Ethics MidTerm Study Guide

Act Utilitarianism

"For act utilitarianism, an act is morally right and obligatory if it would produce the most utility (the best consequences) under prevailing conditions. This kind of utilitarianism is called "act utilitarianism," because it evaluates actions one at a time, saying that an action is good if it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number, and bad if it produces unhappiness

Euthyphro Origin

. Around 380 B.C., Plato wrote a dialogue titled Euthyphro which presented a fictional conversation between Euthyphro and Socrates occurring in the period before Socrates' trial. This dialogue serves as the inspiration for what is now known as the Euthyphro Dilemma. At one point, Socrates asks Euthyphro, "Is the pious being loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is being loved by the gods?

Critique of Graded Absolutism

1. Some critics call Hierarchicalism a veneer of situationalism. 2. There can be a prostitution of method so that Graded Absolutism becomes an excuse for subjective judgment. 3. For those who do not accept the Biblical revelation, there is no objective standard and Graded Absolutism thus becomes an elaborate excuse for subjective opinions. 4. Some suggest that this is more accurately called "casuistry" (from the Latin casus, "a case") in that Graded Absolutism, at times, involves subtle reasoning implying a multitude of doubtful distinctions and the use of these distinctions for self-serving purposes. It is this form of Graded Absolutism that is associated with Antonio Diana (1585-1683). His work Resolutiones Morales (1659) discusses around 20,000 cases

Antinomianism

Antinomianism literally means against-law. It is defined as the exclusion of all ethical norms whether general or universal. There simply are no binding moral absolutes and everything is "relative.

Applied Ethics

Applied Ethics is the branch of ethics which analyzes specific,controversial moral issues such as abortion, euthanasia, and gay marriage. Applied Ethics attempts to deal with specific realms of human action and to craft criteria for discussing issues that might arise within those realms.

Modern Interest in Virtue Ethics

Army's Seven Core Values 1. Loyalty 2. Duty 3.Respect 4. Selfless Service 5. Honor 6. Integrity 7. Personal Courage

Augustine and Virtue Ethics

Augustine had a sort of "mixed theory" ofethics, combining elements of deontology and virtue ethics. Augustine acknowledges some exceptions to the law of murder, such as those"who by God's authorization have waged wars, or, who, representing in their person the power of the state, have put criminals to death in accordance with God's law." All other forms of killing humans were murder because they violated God's commandment in Exodus 20:13, thus he has a deontological component

Normative Ethical Theories

Deontology Virtue Ethics Teology Utilitarianism Egoism

Descriptive Ethics

Descriptive Ethics is a sociological discipline that attempts to describe the morals of a particular society, often by studying other cultures.

Descriptive Relativism

Descriptive Relativism. "What careful descriptive relativism says is that the basic ethical beliefs of different people and societies are different and even conflicting.

Aristotle Golden Mean

Emotion/Action -Giving Money -Fear -Anger -Seeking Pleasure Vice: Deficiency -Stinginess -Rashness -Inirascibility -Inscensibility Virtue: Mean -Generosity -Courage -Mildness -Moderation Vice:Excess -Prodigality -Irascibility -Cowardice -Self-Indulgence

Emotivism

Emotivism / Ethical subjectivism is the belief that whenever people say something is morally good, they mean they like or approve of it

Ethical Egoism

Ethical Egoism can be defined as the morally right action is the one that best promotes the agent's own interests (where "agent" refers to the individual performing the action). As another form of teleological ethical systems, this view maintains that the right thing to do is whatever is in a person's self-interest

Ethical Relativism

Ethical relativism, or ethical subjectivism, denies any absolute or objective moral values that are common to all, and affirms, rather, that the individual (a person, community, society, etc.) is the source and criterion of moral judgments

Ethics

Ethics addresses value judgments about issues of right and wrong along with discerning between good and evil actions, attitudes, motives, and result. AKA Moral Philosophy

3 Parties of Morality

External Relationships between people or groups: This involves issues of fair play and harmony between individuals Internal Faculties: Harmonizing ethical and moral reflection within the individual. Serving Proper Goals: What is the general purpose of life as a whole?

Aristotle

For Aristotle, everything that exists is endowed by nature with an inherent end (purpose) to which it tends. For Aristotle, the moral order and human rights should be derived by reason from the objective cosmic order,which he saw best realized in the city state.

Human Law

For Thomas Aquinas, Human Law is derived from both divine law and natural law. This law may be variable in accordance with the time and circumstances in which it is formulated, but its essence is to be just. Thus, lexinjusta non est lex (an unjust law is not law). According to Thomas Aquinas, for human law to be true law, it must follow natural law. In this way, human law's fcpurpose is to help one:• Fulfill his/her telos• Fulfill one's function as a rational creature• Seek out the vision of God

Divine Law

For Thomas Aquinas, divine law is God's eternal law communicated to humans through special revelation. It is the revelation of God's moral law through the Bible to believers. It is applicable to religion and church issues.Divine law is apprehended through special revelation. He said, "[S]ince man is ordained to an end of eternal happiness which is in proportionate to man's natural faculty . . . it was necessary that, besides the natural and the human law, man should be directed to his end by a law given by God."

Eternal Law

For Thomas Aquinas, the eternal law is the unchanging reason of God. It is God's plan for the universe and it affects everything, including irrational creatures. He said, "Now it is evident, granted that the world is ruled by Divine providence . . . that the whole community of the universe is governed by Divine Reason.

Stoics

For the Stoics, natural law was what reason prescribes for the harmonious and just ordering of a society, and, since we are rational beings,we can determine rationally what natural law requires. The Stoic view influenced Roman ethical and legal thought, and thus the world in which the Latin church fathers forged their ideas was influenced by notions of natural law.

Paternalism

Paternalism is the moral stance that a person's liberty is justifiably restricted to prevent self-harm, or to promote that person's own well-being.

Greeks and the Four Cardinals

Plato and other Greeks thought there were four cardinal virtues in the sense that 1) they cannot be derived from one another and 2) all other moral virtues can be derived from or shown to be forms of them Plato identifies the four virtues which are the ground for a good city, and says,"Clearly, then, it [the good city] will be wise, brave [courage], sober [temperance],and just

Analogy of Music

Playing at the right moment with other orchestra members. 2. Playing an instrument that is in tune. 3. What music does the conductor want us to play

Prayer Model

Praise: Begin prayer by praising God for his mighty acts of faithfulness,salvation, forgiveness, providence, and the very character of God. Repent: Confess our sins to God. Ask God to forgive us our sins. Accept God's forgiveness. Thank God for His forgiveness. Then conclude by asking God for the strength to forsake sin. Ask. Ask God for specific needs in our life and the lives of others. Yield. Conclude prayer time by yielding to the leadership of the Holy Spirit as we seek God's will for our lives

Prima Facie Duties

Prima Facie duties are self-evident and can be known to be correct if a person thinks about them. Fidelity Reparation Gratitude Justice Beneficence Self-improvement Non-maleficence (avoiding actions that do harm

Memorize Scripture

Psalm 1:2 says the Godly person delights "in the LORD's instruction, and he meditates on it day and night." The Hebrew verb translated "meditate" is הָגָה(hagag): it means "to recite quietly; to meditate" and refers metonymically to intense study and reflection. Hagag is onomatopoeic because its basic meaning refers to the sound of animals or a moaning noise. The idea communicated here in Psalm 1:2 is of a devoted follower of God repeating a verse of Scripture to himself or herself in a barely audible way. Thus, the word for "meditate" means he ponders by talking to himself. The phrase communicates the idea of Scripture memorization and recitation. Ephesians 6:17 instructs the Christian to take the"sword of the Spirit, which is God's word." Memorizing scripture provides us with an arsenal of Spirit-inspired ammunition with which to fight the world, the flesh, and the Devil

Psychological Egoism

Psychological Egoism is the theory of human nature asserting that all actions are motivated exclusively by self-interest.

Rawls Rejected Utilitarianism

Rawls found Utilitarianism unsatisfying. Utilitarianism is the doctrine Rawls regards as the most formidable version of teleology, which he defines as a theory that (1) defines the good as independent from the right and (2) identifies the right with maximizing the good

Veil of Ignorance

Rawls invented a sort of thought experiment called the "veil of ignorance." Central to this experiment is what he calls the "original position," which is intended to create a fair and just democratic society anchored in individual rights.To achieve a just society, Rawls urges people to think of themselves as standing behind a "veil of ignorance," which he considered a sort of perfect legislative environment free from all unfair advantages, prejudices, and predispositions which, he believed, would produce just rules based upon commonly held ideals of individual rights.7 Standing behind the veil of ignorance, we have no idea of our sex, race, physical handicaps, generation,social class of our parents, etc..

Rule Utilitarianism Example

Should I cheat on the exam? No. Cheating on exams would definitely not maximizehappiness. If anything, it would maximize unhappiness. This means that cheating iswrong, and so you shouldn't cheat. The fact that cheating on this particularexam might make you and a few other people happy doesn't matter. Cheating iswrong because, as a general rule, it wouldn't make people happy.

Act Utilitarianism Example

Should I cheat on the test? To An Act Utilitarian it depends on the situation On the one hand, if it turns out that you'll never need to use the material lateron, that you'd fail if you didn't cheat, and that the consequences of your cheatingare dire and wide-reaching, the Act Utilitarian would counsel you to cheat. On theother hand, if it turns out that you will need to know the material later on, that youwon't really learn it if you cheat, and that the consequences of you not knowing thematerial are generally bad, the Act Utilitarian would tell you not to cheat

G.D.W Ross

Sir William David Ross (1877 - 1971) was a Scottish philosopher and ethicist. His most well-known work was The Right and the Good (1930). In his own lifetime, he was quite famous for his monumental efforts in the translation of Aristotle's works into English. Published from 1908 through 1931, the eleven -volume Oxford translation of The Works of Aristotle, edited by Ross, was groundbreaking.Ross was a rule-deontologist. For Ross, our moral duties are not universal and unconditional constraints of universal practical reason. Ross suggested there are two kinds of duties: Prima Facie Duties and Actual Duties.

Situationalism / Situation Ethics

Situation Ethics asserts that Christian Ethics imposes no duty other than the duty to love: In each situation, we must do the "loving thing." There are no rules that prescribe how love will act in any given situation. Situation Ethics is a form of Act Utilitarianism

Axiology

Study of value; investigation of its nature, criteria, and metaphysical status. Sometimes known as Value theory

cognitivist theories

Subjectivism 1. Private Subjectivism 2. Cultural Relativism Objectivism Theory 1. Ethical Naturalism 2.Ethical nonnaturalism

Teolology V Deontology

Teologists begin by considering what things are good, and identify "right" actions as the ones that produce the maximum of those good things Deontologists appear to do it the other way around; they first consider what actions are 'right' and proceed from there. So a person is doing something good if they are doing a morally right action.

Rule Utilitarianism Part II

This kind of utilitarianism doesn't assess individual actions for their utility,but rather focuses on the utility of the general rules of which a particular action would be an instance. Not surprisingly, this is called "rule utilitarianism," and itsays that an action is good it conforms to a rule which, if generally practiced, would produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number. As we've seen,rule utilitarianism would have us ask two questions: 1) "What general rule would Ibe following if I did this particular action?" and 2) "Would this rule, if generallyfollowed, maximize happiness?" To this extent, it's more theoretically complex than act utilitarianism, but because it can give us general rules to follow, it's simpler to apply.

Generalism

This position says there are many ethical norms but they are not of a specific nature. Decisions should be made on a basis of the external usefulness of a decision. Nothing is intrinsically right or wrong. While there are moral principles, there are not moral absolutes

Critique of Non-Conflicting Absolutism

This view ignores the reality of moral conflicts 2. Falling into sins of omission. Geisler says, "So, in failing to show mercy to the innocent by withholding truth from the guilty, the unqualified absolutist falls into a sin of omission while attempting to avoid a sin of commission.

cultural relativism

While descriptive relativism makes and anthropological or sociological assertion and meta-ethical relativism a meta-ethical one, Cultural relativism puts forward a normative principle: What is right or good for one individual or society is not right or good for another, even if the situations involved are similar, meaning not merely that what is thought right or good by one is not thought right or good by another (descriptive relativism), but that what is really right or good in the one case is not so in another

Categorial Imperative

While he was not an atheist, Kant rejected traditional arguments for God and was trying to develop an ethical system that was good for society if one adopted a non-traditional approach to God. So he arrived at his categorical imperative,

Objectivism

Within Cognitivism, Objectivism holds that moral statements are stating facts about the acts of morality themselves or the objects that are said to have value. They are objectively true or false

Subjectivism

Within Cognitivism, Subjectivism holds that moral statements convey information about the speaker of the moral statement.

Decisionists

aka existentialists - believe there is no morally right answer until we decide for ourselves what is right and wrong.

Ayn Rand

also favored ethical egoism. For Rand, each person must exist for his or her own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself.

Intuitionists

believe we must consult our "conscience" (though I'm not sure they mean the same thing Bible does by "conscience") in every situation to discover the morally right thing to do

Aesthetics

is the study of value in the arts or the inquiry into feelings,judgments, or standards of beauty and related concepts. Aesthetics addresses the concepts of harmony, symmetry, coherent interrelatedness, appropriate designs, pleasant color schemes and the like.

Rule Utilitarianism

rule utilitarianism "claims that an act is right if it would be more beneficial to have a code of moral rules permitting that act than onewhich excluded it. Thus, rule utilitarianism looks for the rules that as a wholeproduce the greatest utility, and prescribes them

Conflicting Absolutism/ Ideal Absolutism

this view recognizes many absolute norms and assumes that these norms will eventually produce a moral conflict. When the norms conflict, it is wrong to disobey either of them. The evil conditions of life will force us to break one of the norms. The best we can do is the least evil possible and then confess it as sin and ask God for forgiveness

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

was the first person to suggestethical egoism as a theory, but this is a bit anachronistic. Perhaps the first person specifically to call this idea "ethical egoism" was Henry Sedgwick (1838 - 1900),an English philosopher widely considered to be a Utilitarian. In 1874 he published The Method of Ethics in which he differentiated between egoism and utilitarianism. James Rachels (1941 - 2003, a graduate of the "Baptist" Mercer University) taught at the University of Alabama and advocated a form of ethical egoism

The story of the Ring of Gyges

Glaucon then tells the story about a shepherd named Gyges found a magic ring which could make him invisible. Gyges then used this power to seduce aqueen and murder her husband. Glaucon then goes on to say that if just people and unjust people were both given such a ring, both of them would do things similar to Gyges ! Glaucon's point is that even good people, when given the power, would dounjust things which benefit themselves. As MacIntyre summarizes Glaucon,"Suppose two men, one man now apparently just, the other unjust, were given a magic ring such as Gyges had to make himself invisible, so that both had complete liberty of action; then both would behave in the same way. They would, like Gyges,who seduced his queen and murdered his king, purse the path of completeself0aggrandizement. That is, everyone prefers injustice to justice if he can be unjust successfully.

Groups of Act Deontology

Intuitionists and Decisionists

Popular utilitarians

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

John Rawl Background

John Bordley Rawls ("Jack") was born in Baltimore in 1921. His father was a prominent lawyer. He attended an Episcopalian preparatory school and then went to Princeton where he graduated with a bachelor's degree in 1943. After graduating from Princeton, he then joined the U.S.Army and served in the infantry in the South Pacific during World War II.His early childhood was darkened by the deaths of two brothers, thefirst from diphtheria, when Rawls was seven years old, and the second from pneumonia a year later. Both had contracted these diseases from Rawls himself, and that knowledge haunted him throughout his life.

Advocates for Non-Conflicting Absolutism

John Murray (1898-1975). Murray taught at Westminster Theological Seminary

Advocates for Situationalism

Joseph Fletcher (1905 - 1991). Key work was Situation Ethics: The New Morality, 1966. Fletcher served as the president of the Euthanasia Society of America from 1974 -1976 .John A. T. Robinson (1919-1983). Robinson was an Anglican Bishop. His key work was Honest to God, 1963.Robinson rejected the traditional orthodox understanding of God

Biblical Justice

Justice is a major theme in Old Testament ethics - a theme appearing in the Law, the historical books, wisdom and poetic literature, and the prophets. "Throughout the Old Testament, God's people were called to stand against injustice because God is a God of justice, whose heart breaks when the poor and vulnerable are victimized by the powerful."11 The paradigm for understanding justice is the Exodus itself wherein God rescued his people from oppression and injustice in Egypt. In the Law, God subsequently appealed to the Exodus as the model for the way His people were to treat the vulnerable among them

Hume's is/ought dilemma (Kant's Solution)

Kant's categorical imperative is an attempt to solve David Hume's "is /ought" dilemma. Hume said one cannot get a moral "ought" from an empirical"is." If I see someone beat you about the head with a baseball bat, Hume says I can't derive a moral rule from that which says, "Beating people with a baseball bat is wrong." No, Hume would basically say all I could do is measure your contusions and count your stitches, but I can't make any moral claim from these observations.For Hume, transcendent moral truths cannot be grounded in empirical observations derived from the five senses. That's why Kant's categorical imperative is based on"reason." Since he's not using the empirical senses, Kant believed he was using reason to bridge the "is / ought" gap

Legal Positivism

Legal Positivism is a theory of secular law developed in response to and rejection of natural law theories. Legal positivism says human laws are socially constructed, and not rooted in divine revelation, reason, or transcendent human rights. According to legal positivism, what laws are in force in that system depends on what social standards its officials recognize as authoritative; for example, legislative enactments, judicial decisions, or social customs.

meta-ethical relativism

Meta-ethical relativism holds that, in the case of basic ethical judgments,there is no objectively valid, rational way of justifying one against another;consequently, two conflicting basic judgements may be equally valid

Metaethics

Metaethics addresses the foundation(s) for our ethical concepts and from whence we derive our ethical theories; it does not propound moral principles or goals for action, but it consists entirely of philosophical analysis. Metaethics addresses the nature of ethics and moral reasoning. Metaethics does not consist of making or defending any normative value judgments nor does it try to answer particular or general questions about what is good, right, or obligatory

Ethic Divisions

Metaethics, Normative Ethics, Applied Ethics, and Descriptive Ethics

Moral Law

Moral Law: Ethical standards required by God's holiness. These ethical principles are still in force and have not changed. While the Civil and Ceremonial aspects of the Law are no longer mandatory, the Moral Law is still binding.

Morally Obligatory Acts

Morally Obligatory Acts are acts that are either mandated or prohibited.

Morally Permissable Act

Morally Permissible Acts are acts that are neither mandated nor prohibited

Morally Supererogatory Acts

Morally Supererogatory Acts are acts that go beyond the call of duty.

Natural Law

Natural Law can be defined as a moral order divinely implanted in humankind and accessible to all persons through human reason. Some have tried to identify "natural law" with the "common morality." But what we have in mind here is not a "historicist" view but a metaphysical, transcendent natural law theory that finds moral law written into the very nature of human existence

Virtues and Rules

-Correspondence View Complementary View

Agape

Agape: The central principle for ethical decision making.However, Fletcher did not mean the same thing the Bible means by agape. Dr. Branch strongly urges students not to be confused into thinking that situation ethics is consistent with Biblical Christianity

Act Deontology

According to act Deontology, a moral agent should intuitively grasp the right thing to do in each specific moral situation without relying on moral rules.

Critique for Ideal Absolutism

1. A moral duty to sin is morally absurd. Geisler says, "According to conflicting absolutism, in real moral conflicts we have a moral duty to do the lesser of the two evils.That is, one is morally obligated to do evil. But how can there ever be amoral obligation to do what is immoral? It seems to be a morally absurd claim." 2. Jesus lived in the same fallen world in which we currently live. This view could hypothetically result in a sinful Jesus. I should stress that no advocates of this view in Christian circles actually suggest that Jesus was a sinner. The objection is a hypothetical one. 3. Sometimes, the Conflicting Absolutist position seems to grant too much moral authority to an evil person. By this, I mean that a Gestapo agent bent on killing innocent people does not have the same moral authority as an innocent Jewish neighbor asking for my assistance

Modes of Reasoning

1. Antinomianism 2. Generalism 3.Situationalism/Situation Ethics 4. Non-Conflicting Absolutism/Unqualified Absolutism 5. Conflicting Absolutism/ Ideal Absolutism 6. Graded Absolutism/Heirachialism

Different Views of Natural Law

1. Aristotle 2. Stoics 3. Cicero 4. Aquinas 5. Roman Catholicism

3 Strong Points in Ideal Absolutism

1. Conflicting Absolutism affirms the existence of moral absolutes. 2. Conflicting Absolutism takes sin and our fallen condition seriously. 3. In connection with the previous point, Conflicting Absolutism does not attempt to excuse away or redefine "sin.

Critiques of Relativism

1. Education Doesn't Nullify Moral Absolutes It does not follow from the fact that one's moral opinions are conditioned or learned in a family or a culture that they are therefore merely subjective or relatively 2 If relativism is true, no moral code is better than another 3. Disagreements do not destroy objectivity.Disagreements about morality do not destroy its objectivity. We may disagree about the nature of the universe, but that doesn't change the fact that an objective universe exists 4. No way to resolve disputes.If ethical relativism is correct, there can be no common framework for resolving moral disputes or for reaching agreement on ethical matters among members of different societies. In such cases, resolution of conflict often occurs viabrute force: I coerce you to comply with my ethical vision. 5. Relativists Don't actually practice relativism! Many people claim to be a relativist, but do any actually live as one? No! When they are robbed, they become indignant!.

Seven Differences Between the Worldview of Israel and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures.

1. Everything unique to ancient Israel may be traced to her express monotheism 2. God is not continuous with His creation.This difference flows naturally from Israel's monotheism. Ray Clendenen captures the significance of the fact God is not continuous with His creation when he says The God of Israel was not the personification of forces of nature and did not need the assistance of other gods or the participation of a king and his subjects in a divine struggle to maintain order in the universe,nor did He need to be fed in temples 3. The Old Testament does not address the issue of the ogony.The ANE creation myths almost always included speculation about the origin of the gods. In contrast, the Old Testament does not discuss God's origin: His existence in eternity past is simply assumed as a fact 4. 4. According to the Old Testament, God is a non-sexual being.In the cultures surrounding ancient Israel, the prevalent polytheism advocated worldviews in which the gods cavorted with one another sexually.In such a worldview, sex became a vehicle for communication with the divine and it was not uncommon for people to use temple prostitutes in"worship." Arnold emphasizes Israel's monotheistic contrast and says, "In Genesis, sex is a facet of God's creation. He himself is nonsexual, though he created man and woman as sexual beings created in His image

Contuity View

According to the Continuity view, almost all the civil commands of the Old Testament are still binding. Continuity advocates readily concede that Jesus Christ has fulfilled the Old Testament liturgical sacrifices

Divisions of Philosophy

1. Logic 2. Metaphysics 3. Epistemology 4. Ethics/ axiology/ Value Theory

discontuity View

According to the Discontinuity view, Christians are only obligated to keep the ethical demands of the Old Testament that are repeated in the New Testament. The Civil and Ceremonial commands are no longer valid

Actual Duties

An Actual Duty is the duty people are left with after they have weighed up all the conflicting prima facie duties that apply in a particular case.

Antinomianism Critiques

1. The antinomian position is subjective and relativistic: Right and wrong are only the individual expressions of the moral decision maker at thatmoment. There is no transcendent, absolute standard for moral evaluation. Geisler says, "A purely subjective ethic is like a game without rules. In fact ,it is not a game at all; it is a free-for-all." 2. i rrationalistic: Norm Geisler explains the irrational nature of antinomianism when he says, "It makes no sense to say everything is right for people to do, even opposites. If love is right for one person, hate cannot be right for another person. . . . These are contradictory actions, and contradictories cannot both be true. It is irrational to contend that opposite moral duties can both be equally binding. 3. Self-Refuting. The person who claims "There are no moral absolutes"has just stated an absolute! 4. Individualistic. Geisler says, "Not only is an antinomian ethic like a ballgame without rules; it is also like a game without umpires. Everyone is really their own umpire, since there are no objective moral laws that bind everyone.

Critique of Situational Ethics

1. This view misunderstands agape and, in fact, fails to clarify what "agape" actually does require of moral agents. In Situation Ethics, agape becomes a vacuous term that can mean most anything. The agape advocated by situation ethics is not identical with the agape of the Bible. 2. Love is insufficient in itself to provide moral guidance for each and every moral decision. Ronald Nash says:Love requires the further specification of principles or rules that suggest the proper ways in which love should be manifested. Because human beings are fallen creatures whose judgements on important moral matters may be affected by moral weakness, love needs guidance from divinely revealed moral truth. Fortunately, Christians believe, this content is provided in the moral principles revealed in Scripture. 3. Following closely on the previous criticism, Situation Ethics has a defective view of human nature. People will often take what seems to be a good idea, in this case the principle of "love" at the heart of Situation Ethics, and twist the good idea into a rationale for justifying subjective opinions about morality.Teenagers have a strong propensity towards this type of moral reasoning! In fact, human sinfulness has an infinite capacity for self-deception. 4.This view prospers because its advocates tell you what your choices are. Thus, it is wrong in its basic assumption

Critique of Generalism

1. Universalism has no universal norms. Norm Geisler says, "If one is in search of meaningful norms for conduct which he ought always to follow because they will guide him in performing acts which are always the right thing to do, then he will be disappointed in generalism 2) Utilitarian acts have no intrinsic value. Geisler takes the generalist position to its logical conclusion and says, "For example, the attempt to save a life is not an intrinsically valuable act. It has value only if the person is actually saved or if some other good comes from the futile attempt. . . . Thus the utilitarian position reduces the ethical value of acts to the fates and fortunes of life

Difference between Hedonistic Utilitarianism and Ethical Egoism

1. Utilitarianism in general (hypothetically) holds that one ought to consider every human when engaging in moral calculus and produce the greatest balance of good over evil; egoism, by contrast, says that each person ought to maximize his or her own personal good. 2. Hedonistic Utilitarianism in particular says that one should maximize one's personal pleasure, usually measured in physical pleasure, often with an emphasis on sensual pleasure.

Complementary View

According to the complementary view virtues and principles / rules are equals.As Rae explains, "According to the complementary view, however, people have amoral obligation to be a certain kind of person, and whether it results in action is irrelevant in many cases. . . . Right consists in doing the right thing with rightmotive and attitude. It is insufficient to do the right thing for the right reason if the underlying attitude is absent

Correspondence View

According to the correspondence view, virtues are derived from principles or rules. As Rae explains, "According to the correspondence view, moral rules obligate people to perform certain actions, regardless of whether they possesses the requisite virtues. Thus the virtues must be secondary and the principles primary

Types of Utilitarianism

Act Utilitarianism Rule Utilitarianism Hedonistic Utilitarianism

3 Forms of Categorial Imperative

Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law

Axiology Divisions

Aesthetics and Ethics

Seven Differences Between the Worldview of Israel and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures. PART II

5. Israel explicitly banned magic.For example, see Deuteronomy 18:9-14. Magic is an attempt to force God or supernatural powers to "do" certain things. The ban on magic is closely related to God's sovereignty: God is not bound to obey the wishes of his contingent creatures. (Consider this when prosperity preachers tell people to"claim their healing." 6. . Israel placed importance on history. 7. Israel believed God had revealed Himself in space and time.

prima facie duty

A Prima Facie Duty is assumed to be true unless it can be overridden or proven to be false. Prima Facie means "first-sight"

Psychological Egoism Story

A famous story involving Abraham Lincoln usefully illustrates the concept ofpsychological egoism. Lincoln was allegedly arguing that we are all ultimately self-interested when he suddenly stopped to save a group of piglets from drowning. Hisinterlocutor seized the moment, attempting to point out that Lincoln is a living counter-example to his own theory; Lincoln seemed to be concerned with something other than what he took to be his own well-being. But Lincoln reportedly replied: "I should have had no peace of mind all day had I gone on and left that suffering old sow worrying over those pigs. I did it to get peace of mind, don't yousee

Hedonistic Utilitarianism Example (with responses)

Bruno Mars' 2012 smash hit Locked Out of Heaven:I'm born again every time you spend the night, Ooh!'Cause your sex takes me to paradise.Yeah, your sex takes me to paradise.Using language of Christian salvation, Mars compares a sexual encounter with redemption, but it is redemptive only to the degree that the woman satisfies his sensual desires swear I won't tease you Won't tell you no lies I don't need no Bible Just look in my eyes I've waited so long baby Out in the cold I can't take much more girl I'm losing control I want your sex I want your love I want your sex One should not be surprised that Michael was arrested for public indecency on two different occasions, once in the United States and once in Great Britain. We see ethical egoism in the narcissistic approach in which some people become obsessed with their own bodies and other people are valuable only to the degree that they can provide a person with pleasure, usually sexual pleasure.

Trolley Dilemma

But some critics of deontology have suggested this means that some deontological acts actually decrease the welfare for the populace as a whole. The "trolley dilemma" is often used to illustrate this point. . Imagine you are a trolley driver in San Francisco.Some sort of mechanical failure occurs and the trolley begins hurtling down a street a high rate of speed. As the driver, you are thoroughly aware of the route and you know you can shift a guide lever at a particular intersection to change direction and slow the trolley to a stop. But when you reach the intersection, a man -- an innocent bystander -- is standing on the track you need to take. If you pull the lever, the innocent man will be rolled over by the trolley and killed. But as a deontologist,you believe it is wrong to kill innocent human life. At the same time, if the trolley continues on its current course, it will crash into ten innocent people standing on the street. Of course, this means that the innocent on one street will live while ten other people will die. Of course, as a deontologist you believe in the sanctity of life and don't want these people to die either. So, if you choose not to shift the lever and thus avoid hitting the man, you have decreased the overall welfare of society by killing ten other people.Like other dilemmas, the Trolley Dilemma limits your options. But what if something else occurs? What if someone selflessly jumps off the trolley and pushes the man off the track? Or what if another pedestrian selflessly pushes the man out of the way and sacrifices himself that others may live?

Ceremonial Law

Ceremonial Law: Religious and dietary codes. These were fulfilled by Christ and are no longer binding upon Christians

Existentialism

Chiefly 20th century philosophical movement embracing diverse doctrines but centering on analysis of individual existence in an unfathomable universe and the plight of the individual who must assume ultimate responsibility for acts of free will without any certain knowledge of what is right or wrong or good or bad

Fellowship within a local Church

Christians are not supposed to live in isolation, but we are intended to live in community with each other. An organized, local body of believers is called a local church. In the community of a local church, our ethics are shaped and molded by the accountability of other believers and the positive examples of holiness we see in our lives.

Cicero

Cicero argued that nature provided rules by which humanity ought to live; these rules, which could be discovered through reason, should form the basis of all law. In De Legibus he argued that "true law is right reason in agreement with nature, it is of universal application, unchanging and everlasting."

Civil Law

Civil Law: Civil codes for the theocracy. These were specific for ancient Israel and are not binding upon Christians

Cognitivism

Cognitivism is the view that moral judgements are capable of being true or false. Cognitivism holds that moral statements make truth claims because they are indicative statements that convey descriptive information.

Graded Absolutism / Hierarchicalism

Graded Hierarchicalism asserts that there are many ethical norms.The evil situation of our world at times forces us into real and genuine moral conflicts. In such cases, one is morally right to break a lower norm in order to keep a higher norm. When one does so, one has not sinned as long as one is making choices informed by Biblical wisdom

Biblical Justice Distorted: Liberation Theology

Gustavo Gutierrez (b. 1928) is a Roman Catholic priest from Peru who now teaches at Notre Dame. He is the father of Liberation Theology, a blend of Marxism and Christianity. He published A Theology of Liberation in 1972. Liberation theology defines the Exodus as the hermeneutical key for understanding all of Scripture. Liberation theology assumes God is always on the poor's side. The system also assumes everyone one who is wealthy has become so at the expense of someone else.

Antinomianism Advocates

Heraclitus "No man steps into thesame river twice, for fresh waters are ever upon him."(Another way of saying there is nothing permanent except change.) Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 - 1900) "God is dead and wehave killed him." Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 - 1980) "You are your life, and nothing else."

Natural Law II

Natural law is the part of eternal law that applies exclusively to humans.Natural law is one of the ways by which humans participate in the eternal law.The natural law is written on the human heart. It is grounded in human nature. The content of the natural law corresponds to humankind's basici nclinations when they are not corrupted or impeded by sin. Again, the natural law is the eternal law etched on the human mind. As such, it is uniquely human and not shared by animals. Natural law helps each person discover the purpose for which humans are here. Thomas Aquinas said:Now among all others, the rational creature is subject to Divine providence in the most excellent way, in so far as it partakes of a share of providence, by being provident both for itself and for others.Wherefore it has a share of the Eternal Reason, whereby it has a natural inclination to its proper act and end: and this participation of the eternal law in the rational creature is called the natural law

Axiology Questions

Nature of Value: value a fulfillment of desire, a pleasure, a preference, a behavioral disposition? Or is value simply a human interest of some kind? Criteria of Value: Are values simply equivalent to statements like, "I don't like English peas?" Are everyone's tastes simply subjective opinions that cannot be right or wrong? Or do objective standards apply? Status of value: How are values related to (scientific) facts? What ultimate worth, if any, do human values have?

Non-Conflicting Absolutism/Unqualified Absolutism

Non- Conflicting Absolutism (also known as "unqualified absolutism") may be defined as follows: There are many absolute norms governing areas of life and these never come into unavoidable conflict. Geisler explains this position and says, "The basic premise of unqualified absolutism is that all moral conflicts are only apparent;they are not real. Sin is always avoidable.

Non-cognitivism

Noncognitivism is the view that moral judgments are not capable of being true or false. Instead, they are like commands or interjections .Noncognitivism denies that moral statements are indicative statements which can be either true or false.

Normative Ethics

Normative Ethics deals with arriving at moral standards which regulate human conduct and determining the content of our moral behavior.It is a search for a "litmus test" for proper human behavior. Normative ethics is interested in determining the content of our moral behavior

2 Categories Of Rule Deontology

Objectivists and Absolutists

Marcion

One of the first and most dangerous heresies from within the Christian Church is attributable to Marcion, a native of Sinope in Pontus (the coast of the Black Sea) who made his way to Rome around 139/140 AD. Marcion's Central Thesis was that the Christian Gospel was wholly a Gospel of love to he exclusion of law. He consequently rejected the OT, holding that the Creator God depicted therein had nothing in common with the God of love revealed by Jesus. This contrast between love and law, Marcion asserted,was fully understood only by Paul the Apostle, the other apostles and evangelists being largely blinded to the truth by remnants of Jewish influence. Hence for Marcion the only canonical scriptures were ten of Paul's letters minus the Pastoral Epistles (which he either rejected or did not know). He also believed in an edited form of the Gospel of Luke. Marcion's Christology was docetic, downplaying the reality of Christ's sufferings.

Original Position

Rawls' "Original Position" has often been compared to the "state of nature" or the pre-political condition of humanity, which was important in the philosophies of early modern social contract theorists. The "original position" is John Rawls' imaginary setting in which we can identify the fundamental principles of justice from an objective, impartial perspective,as rational agents, rather than as "interested parties. The Original Position is the term Rawls used to describe a person standing behind the "veil of ignorance." It is designed to be a fair and impartial point of view that is to be adopted in our reasoning about fundamental principles of justice. In taking up this point of view, we are to imagine ourselves in the position of free and equal persons who jointly agree upon and commit themselves to principles of social and political justice. The main distinguishing feature of the original position is "the veil of ignorance": to insure impartiality of judgment, the parties are deprived of all knowledge of their personal characteristics and social and historical circumstances. They do know of certain fundamental interests they all have,plus general facts about psychology, economics, biology, and other social and natural sciences

Pray

Reading Scripture will lead one to pray, and in fact our prayers should be shaped by the Scripture we read. Jesus did not specifically teach his apostles howto preach, but He did teach them how to pray. Prayer should be daily (Daniel 6:10) 2. There are times when we should seek solitude to be alone with God and pray for extended periods (Mark 1:35). 3. The model prayer of Jesus gives us an example of the manner in which we should pray (Matthew 6:9 - 13). 4. A simple outline for prayer

Rights

Rights refer to that which is due to individuals, based on core ethical principles. Rights create parallel duties on the part of others, or on society as a whole. So-called negative rights are rights of non-interference (e.g., with one's speech, conscience, associations), typically grounded in the principle of autonomy. In other words, you are entitled to do something without interference from others. Positive rights, by contrast, are rights of"recipience" (e.g., to education, health care), typically grounded in the principle of justice. In other words, you have an entitlement to expect other people (usually the government) to do other things for you

Roman Catholicism

Roman Catholicism, following Aquinas, has a long history of moral reflection based on Natural Law. In this context, Natural Law is chiefly a matter of ethics. As such, "It has enabled that church to address socioeconomic, legal, moral, and political issues on what is held to be a philosophical foundation common to all mankind.

Rule Deontology

Rule Deontology is the view that types of acts are right or wrong depending on their conformity or nonconformity to one or more correct moral rules. Rule deontology accepts the concept that we should appeal to principles or rules.

Analogy of sailing

Sailing in a proper formation with other ships. 2. Sailing a ship that's seaworthy. 3. The destination towards which the fleet should be heading

Principle of Double Effect

The Principle of Double Effect holds that there is a morally relevant difference between intending evil and foreseeing that it will occur as an unintended side effect of morally permissible acts

Ring of Gyges

The Ring of Gyges is a mythical magical artifact mentioned by the philosopher Plato in Book 2 of his Republic.

Aristotle

The classic example of virtue ethics can be found in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics where he advocated what is now called the "golden mean."

John Stuart Mill

The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals utility, or the greatest happiness principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.By 'happiness' is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by' unhappiness,' pain and the privation of pleasure.

Euthyphro Dilemma

The dilemma Euthyphro faced is this: Is a thing good simply because the gods say it is? Or do the gods say a thing is good because of some other quality ithas? If so, what is that quality? The problem stumped Euthyphro. In contemporary debate, the Euthyphro Dilemma is stated as follows: Is an act right because God says it's so, or does God say it's so because it's right?

Step One: Consistently Practice Spiritual Disciplines

The first "step" in a Christian ethical decision making paradigm is not so much a step as a consistent pattern of living. Being a disciple of Jesus Christ means we walk in a manner consistent with God's word and the example of Jesus. The most important prerequisite in the Christian ethical decision making paradigm is to in fact be a born again follower of Jesus (John 3:3). An unconverted person will still have a heart of stone (Ezekiel 36:26) and thus be unresponsive to God's leadership

Cardinal Virtues

The four Greek virtues were first called cardinal virtues by Ambrose, bishopof Milan (d. 397 AD). So, "cardinal virtues" are pivotal virtues: A "good life"hinges on these virtues. The word "Cardinal" comes from the Latin word cardo ,meaning "hinge."

Kairos Moment

The kairos moment: A divine moment of decision-making.

Normative Ethics (Questions)

When is a particular act right or wrong? E.g., Is it wrong to litter on campus when custodians are paid to pick up the trash?What kinds of things are good or desirable?When does a person deserve blame, reward, or neither?

Read Scripture

The practice of daily Bible reading is essential in the development of Christian character. Psalm 119:11 (KJV) says, "Thy word have I hid in mine heart that I might not sin against thee." Consistently reading Scripture establishes a necessary baseline of core Biblical knowledge necessary for evaluating choices and courses of action. A Biblically illiterate Christian will be at an extreme disadvantage and the ethical decision making process will often be more protracted since he or she must spend more time determining the content of Scripture as opposed to a Christian already well aware of what the Bible says.

Deontology

The word deontology comes from two Greek words: deon which carries the idea of "obligation" or "binding duty" and logos which carries the idea of "word" or "discourse according to Moreland and Craig, "Roughly,deontological ethics focuses on right and wrong moral actions and moral laws and holds that some moral acts and rules are intrinsically right or wrong irrespective of the consequences produced by doing those acts or following those rules

Christianity and the Virtues

Theological Virtues -1. Faith -2 Hope -3 Love Human Virtues 1. Prudence 2. Fortitude 3 Temperance 4 Justice

Hedonistic Utilitarianism

There are several forms of Utilitarianism, but, practically, what utilitarianism means for most people is what we call hedonistic utilitarianism, a system of moral reflection in which one consequence supersedes all others: my personal pleasure, with frequent emphasis on sensual pleasure. Right and wrong are determined bywhat does and does not give "me" personal pleasure.

Questions for Deontology

There are three central questions that any deontological theory of ethics mustanswer. First, what is the content of duty? Which rules direct us to morally rightaction? Second, why must we follow exactly those duties and rules, and not others?That is, what grounds them or validates them as moral requirements? Third, what isthe logic of these duties or rules? Can their claims on us be delayed or defeated?Can they make conflicting claims on us?

Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas, who synthesized the Gospel and Greek philosophy,formulated the concept of Natural Law in a way that still influences Roman Catholic thought today. Aquinas follows Aristotle in thinking that an act is good or bad depending on whether it contributes to or deters us from our proper human purpose—the telos or final goal at which all human actions aim(natural law). J. Van Engen explains Aquinas' view and says:Thomas taught that the "eternal law" by which God established all things became, when impressed on humans and their nature, a "natural law" (ius naturae), through which humans potentially participated in their divinely ordered true end, but which in their freedom they could also choose to disobey. Because it was the essence of things, people could perceive and logically deduce it through reason, though it was also taught Scripture and received simply in faith. For Thomas, the natural law was essentially "to do good and avoid evil," the Golden Rule(Matthew 7:12), and the second table of the Law, but it included as well such social matters as monogamous marriage and the right to hold property. It was the task of the conscience to apply to particular cases the immutable general principles perceived by reason.

Popular Egoists

Thomas Hobbes and Ayn Rand

Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics focuses on the nature and formation of a good person, and the sort of dispositions and character traits that constitute the good person

Virtue Theory

Virtue theory is a very old approach to ethics with many different variations over time 1. Greeks and The Four Cardinal Virtues 2.Aristotle 3. Cardinal Virtues 4. Christianity and the Virtues 5. Augustine and Virtue ethics 6.Modern Virtues in Virtue Ethics 7. Personal Courage

Metaethic Question

What is the meaning of ethical terms such as "good," "bad," "right,"and "should"? What are the rules for the use of such terms? What makes ethical discourse meaningful? Is it different from what makes other sorts of discourse meaningful? What is the connection between morality and religion? A secularist might say, "Is there any connection between morality and religion?" If God exists, is God's will the basis of morality? Can there be morality if God doesn't exists?Is morality more a matter of taste than truth?

Determinism

What I have in mind here is a form of "hard determinism" which posits that the will is determined ultimately by exterior factors beyond the responsibility of the individual.

Aesthetics Questions

What is beautiful?How do we recognize beauty in a great piece of music? Art?Can there be beauty in destruction?

Teleology

focus on the consequences of actions to determine their morality. - focus almost exclusively on ends and/or consequences of acts to determine their moral value

Utilitarianism

he view that the sole ultimate standard of right, wrong, and obligation is the principle of utility, which says quite strictly that the moral end tobe sought in all we do is the greatest possible balance of good over evil.