Ethics in America DSST

The problem of evil highlights inconsistencies in which of the following characteristics of God in the Bible? a) God's omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevolence b) the covenants c) the divinity of Jesus d) God as Creator of the Universe

The correct answer is A. The problem of evil is how it can exist if God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good. "Theodicies" over the centuries have tried to answer this question.

A high school would like to engage in random locker searches. This program is primarily issue of a) Privacy b) Obligations to strangers c) Accountability d) Professional ethics

The correct answer is A. The question is whether students have the right to privacy in their own lockers. Agree or disagree, this is privacy issue.

Bill is a billionaire. Fred thinks that this makes him more important than other people, since he has more power to do good or evil. Could Fred's argument be used to exempt Bill from the rule of law? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Fred is not arguing that Bill is better (or worse) than anyone else; he is simply making a descriptive point: Bill, as a billionaire, has more power than other people.

Which of the following philosophers were "Utilitarians"? I. Jeremy Bentham II. John Stuart Mill III. Immanuel Kant a) I only b) I and II only c) I and III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is B. Kant was the author of several works on deontological ethics.

The state of nature consists of a "war of all against all". Which of the following philosophers believed this? a) Locke b) Plato c) Hobbes d) Aquinas

The correct answer is C. Hobbes believed that society began when men began to see that it was in everyone's best interests to limit the war of all against all. From this realization, the social contract emerged, which set the terms of cooperation.

Which philosopher changed the Golden Rule into a negative statement? a) Epictetus b) Epicurus c) Hobbes d) Locke

The correct answer is C. Hobbes believed that the Golden Rule in Jesus' formulation—"Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"—would lead to political chaos. So, he rewrote it as: "Do not that to another, which thou wouldst not have done to thyself" which limits "bad behavior" without infringing on the "Leviathan"—the absolute power of the state.

A major difference between the Old and New Testament ethical systems is which of the following? a) On whether dietary restrictions should be followed b) The deistic basis of ethical authority c) The reliance on covenants with paternalistic leaders d) Jesus explains the reasons for his ethical system, whereas no one does so in the Old Testament

The correct answer is A. A major distinction between the two testaments is how the dietary restrictions in Leviticus are treated. Covenants continue, linking peoples (or all humanity) to the authority of God. Both testaments make appeals to divine authority rather than to reason.

The Hemingway Hospital's internal review board approves the following study on a drug designed to fight avian flu called "Disrupton." One group of patients will receive Disrupton, one group will receive Tamiflu, and a third group will receive a placebo (a harmless substance). Since the study is double-blind, none of the researchers know which patients are receiving which treatment. Assume that this flu: is incredibly virulent (around 50% mortality, rather than 2-3%), has yet to break out in a pandemic (a worldwide epidemic), but a pandemic is deemed not only inevitable but also imminent, and is not currently treatable by any method but Tamiflu, and that treatment has been found lacking. Assume that the pandemic has begun, and avian flu is as virulent as feared. Could this affect one's opinion on doing a study that lacks informed consent of the subjects? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Again, the key word is "could"—it surely could affect one's opinion on informed consent. The danger is now here, not imminent, so it becomes more difficult to insist on the autonomy of the subjects, at least for some people.

Alberto favors government-sanctioned abortion before the third trimester because he deems the unborn fetus to lack autonomy until the third trimester. If Alberto dropped the autonomy argument, could he construct a justification for abortion on a utilitarian, rather than on a Kantian, basis? a) Yes b)No

The correct answer is A. Alberto could argue that an unwanted child will likely lead to greater unhappiness in its parents and potentially even in itself. Again, one may not agree with this argument, but that is beside the point. The point is to be able to construct plausible arguments within traditions you've learned.

Bill is a billionaire. Fred thinks that this makes him more important than other people, since he has more power to do good or evil. If Fred further argued that Bill's billions makes him more inherently valuable than others, would this undermine both Kantian and contemporary social-contract theory? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. All humans have autonomy—equal autonomy—and none can be used as ends, according to Kant. As for social-contract theorists, the key word here is "contemporary" (such as, Rawls). Early contract theorists did indeed make distinctions among people—women, unpropertied men, colonists, certain races, certain religious beliefs lowered ones "value" to the early contract theorists.

A corporation institutes a random drug testing policy based on the belief that drug use minimizes efficiency and thus profit. Which two ethical concepts are in conflict for any manager who must implement the policy? a) Privacy and Institutional Responsibilities b) Accountability and Informed consent c) Obligations to strangers and Privacy d) Professional code of ethics and Veracity

The correct answer is A. The manager must balance her institutional responsibility to maximize profit with the privacy of her employees.

Coercion in the raising of children is traditionally justified by which of the following arguments? a) Children's minds are not developed enough to make proper moral choices, so their parents must use coercion at times for their children's own good b) Children are considered to be the parents' property c) Children are considered to be inherently immoral, so their parents limit their liberty for the sake of society at large d) Children are considered to be inherently innocent, so their parents must protect them from an evil society.

The correct answer is A. Being "of sound mind"—meaning, having enough rationality to be able to make choices—is common to virtually all Western ethical systems. Children, by definition (up to an argued-upon age) are considered not to be of sound mind; therefore, their parents must take care of them until they are able to make decisions for themselves.

Contracts between God and Abraham, Jesus, and Noah are referred to as a) covenant b) categorical imperatives c) hypothetical imperatives d) social contracts

The correct answer is A. Biblical covenants apply not only to the two sides involved, but also (and most importantly) apply to all subsequent generations.

To Plato and Aristotle, the virtues are a) unified b) self-contradicting c) reflections of godly behavior d) social norms

The correct answer is A. Both Plato and Aristotle felt that the cardinal virtues—wisdom, justice, courage, and moderation—were interrelated. One could not become perfectly just without becoming perfectly wise, too—how else to judge? Similarly, injustice will come from immoderation, sooner or later.

Felipe is against anyone under 21 serving in the military because he does not believe people are fully autonomous actors until that age. If the drinking age in Felipe's country is 21, could that fact plausibly support his argument? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Drinking ages, by definition, are statements about autonomy, as are many other age-limited laws, such as minimum driving or voting ages.

If a drug company buries data on the harmfulness of a certain medication, that company has done breached which of the following? I. Veracity II. Professional code of ethics III. Balancing harms a) I only b) I and II only c) II and III d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is A. Drug companies have no professional code of ethics, beyond the legal mandate of all corporations: to maximize profit for shareholders. Nor is the drug company balancing harms, according to the scenario—human lives will be harmed in the service of profit. The harm of wasted funds might be put forward as a reason for III, but none of the ethical systems you've studied would support that view, given this scenario.

Living well and doing good bring about which of the following? a) eudaimonia b) euphoria c) utopia d) eugenics

The correct answer is A. Eudaimonia, sometimes translated as "happiness," is less a state of being than a result of actions.

Felipe is against anyone under 21 serving in the military because he does not believe people are fully autonomous actors until that age. Felipe is making a deontological argument. a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Felipe may not be a full Kantian—he may never have heard of Kant—but he is definitely taking on a deontological position.

The Hemingway Hospital's internal review board approves the following study on a drug designed to fight avian flu called "Disrupton." One group of patients will receive Disrupton, one group will receive Tamiflu, and a third group will receive a placebo (a harmless substance). Since the study is double-blind, none of the researchers know which patients are receiving which treatment. Assume that this flu: is incredibly virulent (around 50% mortality, rather than 2-3%), has yet to break out in a pandemic (a worldwide epidemic), but a pandemic is deemed not only inevitable but also imminent, and is not currently treatable by any method but Tamiflu, and that treatment has been found lacking. If previous studies in the laboratory by using Disrupton on flu virus and in animal models, such as mice, had not shown conclusively that Disrupton will be successful treating avian flu, should this study have been approved by the Boa

The correct answer is A. For this answer to be truly correct, remember the global situation. Usually, with such a virulent disease, a study such as this should not be approved. However, given the stakes for the species as a whole, and the fact that the question states that there actually may be a chance that Disrupton may actually work (inconclusive evidence, heretofore), then this study is ethical—as long as all subjects in the study have given their fully informed consent.

Bill is a billionaire. Fred thinks that this makes him more important than other people, since he has more power to do good or evil. If Fred argues that if Bill does good, on balance, with his billions, then that will at least partly outweigh whatever inegalitarianism his ownership of billions entails, then Fred is making a consequentialist argument on a topic of distributive justice. a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Fred is weighing the happiness (or good) that Bill might do against the implied injustice of his vast wealth.

Alberto favors government-sanctioned abortion before the third trimester because he deems the unborn fetus to lack autonomy until the third trimester. If it could be shown to Alberto's satisfaction (assume he's completely honest) that fetuses in fact do show at least some indications of autonomy in the second trimester, would that necessarily affect Alberto's argument in favor of abortion? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Given that Alberto bases his support for abortion on autonomy only, this turn of events would have to affect his opinion of at least second-trimester abortions. Note that the answers to both this question and the previous are relative to Alberto's stated position. One need not agree or disagree ethically in order to analyze Alberto's likely positions given the original scenario.

Which of the following thinkers believed that freedom is an illusion and that human beings are simply conditioned by external stimuli to behave in certain ways? a) B. F. Skinner b) Sigmund Freud c) William James d) Immanuel Kant

The correct answer is A. Skinner was a proponent of behaviorism, which states that human beings essentially are their behavior and that there is no such thing as mind, soul, spirit, or self but only body and brain, which react to external stimuli. Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, theorized that human beings are determined by their unconscious minds and natural drives. James believed freedom existed to some extent because we cannot always predict whether a person will choose path A or path B. Kant believed that each human being should be considered as an end in himself or herself, never as merely a means.

The Hemingway Hospital's internal review board approves the following study on a drug designed to fight avian flu called "Disrupton." One group of patients will receive Disrupton, one group will receive Tamiflu, and a third group will receive a placebo (a harmless substance). Since the study is double-blind, none of the researchers know which patients are receiving which treatment. Assume that this flu: is incredibly virulent (around 50% mortality, rather than 2-3%), has yet to break out in a pandemic (a worldwide epidemic), but a pandemic is deemed not only inevitable but also imminent, and is not currently treatable by any method but Tamiflu, and that treatment has been found lacking. If none of the subjects give informed consent (assume, say, that the drug is tested on the army or on prisoners), could this affect how one judges how ethical this study is? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Given the dire straits of the scenario, different people may say that, for utilitarian reasons, some human beings must be sacrificed for the good of potentially half the species. Some may say that the autonomy of those uninformed subjects can not be infringed upon, no matter what the stakes. What is clear is that the lack of informed consent would certainly give everyone pause, if only for a moment, and will affect how one judges the study, even if one's basic "go-no go" decision remains ultimately unchanged

According to Hobbes, the government can break the social contract by a) not protecting those who have consented to obey it b) going to war c) wielding supreme executive, legislative, and judicial power d) not supporting a state religion

The correct answer is A. Hobbes gives his "Leviathan" a tremendous amount of power, including all stated in choice C. However, the point of the social contract was protection against the state of nature. If a government doesn't protect against a state of nature, it is illegitimate. How one removes such a government is a hazy part of Hobbes' argument.

The Hemingway Hospital's internal review board approves the following study on a drug designed to fight avian flu called "Disrupton." One group of patients will receive Disrupton, one group will receive Tamiflu, and a third group will receive a placebo (a harmless substance). Since the study is double-blind, none of the researchers know which patients are receiving which treatment. Assume that this flu: is incredibly virulent (around 50% mortality, rather than 2-3%), has yet to break out in a pandemic (a worldwide epidemic), but a pandemic is deemed not only inevitable but also imminent, and is not currently treatable by any method but Tamiflu, and that treatment has been found lacking. Should the subjects in this study be informed before their participation? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Informed consent is required both legally and morally, no matter what the stakes, which are obviously very high in this not-all-that-fictional scenario.

The main difference between rule utilitarianism and act utilitarianism is that a) act utilitarianism requires us to consider the social utility of every act, whereas rule utilitarianism requires us to consider only the social utility of a rule and act accordingly b) act utilitarianism requires us to consider the social utility of every rule, whereas rule utilitarianism requires us to consider only the social utility of every act c) act utilitarianism requires us to use the hedonic calculus, whereas rule utilitarianism does not d) act utilitarianism is pure consequentialism, whereas rule utilitarianism is not

The correct answer is A. Mill argued for "rule utilitarianism" rather than "act utilitarianism." The hedonic calculus did not impact the argument directly.

The "harm principle" was a) authored by Mill and stated that liberty extended up to the point of inflicting harm on another b) authored by Mill and stated that liberty was the highest pleasure in the felicific calculus c) authored by Bentham and was that liberty extended up to the point of inflicting harm on another d) authored by Bentham and was that liberty was the highest pleasure in the felicific calculus

The correct answer is A. Mill took the view that the prevention of harm was the primary moral duty, and that therefore the primary aim of just government and law was to remove any impediments or obstacles to liberty. This lined up with Mill's laissez-faire economic notions. Later scholars called this notion "negative liberty."

Natural rights are I. universal II. relative to the norms of the culture or society III. based on the separation of powers a) I only b) I and II only c) I and III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is A. Natural rights are universal, since they are based on human nature in some fashion, so they cannot be relative to the norms of a given culture or society. However, not all natural-rights theorists favored the separation of powers (e.g., Hobbes), nor did any of them base natural rights on the separation of powers. Rather, those that favored separation of powers (e.g., Locke, Montesquieu, and Jefferson) based that on the protection of natural rights, not upon the existence of natural rights.

A reporter witnesses a massacre of civilians by troops from that reporter's nation. The reporter has the entire massacre on tape, has interviewed members of the military and of the surrounding villages. The executive branch of the representative democracy in which the reporter lives contacts the reporter's publisher and asks her not to publish the story, claiming that it would give aid and comfort to the enemy and that they have already investigated the incident and will punish the soldiers involved. The reporter presses the publisher to run the story. Regardless of the publisher's decision, is there a potential conflict of duties here? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. No matter what position one takes personally, there is at least a potential conflict between the publisher's professional responsibility and loyalty to her country.

You are good friends with a married couple in their late thirties, Paul and Yvonne. Assume you are equally close to each person. Paul tells you that he is having an affair, and that he is keeping it from Yvonne. Assume you chose not to tell Yvonne about the affair. It turns out that Yvonne has her suspicions. She asks you point-blank whether Paul is having an affair. Does this complicate your ethical situation? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Now, instead of a possibly unethical act of omission—not telling Yvonne what you know—you are now faced with a possibly unethical act of commission—lying to Yvonne. Or: telling Yvonne. No matter how you slice it, and no matter what your opinion, given the scenario, "you" are in a more ethically challenging situation.

Assume that in the future, organs could be grown outside of human beings. These would never be rejected by a human's immune system, and would be far superior to mechanical-organ replacement. Assume that this procedure can be done, but is limited to only very rich patients (i.e., it is not covered by insurance). Is this potentially a problem of distributive justice? a)Yes b)No

The correct answer is A. Potentially. If a life-saving technique is available only to the rich, then questions of distributive justice can certainly be raised.

It is sometimes argued that an ethical quandary exists when a defense lawyer, who is legally and professionally bound to zealously represent his or her client, knows that the client is guilty. The quandary is which of the following? a) Conflict of duties b) Retributive justice c) Balancing harms d) Accountability

The correct answer is A. The supposed conflict is between the lawyer as a professional and the duty of the lawyer as a person. However, in the adversarial legal system we've inherited from England, powers are separated between the defense, the prosecution, and the judge or jury. Only the latter has a moral duty to decide or adjudicate on whether the accused is guilty.

A reporter witnesses a massacre of civilians by troops from that reporter's nation. The reporter has the entire massacre on tape, has interviewed members of the military and of the surrounding villages. The executive branch of the representative democracy in which the reporter lives contacts the reporter's publisher and asks her not to publish the story, claiming that it would give aid and comfort to the enemy and that they have already investigated the incident and will punish the soldiers involved. The reporter presses the publisher to run the story. Assume the administration in power has a history of thoroughly and honestly following up on internal misconduct, Could that affect the publisher's decision? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Yes, and for the same reasons as in the previous question.

A reporter witnesses a massacre of civilians by troops from that reporter's nation. The reporter has the entire massacre on tape, has interviewed members of the military and of the surrounding villages. The executive branch of the representative democracy in which the reporter lives contacts the reporter's publisher and asks her not to publish the story, claiming that it would give aid and comfort to the enemy and that they have already investigated the incident and will punish the soldiers involved. The reporter presses the publisher to run the story. Assume the administration in power has a history of burying or undermining promised investigations. Could that affect the publisher's decision? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Yes, if the publisher is concerned with whatever effect journalism can have on justice and truth-telling, which is part of the journalistic code.

A reporter witnesses a massacre of civilians by troops from that reporter's nation. The reporter has the entire massacre on tape, has interviewed members of the military and of the surrounding villages. The executive branch of the representative democracy in which the reporter lives contacts the reporter's publisher and asks her not to publish the story, claiming that it would give aid and comfort to the enemy and that they have already investigated the incident and will punish the soldiers involved. The reporter presses the publisher to run the story. Assume that the government did not ask but rather demanded that the story be withheld. Might that make the publisher's decision easier? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Yes, it might. Again, whatever you think you might do in this situation, if the government demands censorship, then that might plausibly trigger a decision to publish because of the higher principle of freedom of the press.

A reporter witnesses a massacre of civilians by troops from that reporter's nation. The reporter has the entire massacre on tape, has interviewed members of the military and of the surrounding villages. The executive branch of the representative democracy in which the reporter lives contacts the reporter's publisher and asks her not to publish the story, claiming that it would give aid and comfort to the enemy and that they have already investigated the incident and will punish the soldiers involved. The reporter presses the publisher to run the story. Assume the government has actually completed the investigation and can show the publisher that it is taking punitive action. Might that make the publisher's decision easier? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is A. Yes, it might. If the point of publishing the story was a matter of justice, primarily, than the publisher might hold back the story if she thinks justice has been served without any harm to her own nation. This is one possible action; not necessarily the right action—it's the plausibility that counts here.

A soldier receives an order from his commanding officer to commit torture in order to get information a prisoner of war is assumed to have. If the soldier follows the order because he believes it will lead to greater safety for his fellow troops, that soldier most likely obeys the order for which of the following reasons? a) He ranks his duty to his professional code of ethics above his duty to his fellow troops b) He ranks his duty to his fellow troops above his duty to professional code of ethics c) He dislikes his commanding officer d) He feels no loyalty for his country

The correct answer is B. According to the scenario, the soldier considers his duty to his fellow soldiers to outrank the torture of prisoners of war, which he knows to be an illegal breach of the rules of conduct, and thus of his professional ethics.

"The Doctrine of the Mean" a) was conceived by Plato and means that one should avoid extremes in behavior and action b) was conceived by Aristotle and means that one should avoid extremes in behavior and action c) was conceived by Plato and means that one should achieve the Good internally by averaging out the desires of the three parts of the soul d) was conceived by Aristotle and means that one should achieve the Good internally by averaging out the desires of the three parts of the soul

The correct answer is B. Aristotle argued that virtue laid between the extremes of opposing vices.

A linguist argues that most voters aren't rational enough to be fully informed on any political issue. Therefore, she argues, political messages must be "packaged" in such a way that voters are led to the correct position by virtue of emotional, irrational appeals. Assume that the linguist can show that rationality not only increases with education but also literally changes the physical structure of the brain. Does this mean that "packaging" must be followed? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. By what means education increases rationality (assuming that is demonstrated) is beside the point. "Packaging" need not be followed for the same reasons as in the previous question.

Felipe is against anyone under 21 serving in the military because he does not believe people are fully autonomous actors until that age. If it could be shown that people between the ages of 18 and 21 who join the military do so because they have calculated that the economic benefits outweigh the risks, could that fact plausibly support Felipe's argument? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Felipe's argument is based on autonomy; this twist in the scenario perhaps turns on a question of distributive justice, but the very fact that people between the ages of 18 and 21 are shown to be making decisions of this kind shows that they have autonomy. There may be a question of distributive justice here, but not one of autonomy per se.

Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that I. natural rights, derived from natural law, were given to the individual and transferred by that individual to the state II. the state should have a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force III. the state of nature was to be avoided a) I only b) I and II only c) I and III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is B. Hobbes disagreed with Locke and especially Rousseau that the state of nature was essentially good. Hobbes considered life in the state of nature "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short," and considered social government a bulwark against the state of nature.

_________ advocates a morality that excludes religion. a) Humanitarian ethics b) Humanistic ethics c) Developmental view d) Radical individualism

The correct answer is B. Humanistic ethics is a system of ethics essentially based upon atheism or agnosticism and advocates a morality that excludes religion or religious belief. Humanitarian ethics is a system of ethics that can include any moral system—religious or nonreligious—as long as the five basic moral principles are observed. According to the developmental view, a human being's biological and moral significance increases with development. Radical individualism in health care is the approach that patients have absolute rights over their own bodies and lives and, therefore, may reject all recommendations of health care personnel.

Assume that in the future, organs could be grown outside of human beings. These would never be rejected by a human's immune system, and would be far superior to mechanical-organ replacement. Assume that replacement brains can be grown. If one assumes that autonomy resides in the brain (i.e., mind), does it matter whether the brain can be grown with or without a body, if one is concerned about autonomy? (Assume the replacement brain is fully operational, self-cognizant, etc.) a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. If the brain contains the mind, and the mind is the seat of autonomy, and one is concerned with autonomy, then it doesn't matter whether the brain is grown on its own or within a body.

Felipe is against anyone under 21 serving in the military because he does not believe people are fully autonomous actors until that age. If the voting age in Felipe's country is 18, could that fact plausibly support his argument? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. If the voting age is 18, that is a societal statement on autonomy. By itself, that fact cannot support Felipe's argument.

A linguist argues that most voters aren't rational enough to be fully informed on any political issue. Therefore, she argues, political messages must be "packaged" in such a way that voters are led to the correct position by virtue of emotional, irrational appeals. Go back to the original scenario. Assume the linguist has the best of intentions. Does that mean that "packaging" must be followed? a)Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Intentions, when knowable, are often considered important, but good intentions alone cannot guarantee ethical behavior—especially if one is concerned with ethical outcomes (i.e., has a consequentialist viewpoint.

The Hemingway Hospital's internal review board approves the following study on a drug designed to fight avian flu called "Disrupton." One group of patients will receive Disrupton, one group will receive Tamiflu, and a third group will receive a placebo (a harmless substance). Since the study is double-blind, none of the researchers know which patients are receiving which treatment. Assume that this flu: is incredibly virulent (around 50% mortality, rather than 2-3%), has yet to break out in a pandemic (a worldwide epidemic), but a pandemic is deemed not only inevitable but also imminent, and is not currently treatable by any method but Tamiflu, and that treatment has been found lacking. Assume that a previous set of studies was done on uniformed subjects, but showed clearly that Disrupton lowered mortality significantly. Should this study still be done? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Interestingly, even though the previous set of studies may or may not be deemed ethical (opinions will differ), one cannot escape the knowledge that Disrupton works, and that a pandemic is imminent. It would be hard to justify endangering lives in a double-blind placebo, or even drug-drug study, despite one's ethical opinion on the previous set of studies.

The treatment of prisoners in the penal system is a question of which of the following? I. Retributive justice II. Veracity III. Distributive justice a) I only b) I and III only c) II and III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is B. Interestingly, the debate over how convicted prisoners should be treated is both a matter of retributive justice (i.e., punishment) and also of distributive justice, insofar as the maintenance of prisons and prisoners costs money and requires a certain distribution of the commonweal.

Intuitionism is an act nonconsequentialist theory because decisions about right and wrong are not based on I. general moral rules II. consequences III. highly individualized feelings a) I only b) I and II only c) I and III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is B. Intuitionism is a morality based upon feelings or "hunches," rather than upon reason or rules. It is also known as subjectivism. This type of theory is highly individualistic--individuals decide what they feel is the right thing to do, and then do it. They are not concerned with consequences, but they do what they feel is right given this particular situation and the people involved in it.

A linguist argues that most voters aren't rational enough to be fully informed on any political issue. Therefore, she argues, political messages must be "packaged" in such a way that voters are led to the correct position by virtue of emotional, irrational appeals. Assume that the linguist lives in a country made up of two main political parties. She belongs to one. The other party has been "packaging" for a while, and it has been very successful with it. Does this mean that "packaging" must be followed? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Just because it has been shown that "packaging" works does not mean that it therefore is ethically imperative to engage in it. It might be tactically wise; some may think it ethically justified—opinions will vary. But the key point is that there is no imperative to "package."

When Kant was asked whether a known murderer should be told the truth when he asks for his victim's address, Kant said yes. He did so because I. truth telling is a categorical imperative II. autonomous people should not be interfered with a) I only b) I and II only c) II only d) neither I nor II

The correct answer is B. Kant argued that since truth telling is a categorical imperative, one shouldn't lie to avoid what seems like a highly probable consequence. The murderer is making the moral choice; to lie to him (or her) would deny rationality to an autonomous actor. This argument actually took place during Kant's lifetime; he answered it in On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives.

If a certain culture believes the world is flat and another culture believes the world is round, then every culture's beliefs are not equally valid. This example is an argument against a) moral absolutism. b) moral relativism. c) universal causation. d) radical individualism.

The correct answer is B. Moral relativism states that there are no absolute values at all and that all values are relative to time, place, persons, and situations. Yet this example indicates that some cultural beliefs are true, and some are false, so all cultural beliefs are not equally valid. Moral absolutism believes that there are absolutes in the world, especially moral absolutes, which, once discovered, must be adhered to. Universal causation is the theory that everything in the universe has a cause. Radical individualism in health care is the approach that patients have absolute rights over their own bodies and lives and, therefore, may reject all recommendations of health care personnel.

Alberto favors government-sanctioned abortion before the third trimester because he deems the unborn fetus to lack autonomy until the third trimester. Alberto is for germline gene therapy. Is this necessarily inconsistent with Alberto's stance on abortion? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Not necessarily. Alberto could argue that future generations do not exist and thus do not have autonomy. He might further argue that we make life-affecting decisions for currently existing children under a certain age because they are not deemed to have full autonomy. Future generations could be put into the same category as current children. Of course, an obvious counterargument is that fetuses, like unborn generations, will eventually have autonomy. The point is: Alberto isn't necessarily being inconsistent—you may think he's wrong, but he's not necessarily being inconsistent, given his stated views.

Bill is a billionaire. Fred thinks that this makes him more important than other people, since he has more power to do good or evil. If Fred instead argued that Bill's importance, while descriptively true, was unfortunate, considering it is based solely on his wealth, would this be a case of distributive justice? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Not necessarily. Distributive justice is concerned with the distribution of goods and services in a society, and also of wealthy, but one need not be critical of power to do good or ill because of that distribution. One may actually favor such a distribution pattern if one's distributive justice is based on libertarian, laissez-faire principles.

Bill is a billionaire. Fred thinks that this makes him more important than other people, since he has more power to do good or evil. Assume Fred's concept of distributive justice is egalitarian. If Bill does only good with his billions, would this necessarily constitute an argument against Fred's egalitarian views on distributive justice? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Not necessarily. Fred may praise Bill's good works, but still consider Bill a data point among a much larger set of well-off people that do not act as saintly as Bill. Again, one need not agree with these arguments; one need only see how they could be made, according to the concepts one's learned.

Bill is a billionaire. Fred thinks that this makes him more important than other people, since he has more power to do good or evil. Fred has taken a consequentialist view of human value. a)Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Not necessarily. He is simply saying that Bill's power makes him more important since he can have a greater effect on his society. Whether Bill's basis for moral action is consequentialist or deontological—or neither—is beside the point.

You are good friends with a married couple in their late thirties, Paul and Yvonne. Assume you are equally close to each person. Paul tells you that he is having an affair, and that he is keeping it from Yvonne. Assume Yvonne has no suspicions, but Paul tells you that not only is he having an affair, but that he has also contracted HIV from his partner, are you now necessarily in a more difficult position? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Not necessarily. Some would march right over to Yvonne and tell her, if Paul won't. Some would find that excruciatingly difficult. The point is: ethical opinions will differ.

Assume that in the future, organs could be grown outside of human beings. These would never be rejected by a human's immune system, and would be far superior to mechanical-organ replacement. Assume that the full-body versions could, potentially, be made into full human beings. If this step is not taken, is there necessarily an ethical issue? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Not necessarily. The potential to make a person doesn't necessarily mean that one should make that person. This is the case whether one is dealing with a futuristic scenario like this or about biological reproduction. Surely, some people may (and do) argue that all sexual activity should be procreative, but that isn't necessarily the conclusion everyone would reach. The point here is that the futuristic scenario is no different from the everyday scenario of procreative vs. nonprocreative sex.

A linguist argues that most voters aren't rational enough to be fully informed on any political issue. Therefore, she argues, political messages must be "packaged" in such a way that voters are led to the correct position by virtue of emotional, irrational appeals. Assume that the linguist can show that rationality increases with education. Does this mean that "packaging" must be followed? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. One could argue that education should be expanded—it would be a question of distributive justice.

Ancient Greek, Utilitarian, and Kantian ethics all share which of the following? a) All require a belief in God. b) All are based on the assumption that human beings are rational enough to act ethically. c) None accept the notion of eternal and universal moral truths. d) None require a belief in God.

The correct answer is B. One need not believe in God, nor need one not believe in God, in order to accept any of the three ethical systems. Nor did all the adherents at the time of development of each of the systems necessarily believe in God—or not. While utilitarians don't accept categorical imperatives, they do apparently believe that maximizing happiness for the greatest number is an eternal moral truth. In any event, the Greeks and Kant certainly believed in eternal and universal moral truths. All three ethical systems assume that human beings have enough rationality to act ethically. They also assume that ethical action will be chosen via rational thought.

"Germline" gene therapy affects the medical situation of future generations. The issue is whether current generations can make decisions for future generations. This is primarily a question of a) Confidentiality b) Privacy c) Autonomy d) Veracity

The correct answer is C. Germline gene therapy makes decisions for future generations of presumably autonomous individuals.

All feminist ethical philosophers I. cannot believe in human nature or natural rights II. argue that ethics has been an all-male preserve for thousands of years III. are consequentialists a) I only b) II only c) I and III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is B. Some feminist philosophers believe in human nature and natural rights, but may bring gender in as an equally natural category, or a socially constructed category, with its own characteristics. Feminist ethicists can be either deontological or consequentialist—that division is not all encompassing.

The "care ethic" is a key feature of which of the following philosophical tendencies? a) consequentialist b) feminist c) Nietzschean d) Marxist

The correct answer is B. Some—by no means all—feminist ethicists argue that "justice," a traditionally male conception, should be augmented by a notion of "caring," which is considered a traditionally female conception.

The Hemingway Hospital's internal review board approves the following study on a drug designed to fight avian flu called "Disrupton." One group of patients will receive Disrupton, one group will receive Tamiflu, and a third group will receive a placebo (a harmless substance). Since the study is double-blind, none of the researchers know which patients are receiving which treatment. Assume that this flu: is incredibly virulent (around 50% mortality, rather than 2-3%), has yet to break out in a pandemic (a worldwide epidemic), but a pandemic is deemed not only inevitable but also imminent, and is not currently treatable by any method but Tamiflu, and that treatment has been found lacking. Assume that what was considered "avian flu" turns out to be a bioweapon that has gotten out of the lab and out of control. Does this affect ethical judgments on the trial? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. The historical origin of the threat has no bearing on how to move forward, given the threat. It makes no difference whether the virus is natural or man-made.

A librarian is directed to turn over several patrons' lending records to a government agency. The librarian refuses. Most likely, the library refuses because of which of the following ethical considerations? I. Professional code of ethics II. Right to information III. Confidentiality a) I only b) I and III only c) II and III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is B. The librarian can't be refusing because of the government's right to the information. Nothing in the scenario says that the librarian cannot tell the patrons about the search and seizure of records (although that "gag rule" is currently the law in the United States), so only I and III could enter into the librarian's actions.

The danger of a representative government operating increasingly in secret is most similar to which of the following circumstances? a) A soldier killing a prisoner of war b) A doctor withholding information from a patient c) A Supreme Court refusing to hear a case d) A stolen election

The correct answer is B. The right to information is considered paramount in both situations because just as only an informed electorate can make political decisions, so too, only an informed patient can make medical decisions.

Assume that in the future, organs could be grown outside of human beings. These would never be rejected by a human's immune system, and would be far superior to mechanical-organ replacement. Assume that the organs can only be grown in full bodies, but that these bodies lack brains. As long as one assumes that autonomy resides in the brain (i.e., mind), could someone object on the basis of autonomy? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Unless someone locates the basis for autonomy in some organ other than the brain (or attaches "mind" to some other organ), the full-body (sans brain) scenario doesn't change the autonomy-based ethical judgment.

A linguist argues that most voters aren't rational enough to be fully informed on any political issue. Therefore, she argues, political messages must be "packaged" in such a way that voters are led to the correct position by virtue of emotional, irrational appeals. "Packaging," as defined above, is consistent with social-contract theory. a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. Whether you agree with the scenario or not, social-contract theory requires, and assumes, that all voters (not necessarily all humanity, depending on the social-contract theorist!) are rational enough to make informed decisions.

You are good friends with a married couple in their late thirties, Paul and Yvonne. Assume you are equally close to each person. Paul tells you that he is having an affair, and that he is keeping it from Yvonne. Are you obligated to tell Yvonne about the affair? a) Yes b) No

The correct answer is B. You may choose to, but opinions will differ on whether you should or not

A religious ______ an action makes it moral for those who belong to that religion. a) prohibition of b) debate over c) sanction of d) indifference toward

The correct answer is C. A sanction, or a religion's official approval of an action, makes it moral for those who belong to that religion. A religion's prohibition of an action, debate over it, or indifference toward it would not establish it as moral for an adherent of that religion.

Supporters of moral intuitionism argue that I. intuitions come from a supernatural source or higher power II. human reasoning on moral matters is usually used to confirm our intuitions III. human reasoning can be in error on moral matters a) I only b) I and II only c) II and III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is C. Advocates of moral intuitionism argue that intuitions predate our reasoning, which is used to justify our moral insights, and that reasoning can fall into errors. Moral intuitionism is based on human feelings or "hunches," without reference to a supernatural being.

In the Book of Job, Job is tested by God (via Satan), and upon passing, Job is given all he lost, plus more. This is an example of which of the following types of ethical statements? a) utilitarianism b) deontology c) divine command d) covenant

The correct answer is C. Almost all Biblical ethics relies on the theory of divine command: that by virtue of his power, goodness, and omniscience, God's laws should be followed.

Jeremy Bentham worked out the felicific calculus in order to a) decide whether an imperative was categorical or hypothetical b) introduce a hierarchy of pleasures of unequal ethical value c) reduce moral choices to a universally applicable algorithm d) create a tool for his deontological ethical system

The correct answer is C. Bentham had a fairly unwieldy calculational model that was designed to prejudge the positive (happiness-causing) and negative (harm-causing) outcomes of any action. How usable this calculus was in the lightning-quick decisions that must often be made in ethics has been an ongoing question. Bentham's was a consequentialist, not a deontological, system.

"If I want to earn money, then I will have to get some kind of job." This statement is an example of which of the following? a) a categorical imperative b) a syllogism c) a hypothetical imperative d) a consequentialist imperative

The correct answer is C. Hypothetical imperatives are conditional statements: if X, then Y. Hypothetical imperatives are means toward an end, whereas categorical imperatives are unconditional statements of ends in and of themselves.

The Allegory of the Cave" is introduced by ___________ to discuss the role of the ________________. a) Plato; musician b) Aristotle; philosopher c) Plato; philosopher d) Aristotle; musician

The correct answer is C. In his Republic, Plato argues that the ideal polity would be governed by a philosopher-king, who, as a philosopher, would have the ability to distinguish between the "noise" of the world (i.e., phenomena or appearances) and the eternal forms. The cave is filled with shadows, or appearances, as we are in the world. Only the true philosopher can bring in actual light to disperse the shadows.

Which of the following actions brings about the highest form of happiness, according to Plato? a) war b) love c) contemplation d) self-contemplation

The correct answer is C. In the Symposium, Plato has Socrates say that the love of one beautiful body ("eros" or love being not a god, but an imperfect feeling) leads to an appreciation of all physical beauty. This appreciation leads to one of the mind, and, if properly cultivated, such contemplation leads to the supreme kind of beauty, the "form" of the beautiful itself, the eternal definition of beauty.

Jesus preaches in the manner of which of the following Old Testament Prophets? a) Abraham b) Moses c) David d) Isaiah

The correct answer is C. Jesus spoke in the vein of the Prophet David. Both often spoke in parables, generally urging people to a more just and ethical behavior.

The hypothetical imperative was a) Rousseau's notion that one should act as though was in the state of nature b) Kant's notion that certain actions are necessary in all circumstances c) Kant's notion that certain actions are contingent upon conditions d) Rawls' notion that justice is fairness

The correct answer is C. Kant contrasted this kind of command with that of the categorical imperative, which doesn't rely on circumstance or consequence at all, but rather is always correct.

Kant's ethical system stated that I. the ends justify the means II. might makes right III. ethics is based on certain eternal and universal moral truths a) I only b) I and II only c) III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is C. Kant's moral philosophy is one of the most influential deontological theories. These ethical theories posit eternal moral truths that are inherent in being human.

The difference between divine command theory and Kant's "duty ethics" is that Kant's theory of "duty ethics" asserts that valid absolute moral rules can be established a) on the basis of any culture's belief in supernatural beings. b) only on the basis of the Christian view of God. c) on the basis of human reason alone. d) on the basis of tradition and cultural customs.

The correct answer is C. Kant's theory of "duty ethics" argues that it is possible to set up valid absolute moral rules on the basis of human reason, without any reference to a supernatural being. In contrast, divine command theory states that morality is based upon the existence of an all-good being or beings who are supernatural and who have communicated to human beings what they should and should not do in a moral sense.

Dialectical materialism states that human beings are determined by a(n) a) absolute mind trying to achieve perfection through world history stages. b) biological evolution based on natural selection. c) evolutionary economic class struggle. d) foreordained plan by an omniscient, omnipotent supernatural being.

The correct answer is C. Karl Marx's theory, called "dialectical materialism," states that human beings are determined by an evolutionary economic class struggle. Georg W. F. Hegel developed a deterministic theory that the various periods of the world's history are manifestations of an "absolute mind" that is trying to realize itself in a state of perfection. Charles Darwin developed the biological determinism theory of natural selection. Predestination is the theory of a foreordained plan by an omniscient, omnipotent supernatural being.

Lucius aims to conserve existing species and refuses to replace any species with robots, even if they exhibit superior functioning. What system of values is Lucius demonstrating? a) Humanistic ethics b) Virtue ethics c) Life-centered ethics d) Humanitarian ethics

The correct answer is C. Life-centered ethics values the preservation of organic life; therefore, eliminating life is evil, and robots should not replace organic life. Robots may be useful but control should remain with biological brains. Humanistic ethics is a system of ethics essentially based upon atheism or agnosticism and advocates a morality that excludes religion or religious belief. Virtue ethics is based not upon consequences, feelings, or rules, but upon human beings developing a moral or virtuous character by doing what an ideal good or virtuous person would do. Humanitarian ethics is a system of ethics that can include any moral system—religious or nonreligious—as long as the five basic moral principles are observed.

Which of the following philosophers argued for the equality of women? I. Mill II. Plato III. Wollstonecraft a) I only b) I and II only c) I and III only d) III only

The correct answer is C. Mary Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill both argued for the equal rights of women.

Paul argued which of the following? I. achieving righteousness through faith II. the doctrine of original sin III. the maintenance of circumcision a) I only b) II only c) I and II only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is C. Paul argued for the first two elements, but argued against the requirement of circumcision, even though this was the "mark" of the Abrahamic covenant. However, making circumcision optional made Christianity much more attractive to non-Jews in the early days of the Church.

Rule nonconsequentialists believe that, as a basis for morality, I. consequences do not matter II. rules do not matter III. self-interest does not matter a) I only b) I and II only c) I and III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is C. Rule nonconsequentialists believe that there are rules that are the only basis for morality and that consequences do not matter. It is the following of the rules (which are right moral commands) that is moral, and self-interest is not the basis for morality.

Which type of morality is found in more ethical systems than any of the others? a) Morality and nature b) Religious morality c) Social morality d) Individual morality

The correct answer is C. Social morality concerns a human being in relation to other human beings. Many thinkers believe it is the most important aspect of morality because it cuts across all of the other aspects and is found in more ethical systems than any of the others. Morality and nature refers to a human being in relationship to nature. Natural morality has been prevalent in all primitive cultures, such as those of the Native American, and in cultures of East Asia. Religious morality refers to a human being in relationship to a supernatural being or beings, such as in the Jewish and Christian traditions. Individual morality refers to individuals in relation to themselves and to an individual code of morality that may or may not be sanctioned by any society or religion.

Robert, an African-American man, and James, a Caucasian man, apply for the same computer programmer position at a technology firm. About 50% of the company's employees are minorities and 75% are male. Robert is less qualified than James for the position. If the personnel manager hires Robert, which principle is he practicing? a) Affirmative action b) Extraordinary means c) Reverse discrimination d) Equality principle

The correct answer is C. The personnel manager is practicing reverse discrimination since he hired the less-qualified candidate for the position and the percentages of minorities and non-minorities were equal at the firm. Affirmative action would have been practiced if the situation were that the two applicants were equally qualified and the personnel manager chose the minority candidate in an effort to bolster the percentage of minorities at the firm. Extraordinary means are any means used to treat a sick person or dying patient that is out of the ordinary, or heroic: that which will not cure or heal a patient but will only prolong his dying. The equality principle states that human beings ought to be free to pursue their own values and morality as long as these do not seriously conflict with or violate the other four basic moral principles (Value of Life, Goodness, Justice, and Honesty).

Mill and Bentham disagreed that I. consequences of actions should be taken into account in ethics II. all pleasures were equivalent a) I only b) I and II only c) II only d) neither I nor II

The correct answer is C. Unlike Bentham, Mill did not hold that all pleasures were equivalent in the working out of moral consequences.

In any medical situation, the physician must consider not only the consequences of each action but also the desire of the patient. This is an example of I. Consequentialism II. Deontologicalism a) I only b) II only c) I and II d) Neither I nor II

The correct answer is C. Whereas the doctor must be the consequentialist in deciding which treatment to give the patient, the patient is not merely the passive recipient of the doctor's choice. The patient is an autonomous being with free will, and must thus be consulted on which therapeutic route to take.

The doctor's primary dictum—"do no harm"—could have been written by which of the following philosophers? a) Hobbes b) Plato c) Kant d) Mill

The correct answer is D. "Do no harm" reflects the "harm principle" of John Stuart Mill.

Which of the following are forms of moral relativism? I. Cultural particularism II. Ethnocentrism III. Moral isolationism IV. Intuitionism a) I only b) I and II only c) II and III only d) I, III, and IV only

The correct answer is D. Cultural particularism is another name for moral relativism, which emphasizes extreme variation in customs, manners, taboos, religions, and so on, from culture to culture, and assumes there are no absolute values. Moral isolationism is the view that because we cannot understand another culture, we cannot judge another culture's ethics. Intuitionism is a highly individualistic morality based upon a person's feelings or "hunches" in particular situations, rather than upon absolutes. Ethnocentrism is the belief in the superiority of the values of one's own culture; it is the opposite of moral relativism.

How does determinism differ from fatalism? a) Determinism states that every single thing that happens is completely and irrevocably outside of human control; fatalism asserts that everything has a cause. b) Determinism states that a supernatural being foreordains events; fatalism asserts that there is no order to any events. c) Determinism states that there is no order to any events; fatalism asserts that a supernatural being foreordains events. d) Determinism states that everything has a cause; fatalism asserts that every single thing that happens is completely and irrevocably outside of human control.

The correct answer is D. Determinism, especially soft determinism, is not really stating the same thing as fatalism; for to say that everything has a cause is not the same as to say that every single thing that happens is completely and irrevocably outside of human control. Even hard determinism does not maintain that humans can affect nothing; rather, it says that the way humans affect things is caused by their personal makeup and environment and that these, in turn, are caused by factors over which human beings have no control.

William James contended that because we cannot always predict in advance whether a human being is going to take path A or path B, chance and spontaneity evidently play at least some part in the nature of reality. His argument is an example of the theory of a) behaviorism. b) determinism. c) subjectivism. d) indeterminism.

The correct answer is D. Indeterminism is the theory that there is a certain amount of chance and freedom in the world, and that not everything is caused. Indeterminism is the opposite of determinism, which is the theory that everything in the universe has a cause. Behaviorism is a materialistic theory of human nature, which states that human beings essentially are their behavior and that there is no such thing as mind, soul, spirit, or self but only body and brain, which react to external stimuli. Subjectivism is a morality based upon feelings, rather than upon reason or rules.

In The Sermon on the Mount, Jesus tells his listeners which of the following? I. to love one's enemies II. lust is prohibited III. divorce and remarriage is considered adultery a) I only b) II only c) I and II only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is D. Jesus says all of the above and much more. See Matthew 5 for more information.

Which of the following thinkers could fairly be called a "determinist"? a) Werner Heisenberg b) Edmund Husserl c) William James d) Karl Marx

The correct answer is D. Marx says that human beings are determined by economic class struggles that inevitably will lead to a classless society. Heisenberg's discoveries in modern physics suggest that even non-conscious entities such as atoms may have freedom. Husserl asserted that consciousness could intend things instead of merely passively receiving them. James believed freedom existed to some extent because we cannot always predict whether a person will choose path A or path B.

Mill would object to Kant's categorical imperative in which of the following ways? I. It is based on the results of actions II. It assumes too much rationality in human beings III. It can lead to greater unhappiness since consequences cannot be taken into account a) I only b) I and II only c) I and III only d) III only

The correct answer is D. Mill insisted that the consequences of actions be taken into account in ethical questions. He did not believe that the categorical imperative assumed too much rationality; in fact, utilitarianism requires that rationality ultimately dominate the mind as well.

Rawls' principles of justice are I. consequentialist II. deontological. III. an attempt to mix the two traditions stated above a) I only b) I and II only c) II only d) III only

The correct answer is D. Rawls argued in A Theory of Justice (1971) not only that each person has an innate and equal right to the maximum liberty compatible with all other person's maximum liberty and that socioeconomic inequalities should be rearranged so that the least advantaged derive the greatest benefit and should be tolerated only when equal opportunity to display merit has been established. However, Rawls argued that certain actions can maximize happiness (or "the good") and still be wrong if they violate certain rights, duties, or other "higher" imperatives.

Which of the following Greek philosophers left no writings of his own? a) Plato b) Epicurus c) Xenophon d) Socrates

The correct answer is D. Socrates is known to us only through his disciple Plato, the comic dramatists Aristophanes, and the historian Xenophon. Epicurus left some few writings, but his philosophy was more fully rounded out by the later Roman Lucretius

Paul ran afoul of which of the following empires? a) Persian b) Jewish c) Greek d) Roman

The correct answer is D. The Romans imprisoned and executed Paul, although it's not clear in the historical record that he was executed.

The cynics were I. a philosophical school in Greece II. devoted to an ascetic ideal of freeing the Will from all earthly "noise" III. among the first to actively struggle for a return to the "state of nature" a) I only b) II only c) I and III only d) I, II, and III

The correct answer is D. The cynics grew out of Socrates' school, and became a link between classical Greek philosophy and Roman Stoicism. Cynics, such as Antisthenes and Diogenes, believed in a highly individualized ethics, in which social norms and obligations were not only ignored but flouted.

The theory of "unity in diversity" is an attempt to resolve the controversy of a) materialism vs. idealism. b) determinism vs. freedom. c) duties vs. inclinations. d) absolutism vs. relativism.

The correct answer is D. The theory of "unity in diversity" attempts to resolve the absolutism-relativism controversy by stating that human beings are similar and also different; therefore, we should strive for a unity within such diversity. This can be accomplished if we allow for freedom and diversity while accepting certain unifying principles. The materialism vs. idealism controversy contrasts the belief that physical matter is the only reality with the belief that ultimate reality lies in a realm that transcends physical phenomena. The determinism vs. freedom controversy concerns the extent to which human beings have free will or have destinies determined by factors beyond their control. The duties vs. inclinations controversy concerns the extent to which human beings should behave according to duty or inclination.