natural doesn't make it right. There needs to be a good reason or better evidence than the status quo to call an action right or a person moral.

Posterity problem

The posterity problem is the thesis that we do have duties to future generations.

Principle of Utility

The principle of utility states that the only thing that is good in itself is some specific kind of nonmoral state such as pleasure, happiness or welfare.

Reductionist Thesis

The reductionist thesis is the second thesis of the standard deontic view argument as presented by Pojman on page 177 in How Should We Live. The reductionist thesis states that "moral virtues are dispositions to obey [...] moral rules [...] that is, to perform or omit certain actions. According to the correspondence y theory of virtues, each virtue corresponds to an appropriate moral principle." -Pojman (page 182, How Should We Live)

Remainder Rule

The remainder rule of utilitarianism states that when no other rule applies or when enormous good is at stake, simply do what your best judgment deems to be the act that will maximize utility.

Aretaic Ethics

The theory that the basis of ethical assessment is character rather than in actions or duties is called aretaic ethics. Aretaic ethics is also called virtue ethics: (from arête = virtue in classical Greek) Virtue ethical theorists, such as Aristotle, claim that virtue is a form of moderation (or a mean between the extremes). Ethics should be about building good moral character, not merely focused upon actions. Choosing a life of moderation will lead to happiness (eudaimonia) in the end.

Objectivism

The view that moral principles have objective validity whether or not people recognize them as such is called ethical objectivism. Actions are right because of some objectively existing quality in them, which when experienced, makes them desirable. Therefore these values or laws are grounded in a reality outside humanity. These laws are universally binding for all and are eternally true. These laws can be discovered through the use of reason. Because of the emphasis upon following the eternally true laws, objective ethics are deontological in nature. Objectivism is the opposite of relativism, or a subjective ethic.

Universal Basic Rights

Universal basic human rights include adequate food, shelter and medical care not merely essential rights such as life, liberty and property.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is the view that the right action is the one that maximizes utility. The moral worth of an act is judged according to the goodness or badness of its consequences. This is a form of consequentialism.

Teleological Ethics

claims that the ultimate criterion of morality lies in some nonmoral value that results from actions. (from telos = end or purpose and logos = the study of, or body of knowledge in classical Greek) Teleological ethical theorists claim that good actions produce good consequences. This is also called consequentialism or end-based ethics.