Ethics Midterm Study Set

What are some pros of ethical egoism? Is there anything good about it?

Encourages personal responsibility, promotes self-care and self-improvement, can lead to innovation and progress

What is ethical egoism?

Ethical egoism claims that I morally ought to perform some action if and only if, and because, performing that action maximizes my self-interest.

constructive dilemma (CD)

1. Either A or B. 2. If A, then C. 3. If B, then D. 4. So, Either C or D.

disjunctive syllogism (DS) (two versions)

1. Either A or B. 2. Not-A. 3. So, B. 1. Either A or B. 2. Not-B. 3. So, A.

modus ponens (MP)

1. If A then B. 2. A. 3. So, B.

denying the antecedent (DA)

1. If A, then B. 2. Not-A. 3. So, Not-B.

modus tollens (MT)

1. If A, then B. 2. Not-B. 3. So, Not A.

affirming the consequent (AC)

1. IfA, then B. 2. B. 3. So, A.

hypothetical syllogism (HS)

1.If A,then B. 2.If B ,then C. 3. So, If A, then C.

What kind of life most reliably leads to eudaimonia, according to Aristotle?

According to Aristotle, the kind of life that most reliably leads to eudaimonia, or a state of human flourishing and well-being, is a life of virtue. Specifically, Aristotle believed that eudaimonia is the result of consistently practicing and developing the intellectual and moral virtues that are necessary for living a good life.

What is the special function of human beings, according to Aristotle? Why is this important?

According to Aristotle, the special function of human beings is to reason. He believed that humans are distinguished from all other living beings by their capacity for rational thought and the ability to contemplate abstract concepts and ideas. Aristotle argued that reason is what allows us to understand and pursue the ultimate telos of human life, which is eudaimonia or human flourishing. This special function is important because it provides a unique purpose and goal for human life. By using our rational faculties, we are able to understand and pursue what is truly good for us as human beings, rather than simply acting on instinct or impulse like other animals. Reason also allows us to form social bonds and relationships with others, which is a crucial aspect of human life and flourishing.

Why study Ethics, according to Aristotle?

According to Aristotle, the study of ethics is important because it provides us with guidance on how to live a good life and achieve eudaimonia, or human flourishing. Ethics, for Aristotle, is not just an abstract or theoretical discipline, but a practical one that is concerned with how we should live our lives and treat others.

What is the ultimate telos for human beings, according to Aristotle?

According to Aristotle, the ultimate telos, or purpose or end goal, for human beings is eudaimonia, which is often translated as "happiness" or "flourishing." However, Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia is more complex than just simple happiness. It refers to a state of well-being and fulfillment that results from living a virtuous life and achieving one's potential as a human being. In other words, eudaimonia is not just a fleeting emotion or sensation, but a lifelong state of being that is the result of consistently living a virtuous and meaningful life. For Aristotle, this involves developing and using one's intellectual and moral virtues, such as wisdom, courage, justice, and friendship, in order to live a good life and fulfill one's potential as a rational and social being.

According to Aristotle, can we be virtuous by accident? Can we be born with virtues already in place?

According to Aristotle, virtues are not innate qualities that we are born with, nor can they be acquired by accident. Rather, virtues are acquired through practice and habituation over time.

What kind of happiness should one pursue according to hedonism: physical pleasure or attitudinal pleasure (mental enjoyment)?

According to hedonism, both physical pleasure and attitudinal pleasure (mental enjoyment) are sources of happiness that one can pursue. However, some forms of hedonism prioritize one over the other.

What is the only intrinsic bad, according to hedonism?

According to hedonism, the only intrinsic bad is pain.

What is the only intrinsic good, according to hedonism?

According to hedonism, the only intrinsic good is pleasure.

What is the difference between act and virtue?

Act: a specific action that a person performs in a given situation; it is the outward expression of a person's intentions, desires, and motivations; can be morally evaluated as right or wrong based on the consequences it produces and the intention behind it Virtue: a disposition or habit of character that leads a person to act in accordance with reason and moral excellence; virtue is not a specific action, but rather a state of character that guides a person's actions and motivations

What is the difference between acting from virtue and acting (merely) in accordance with virtue?

Acting from virtue: a person performs a morally right action because they have cultivated the corresponding virtue, and the virtuous action comes naturally to them; the virtuous action is not performed out of obligation or duty, but rather as a result of the person's virtuous disposition or habit of character Acting merely in accordance with virtue: a person performs a morally right action, but not necessarily because of their virtuous character; they may perform the virtuous action out of a sense of duty or obligation, or because they are following social norms, rather than from their own virtuous disposition

What is altruism? How does it relate to ethical egoism?

Altruism: the belief in or practice of selfless concern for the well-being of others; it is the opposite of egoism, which is the belief in or practice of pursuing one's own self-interest Altruism and ethical egoism are fundamentally opposed to each other. While ethical egoism asserts that individuals should always act in their own self-interest, regardless of the impact on others, altruism emphasizes the importance of caring for others and working for the greater good, even at personal cost.

What are the 3 main areas of Ethics?

Applied Ethics Meta-Ethics Ethical theories

What are Aristotle's categories for moral action and how are they viewed?

Aristotle's ethical theory is based on the concept of virtue and he believed that moral action could be categorized into four categories: Virtue, Continence, Incontinence, and Vice. In his view, virtue is the ultimate goal and the highest form of moral action. Continence and incontinence are viewed as intermediate states between virtue and vice. Vice is viewed as the opposite of virtue and is considered a moral failure.

How does classical ethics differ from modern ethics?

Classical ethics: refers to the ethical theories and ideas developed in ancient Greece and Rome; places a strong emphasis on virtue and character, with the goal of cultivating moral excellence in individuals Modern ethics: refers to the ethical theories and ideas that have emerged since the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries; focus more on rules and principles that guide ethical decision-making

What is the difference between "descriptive" and "normative"?

Descriptive ethics: analyses what people think is right or wrong Normative ethics: analyses how people ought to act

What is the difference between an ethical egoist and an egotist?

Ethical egoist: someone who believes that pursuing one's own self-interest is morally right Egotist: someone who is excessively self-interested and lacks concern for others

T/F: Ethical egoism claims that the only thing anyone is capable of pursuing is his own self-interest.

False

T/F: Ethical egoism is a moral objectivist theory.

False

T/F: Hedonism is a moral objectivist theory.

False

T/F: The two fundamental kinds of pleasure are physical pleasure and sensual pleasure.

False

T/F: Utilitarianism is about doing the greatest good for yourself and doing things that only benefit you.

False

T/F: Utilitarianism is the moral theory that an action is morally right if and only if it produces at least as much good for all people affected by the action.

False

When, if ever, should an ethical egoist help a friend?

From an ethical egoist perspective, helping a friend may be permissible if it ultimately serves the ethical egoist's own self-interest.

What are the 3 parts of morality, according to C.S. Lewis?

Harmony between individuals The inner harmony of the individual The general purpose of life (salvation)

Is hedonism committed to the selfishness that ethical egoism is? For instance, are we allowed to consider the happiness of others as well?

Hedonism is not necessarily committed to the selfishness that ethical egoism proposes. Hedonism is focused on the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain, regardless of whether it is experienced by oneself or others. So, hedonists can consider the happiness of others as well as their own happiness.

How does hedonism explain the Masochistic person?

Hedonism suggests that pleasure is the only intrinsic good, and pain is the only intrinsic bad. However, it can be difficult for hedonism to explain the behavior of masochistic individuals who seem to enjoy pain or discomfort. One possible explanation is that the masochistic person is not actually enjoying the pain itself, but rather the overall experience or psychological state that results from the pain. For example, a person who enjoys receiving physical pain during sex might not actually enjoy the pain itself, but rather the feeling of submission or vulnerability that comes with it. From a hedonistic perspective, the overall pleasure or positive experience that results from the pain is what matters, rather than the pain itself.

What is morally good in virtue ethics? What contributes to your flourishing eudaimonia?

In virtue ethics, what is morally good is what contributes to a person's flourishing or eudaimonia. According to virtue ethics, virtues are the traits or dispositions of character that enable a person to live a flourishing life. These virtues include traits such as courage, honesty, generosity, kindness, and wisdom. A person who embodies these virtues is more likely to live a fulfilling and meaningful life and contribute positively to society.

What is the difference between individual moral relativism and cultural moral relativism?

Individual moral relativism: the view that each person creates his or her own moral standards Cultural moral relativism: the view that societies, not the individual person, creates moral standards which are then authoritative over everyone within that society

What is the difference between intrinsic goods and instrumental goods? Give an example of each.

Intrinsic goods: things that are considered good in and of themselves, regardless of any other benefit they may provide; an example is happiness Instrumental goods: things that are good only because they help us achieve some other goal or end; an example is money

What is the Doctrine of the Golden Mean?

It's a central concept in Aristotle's ethical theory. It proposes that virtues lie at the midpoint between two vices of excess and deficiency. The mean, or midpoint, is not a fixed point but varies depending on the circumstances and context.

What is the difference between validity and invalidity?

It's about the skeletal structure of the argument. Validity: the property of an argument where the conclusion logically follows from the premises; an argument is considered valid if it is impossible for the premises to be true while the conclusion is false; in other words, if the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true; a valid argument does not necessarily have true premises or a true conclusion; rather, it describes the logical relationship between the premises and the conclusion Invalidity: the property of an argument where the conclusion does not logically follow from the premises; an argument is considered invalid if it is possible for the premises to be true while the conclusion is false; in other words, even if the premises are true, the conclusion may still be false; an invalid argument does not necessarily have false premises or a false conclusion; rather, it describes the lack of a logical relationship between the premises and the conclusion

Examples of virtues and their vices (both excess and deficiency)

Magnanimity (generosity): The vice of excess associated with magnanimity is arrogance, where a person has an excessive opinion of themselves and their abilities. The vice of deficiency associated with magnanimity is small-mindedness, where a person fails to recognize their own worth and potential. Courage: The vice of excess associated with courage is recklessness, where a person acts without regard for their safety or the safety of others. The vice of deficiency associated with courage is cowardice, where a person is unable to act in the face of danger. Temperance (self-control): The vice of excess associated with temperance is overindulgence, where a person indulges in pleasures excessively and without moderation. The vice of deficiency associated with temperance is insensibility, where a person denies themselves pleasures altogether or to an excessive degree. Honesty: The vice of excess associated with honesty is bluntness, where a person speaks the truth without any regard for the feelings of others. The vice of deficiency associated with honesty is deception, where a person tells lies or withholds the truth in order to gain an advantage or avoid discomfort. Friendliness: The vice of excess associated with friendliness is flattery, where a person insincerely praises others in order to gain their favor. The vice of deficiency associated with friendliness is hostility, where a person is unfriendly or aggressive towards others without any just cause.

T/F: Utilitarianism holds that for an action to be morally good, it must have the result that brings about the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

True

What is the difference between moral absolutism and moral objectivism?

Moral absolutism: the view that there are universal and objective moral principles that apply to all people, regardless of time, place, or cultural context; this means that there are certain actions or behaviors that are always right or wrong, regardless of the circumstances or consequences. Moral objectivism: the view that there are objective moral truths that exist independently of individual perspectives or cultural norms; this means that moral claims can be true or false, and that there are moral principles that are universally valid and binding for all people

Are emotions good, bad, or neutral when it comes to reasoning?

Neutral

Does sacrificing your own self-interest align with ethical egoism?

No

Would C.S Lewis agree with the phrase "beauty is in the eye of the beholder"?

No

What is the point of Nozick's experience machine objection against hedonism?

Nozick's experience machine objection against hedonism aims to challenge the idea that pleasure or happiness is the only thing that matters in life. The objection is based on the thought experiment of an experience machine that can provide a person with any desired experience, such as intense pleasure or happiness, without any real-world consequences. Nozick argues that if pleasure or happiness were the only things that mattered, then people should prefer to plug into the experience machine and never leave. However, most people would not choose to do so, even if they were guaranteed an experience of maximum pleasure or happiness. This suggests that people value things other than pleasure and happiness, such as authenticity, autonomy, and meaningful relationships, which are not attainable in the experience machine. Therefore, hedonism is limited in its ability to capture the complexity of human values and motivations.

Name an attraction of the view of hedonism.

One attraction of hedonism is its emphasis on the importance of pleasure and happiness in human life. This can be appealing to those who believe that maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain is the key to a good life.

T/F: Utilitarianism is a moral objectivist theory.

True

In the Trolley Problem thought experiment, which option would the utilitarian choose?

Options: Do nothing and let five people die? Pull the lever and kill only one person? Answer: Pull the lever and kill only one person, but saving five people.

In the Fat Man thought experiment, which option would the utilitarian choose?

Options: Do nothing and let five people die? Push the fat man and kill only one person? Answer: Push the fat man off the bridge, killing only one person, but stopping the trolley from killing five people.

In the Room 306 thought experiment, which option would the utilitarian choose?

Options: Kill the one man to save five lives? Let five people die after not killing the one man? Answer: Kill the one healthy man in order to save the five people who each need an organ transplant.

Which of the following is not an objection to utilitarianism:

Options: Too demanding Violates moral intuitions Consequences matter Can't know future consequences? Answer: Consequences matter is not an objection to utilitarianism as it is a central principle of the theory.

What are some examples of "predicates of value"?

Predicates of value are words or phrases used to express evaluations or judgments about the worth, quality, or moral status of things, actions, or people. Some examples of predicates of value include: Good Evil Just Right Wrong Beneficial Harmful Desirable Undesirable Valuable Worthless

What is the difference between psychological egoism and ethical egoism?

Psychological egoism: a descriptive theory about human motivation; it claims that humans are naturally and inevitably selfish, and that all human actions are ultimately motivated by self-interest; according to this theory, even seemingly selfless actions are ultimately motivated by a desire for personal gain, such as the satisfaction of helping others, the avoidance of guilt, or the desire for social approval Ethical egoism: a normative theory about what individuals ought to do; it holds that individuals should always act in their own self-interest and that doing so is morally right; according to ethical egoism, individuals have no moral obligation to act in the interest of others unless it promotes their own self-interest

What are some attractions of utilitarianism?

Secularity: utilitarianism does not rely on religious or supernatural justifications for moral judgments, making it appealing to those who prioritize secular reasoning Scientific: utilitarianism's focus on measuring and maximizing the overall well-being of individuals and society has led some to view it as a scientific approach to ethics. Simplicity: the basic principle of maximizing overall happiness or pleasure and minimizing overall pain or suffering is simple and straightforward, making it easy to understand and apply in many situations

Understand the difference between selfishness, selflessness, and unselfishness.

Selfishness: tendency to prioritize one's own needs and desires above those of others, often at the expense of others Selflessness: tendency where individuals prioritize the needs and desires of others over their own Unselfishness: refers to the act of setting aside one's own interests or desires in favor of the interests or desires of others

What is the difference between soundness?

Sound: an argument is sound if and only if it is valid and contains only true premises Unsound: an argument is unsound if it is invalid or has a false premise; or both

What is the point of the Lobotomy objection against hedonism?

The Lobotomy objection is often raised against hedonism as a way to challenge its view that pleasure is the only intrinsic good. The objection imagines a scenario where a person undergoes a lobotomy, a surgical procedure that removes or damages parts of the brain, and as a result, experiences a permanent state of contentment and pleasure, with no other capacity or desire. The objection argues that if hedonism were true, then the lobotomized person's life would be the best possible life since they would experience a constant state of pleasure, despite the fact that they would lack the ability to do or experience anything else. However, most people would not consider such a life to be the best possible life, which raises questions about the hedonistic view that pleasure alone is the ultimate good.

What is the ultimate moral duty on ethical egoism?

The ultimate moral duty is to act in one's own self-interest. This means that individuals should pursue their own happiness, well-being, and personal goals above all else, and that it is morally right to do so.

What is the ultimate moral duty on hedonism?

The ultimate moral duty is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

What does "men without chests" mean?

This understanding is behind C. S. Lewis's warning in The Abolition of Man that modern education is creating "men without chests", that is, people without properly trained and ordered affections or desires. It symbolizes human beings who lack what Lewis sees as "right sentiments," or emotions that properly align with logical reasoning.

T/F: According to hedonism, happiness alone is sufficient for the good life.

True

T/F: Consequentialism is the view that only consequences matter when determining the moral goodness or badness of an action.

True

T/F: Ethical egoism may permit us to harm others as long as it is within our own self-interest.

True

T/F: Instrumental goods are good for the sake of something else.

True

T/F: Intrinsic goods are good for their own sake.

True

What is the difference between value relativism and value objectivism?

Value relativism: what is considered right or wrong, good or bad, varies from person to person or culture to culture; having no absolute stance on a position; there is no right or wrong Value objectivism: that some values are inherently right or wrong, good or bad, regardless of what any particular individual or culture might believe.; claims that some moral rules really are correct

Identify 3 problems with ethical egoism

Violates core moral beliefs- ethical egoism is often seen as conflicting with core moral beliefs, such as the importance of fairness, justice, and equality Cannot allow for existence of moral rights- ethical egoism does not recognize moral rights that are held by individuals regardless of their self-interest Makes self-interest all-important- ethical egoism holds that individuals should only act in their own self-interest, which can lead to a narrow and selfish view of the world

What does each category of Aristotle's moral action mean?

Virtue: Virtue is the state of character that enables a person to act in accordance with the right reason. Virtue is the goal of human action and is achieved by acting in accordance with reason and exercising self-control. Continence: Continence refers to a person who knows the right thing to do but struggles to do it. A continent person experiences conflict between their rational judgment and their emotions or desires but ultimately chooses to act in accordance with reason. Incontinence: Incontinence refers to a person who knows the right thing to do but fails to do it. An incontinent person experiences conflict between their rational judgment and their emotions or desires but ultimately chooses to act in accordance with their emotions or desires instead of reason. Vice: Vice refers to a person who habitually acts in accordance with their emotions or desires, regardless of whether or not they align with reason. A person who exhibits a vice is considered morally deficient and lacks self-control.

Would a person who has a habit of lying find it difficult to tell the truth?

Yes, according to Aristotle's theory of virtue, a person who has developed a habit of lying would likely find it difficult to tell the truth because their character has become habituated to lying.

What is the format to answer logic?

a. Assign variables A= B= C= b. Give the argument form If X, then Y. X. Therefore, Y. c. Name? d. Valid/Invalid? e. Sound/Unsound?

What are the two types of moral relativism?

individual and cultural

What are the 5 famous valid forms?

modus ponens (MP) modus tollens (MT) hypothetical syllogism (HS) disjunctive syllogism (DS) (two versions) constructive dilemma (CD)

What are the 4 simple argument forms and what's there validity?

modus ponens (valid) modus tollens (valid) affirming the consequent (invalid) denying the antecedent (invalid)