ETHICS - Test 5

Confucian law of reciprocity

"do not impose on others what you yourself would not desire"

the root words of "philosophy" and their meaning

"philo" = love and "sophos" = wisdom together means...love of wisdom!

Nietzsche's Ubermensch

"superman" - a person of integrity and self-mastery who is able to rise above the morality of the crowd and exercise the "will to power", which entails the will to grow courage and generosity toward the vanquished, and human nobility

Buddhist ethics

-affirms the absolute worth of all living beings -rejects individualism as an illusion - we exist only as members of a community -good (virtue) and evil (vice) are expressed in our actions

ethical relativism

-an ethical relativist claims that morality is invented or created by people; therefore morality, like fashion, cultural custom, or personal feeling, can vary from time to time and from person to person. -umbrella for: ethical subjectivism and cultural relativism

the official gist for "intellectual virtue" emphasized throughout all the Sc modules

-consists, in part, of character traits that reflect a particular attitude towards one's own thinking, the thinking of others, and making sense of things in general -disposes a person to respond to points of view and intellectual tasks in a mindful, proactive manner -contributes to one's status as a good thinker and a good learner.

ethical egoism strengths

-contains two important truths: we all want to be happy and pursuing our interests is important to our happiness -encourages us to stand up for ourselves, to take responsibility for our lives and not to let other people take advantage of us

the basic distinction between ethical relativism and ethical universalism (WARNING: Do not confuse broader categories of theory with the particular theories E.g., ethical subjectivism is a particular theory that falls within the broader category of theory called ethical relativism)

-ethical relativism - an ethical relativist claims that morality is invented or created by people; therefore morality, like fashion, cultural custom, or personal feeling, can vary from time to time and from person to person. -ethical universalism - states that there are fundamental, objective moral principles and values that are impartial and universally true for all people, independent of their personal beliefs or culture.

limits of ethical egoism

-it encourages a hedonist paradox - if we are focused only on our own happiness, we often end up feeling frustrated and alienated. -does not provide guidelines for resolving conflicts of interest between people.

7 prima facie duties (WD Ross)

-nonmaleficence -fidelity -gratitude -ahimsa -beneficence -reparation -justice

According to Hardwig, how does a duty to die affirm rather than compromise our moral agency and human dignity?

A duty to die affirms (rather than compromises) our moral agency and human dignity because when one recognizes this duty and makes the decision to act on it or to allow death to happen for the purpose of sparing one's family pain and resources, it is a noble and selfless act. In this context, an individual is recognizing that the prolonging of his or her life is imposing a great burden on the people he or she loves most, and is therefore placing their quality of life at a higher value than his or her own. This strengthens and is a true testament to the meaning of these connections and relationships that this individual has formed over the course of a life. If the ailing individual didn't consider how the prolonging of his or her life affected others, these connections perhaps didn't carry much meaning.

What are some of the guidelines Hardwig gives for deciding if someone has a duty to die? Who should make the decision about when a person has the duty to die?

According to Hardwig, many of the guidelines for deciding if someone has a duty to die involve determining the point at which when one burden or sacrifice outweighs another. This is examined in the context of the richness/fullness of one's life thus far, the length of one's life, the societal and personal contributions one is still able (or not able) to offer, the likelihood of rehabilitation or medical improvement to the point of a rejuvenated quality of life, the ability (or inability) to still give and receive love, whether or not a person is debilitated or incapacitated to point that he or she is no longer him or herself (for all intents and purposes), and many other considerations. Both the individual and the family/loved ones involved should make the decision regarding this duty. However, being that relationships and families are so intertwined and interconnected, and given that death deeply affects every person in this interweb, Hardwig ideally believes that it is more so of a family decision.

What, according to Hardwig, are some of the most serious objections to the idea that there is a duty to die? How does he respond to those objections?

According to Hardwig, the most serious objections to the idea of there being a duty to die lie within the ideas that the duty to live outweighs the duty to die, that wilfully and purposely ending one's own life violates the sanctity of human dignity, and that enforcing or imposing a duty to die on someone who is already carrying the greatest burden of ailment, old age and sickness would be cruel. He responds to the first objection by arguing that this is inherently a religious duty, and that each individual also has an important duty to not be an unnecessary burden to his or her loved ones. Given that religious beliefs vary from person to person (if one even chooses to subscribe to any religion at all), one can decide for him or herself if a duty to God outweighs a duty to family. In regards to the second objection, Hardwig argues that the act of recognizing one's duty to die does not inherently equal the failure to recognize the value one's life (or the value of another's life). In the same vain, to make a decision to end one's life when it is no longer serving them, their loved ones or society is not to say that this individual did not appreciate or was not thankful for the life he or she was given. In response to the third objection, Hardwig asserts that although the duty to die can be considered an unfortunate burden on the individual who is already carrying a great burden, it is also important to consider the draining burden all of this has on the individual(s) caring for them. At some point, the burden the situation imposes on the caretaker is greater than the burden of death would be on the ailing individual.

Essay Q on intellectual courage -write the official gist -a VERY detailed example of someone expressing it --> focus example on someone's mindset about learning something in a course (as a whole or from some element of the curriculum in a given course; you can use the example from the module or you can make one up yourself but yours must be a correct example). --> this part should give lots of details/words demonstrating that the definition is reflected in the example (embed key words) from the official gist; you can also include other points in that Sc module into your discussion here. -write at least 4-5 sentences

Intellectual courage is the "awareness of the need and ability to face and express ideas perceived as threatening or harmful." An example of someone demonstrating this virtue is an individual taking this Ethics class and participating in the dialectic exercises. Although the exercises are not optional and they must be completed in order to obtain credit, it certainly takes some level of courage and bravery to publicly share one's opinion, especially when it pertains to controversial topics. It also takes courage to receive the opinions of others with an open mind and to not feel threatened, hurt or personally attacked by them. Furthermore, if one does feel threatened, one must display courage to push through that feeling to still consider and respect the opposing opinion. As a woman, I personally feel a bit threatened and anxious when I read the opinions and views of those who are pro-life, in fear of the potentiality of my reproductive rights being compromised. However, I attempt to set those feelings aside and maintain an open mind so that I can see where someone else is coming from. Given that everyone comes from such different families, backgrounds and religions, all of which put a specific context around his or her viewpoints, these views are bound to clash with the views of others, which provides much of the conflict in our world.

What makes an argument a moral argument?

Its conclusion is always a MORAL STATEMENT

Basic Argument Clarification (passage mark-up and reformatting; tested on this in all exams) You will use concepts, methods, and strategies presented in various Sc modules to clarify one or two ordinary arguments. The statements will NOT be numbered. Make sure you: • apply the three content principles (I will supply these; you don't have to memorize them) • mark up the original/ordinary passage/argument EXACTLY as I did in the B3T6b and 6c videos (Are you sure your notes and markups really align with what I demonstrated during the videos? 90% OF YOUR SCORE COMES FROM THIS MARK-UP STUFF) • apply all relevant principles when reformatting the ordinary argument (you have to remember the formatting principles)

Remember: -strike through excess verbiage -label premise(s) as (P) at beginning of statement and conclusion as (C) at beginning of statement -rewrite as: -Premise 1: ... -Premise 2: ... -Conclusion: ... -remember to use uniform language in rewrite

Basic Argument Analysis (labeling, matching, multiple choice): You will use concepts, methods, and strategies presented/demonstrated in various Sc modules to identify the premise(s) and conclusion in two or three passages. The statements in the passages will be numbered.

Remember: -strike through excess verbiage -label premise(s) as (P) at beginning of statement and conclusion as (C) at beginning of statement -rewrite as: Premise 1: ... Premise 2: ... Conclusion: ... -remember to use uniform language in rewrite

What are some of the burdens imposed on loved ones who have to care for an old, ailing family member? What obligations, if any, do these families have toward their old and ailing family members?

The overarching burden of compromising and sacrificing the quality of one's own life to care for another's dwindling life is incredibly significant. Hardwig describes this as encompassing specific burdens such as substantial financial drains and concerns, time one spends tending to another (which subtracts time from the caretaker's own affairs), and the insurmountable pain caused by watching a loved one deteriorate, all of which might be imposed on loved ones who have to care for old and/or ailing family members. These families do have the obligation of supporting and caring for these ailing family members, however Hardwig asserts that this is a responsibility only up to the point in which these burdens become overwhelming and result in far greater hardship and pain than the pain of letting this person pass on (so long as the ailing individual mindfully wishes to pass on).

statement

a declarative sentence that can be categorized as true or false

nonmaleficence

a future-looking prima facie duty (identified by WD Ross) that requires one to do no harm, and is concerned with the consequences of people's actions

general moral principle

a moral principle or rule

moral statement

a statement affirming that an action is right or wrong or that a person (or one's motive or character) is good or bad.

subconclusion

a statement that functions as a conclusion at one point in an argument and as a premise at another point

premise

a statement that gives a reason in support of a conclusion

ahimsa

a version of the prima facie duty of nonmaleficence/non violence

Confucius

a virtuous person is a person of good will who puts duty first. believed that a virtuous society and individual virtue are inseparable (also believed by Aristotle) -believed that people are happiest and most virtuous when they are living in a just and well-ordered society

intellectual empathy

able to enter into different points of view so as to genuinely and accurately understand another's reasoning, ideas, way of making sense of things. vice = intellectual self-centeredness

categorial imperative

according to Kant, is the most fundamental moral principle and is something that all rational beings would recognize it as universally binding. -a formal principle that provides a framework for deriving moral maxims or duties, such as "do not lie" and "help others in distress" that can be applied in specific situations. -Act only on that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. -

virtue

an admirable characteristic trait or disposition to habitually act in a manner that benefits ourselves and others (ex: courage, compassion, loyalty, etc)

enthymeme

an argument in which either a premise or conclusion is left unstated

simple argument

an argument in which only one statement functions as a conclusion

complex argument

an argument in which there is at least one subconclusion but only one final conclusion

Normative Ethics

attempts to establish a foundation/framework of moral principles/rules or values by which we can make decisions and evaluate past actions

intellectual humility

being conscious of and readily admitting the limits of one's own knowledge; does not claim to know more than he or she actually knows, and remain open to the idea that he or she can learn from a variety of sources across a variety of contexts vice = intellectual arrogance

Ayn Rand

believed (like Locke) that rights exist prior to and independently of duties. Moral rights define and protect our freedoms without imposing obligation son anyone else. For example, the right to own property does not entail an obligation to provide people with property. The ideal society is one that protects people's individual liberty rights so they can freely pursue their interests. Agreed with Locke that rights exist prior to and independent of duties, but disagreed with him about the source of these rights. She argued that the source is not God, but is man's rational nature.

state of nature

characterized by a life that is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. -What Hobbes believes we would live in if it weren't for society. We agree to live within a society and obey certain rules only because it benefits us.

ethical subjectivism

claims that individual people create their own morality; there are no objective, universal moral truths, only individual's opinions or preferences (*under the umbrella of ethical relativism)

psychological egoism

descriptive theory about how things ARE. Humans by nature are selfish and out for themselves.

Dr. A's official definition of "argument" **VERBATIM**

discourse in which some statements (the premise or premises) are offered in support of another statement (the conclusion)

care ethics

emphasizes caring over considerations of justice and impartiality and moral sentiment over moral reasoning. As a moral theory, developed primarily out of Carol Gilligan's study of women's moral reasoning. It is sympathy that motivates us to act morally.

virtue ethics

emphasizes right being over right action. the sort of people we are constitutes the heart of our moral life. more important than the rules or principles we follow is our character.

Liberty rights

entail the right to be left alone to pursue our legitimate interests without interference from the government or other people -include autonomy, privacy, freedom of speech, freedom to on property, and freedom from harassment and confinement

Welfare rights

entail the right to receive certain social goods such as education, medical care, and police protection. -important because without a minimal standard of living or education, we cannot pursue our legitimate interests

2 kinds of egoism

ethical egoism and psychological egoism

Metaethics

focused on the origin and status of morality and the meaning of moral concepts

Metaphysics (branch of philosophy)

focuses on **reality**. This branch is concerned with being, what IS, what EXISTS. This branch of inquiry is also concerned with how various kinds of substances, entities, things, and events in the universe are related (connected) to each other. This includes a focus on the nature of things and causality. People who do metaphysics are called metaphysicians.

Logic (branch of philosophy)

focuses on the evaluation of **arguments**. In particular, logic is concerned with developing methods for evaluating whether the reasons in a given argument adequately support its conclusion. This branch of philosophy contributes to the dialogue on the correct principles of reasoning and what makes for flawed reasoning. Those who focus on the concept of argument are called logicians.

Immanuel Kant believed that people should do their duty purely out of ___ ___?

good will

Applied Ethics

involves the use of moral principles/rules or values and logic to resolve real-life moral issues

Ayn Rand's belief on altruism

it is a vice because altruists give things to people who have neither earned them nor deserve them.

natural law theory

maintains that God commands something *because* it is moral, not the other way around; morality exists independently of religion and God's commands; morality is grounded in rational human nature rather than in God's commands or personal feelings or cultural norms; morality is universally binding on everyone, no matter what their religion or lack thereof.

Aristotle's doctrine of the mean

most virtues entail finding the mean between excess and deficiency -Confucius believed this, as well

Ethical egoism

normative or moral theory about how things ought to be; the belief that morality involves the pursuit of one's rational self interests -is concerned with a person's best interests, not simply what each person feels is right for him or her. -egoism should be universalized and the world would be a better place if we all pursued our rational self-interests

Libertarians

people (such as Rand) who emphasize liberty rights as paramount. They believe that personal autonomy is the highest moral value.

self-improvement

prima facie duty - entails striving to improve our moral knowledge and virtue. Requires that we work to overcome our ignorance by becoming well-informed about moral issues and that we be open to new ideas.

gratitude

prima facie duty - evoked when we receive gifts or unearned favors and service from others. Some environmental ethicists argue that people have this duty toward the earth because it nourishes and sustains everyone

reparation

prima facie duty - requires making up for past harms we have caused others.

justice

prima facie duty - requires that we give each personal equal consideration

fidelity

prima facie duty that arises from past commitments, obligations and promises

distributive justice

refers to the fair distribution of benefits and burdens in a society.

deontological theories

regard duty as the basis of morality (duty = doing what is right for its own sake)

habituation

repeated exposure to particular types of stimuli and behavior --> has a role in development of virtuous and vicious behavior -emphasized by both Aristotle and Confucius

retributive justice

requires punishment for wrongdoing in proportion to the magnitude of the crime

2 types of justice

retributive justice and distributive justice

Dr. A's definition of "assumption"

simply an idea/belief we take for granted, presuppose as true or plausible

nonmoral statement

statement that does not affirm that an action is right or wrong or that a person is good or bad, but asserts that a state of affirms is actual (true or false) without assigning a moral value to it

divine command theory

states that something is moral merely because God approves of it; morality is relative to what God commands or wills; there are no independent, universal moral standards y which to judge God's commands

ethical universalism

states that there are fundamental, objective moral principles and values that are impartial and universally true for all people, independent of their personal beliefs or culture.

Jeremey Bentham's concept of equality

suggests that happiness of any one individual is no more or less important than that of any other -a moral ideal or prescription of how we ought to treat all sentient beings -Bentham is a utilitarian

the Way (Tao)

taught by Confucians and Buddhist ethicists - the mean is that which is consistent with harmony and equilibrium

herd morality

term coined by Friedrich Nietzsche, similar to cultural relativism.

utilitarianism

the belief that the happiness that counts is the sum of the happiness of the whole community of sentient beings (beings capable of feeling pleasure and pain) -states that the morality of an action or policy is determined solely by its consequences. -maintains that the desire for happiness is universal and that we intuitively recognize it as the greater good -actions are right to the extent that they tend to promote overall happiness, and wrong to the extent that they tend to promote overall unhappiness. -Jeremy Bentham

Dr. A's definition of "philosophy"

the careful, in-depth, study of basic beliefs

According to Kant, what is the most fundamental moral principle?

the categorial imperative

moral judgement

the conclusion of a moral argument - is a moral statement. Is something right or wrong?

autonomy

the freedom to make our own decisions

ethics

the philosophical study of morality/right and wrong -branch of philosophy

clarified argument

the results we get when we make the essential features of an ordinary argument's logic transparent

final conclusion

the statement that is being supported by all other statements in a complex argument

cultural relativism

theory that morality is relative to societal norms (*under the umbrella of ethical relativism)

natural rights

these rights stem from our human nature and are self-evident and God-given. Include a right to ow property, a right to marry and have children, and a right to punish someone who has wrong us (the latter is turned over to the state when we agree to form a cicvil society) -John Locke is a natural rights ethicist. -first appeared in 17th century as a demand for equality for all people

Epistemology (branch of philosophy)

this branch is interested in the nature, scope, and limits of **knowledge**. It is especially interested in conditions of knowledge, in what separates beliefs, or mere opinion, from knowledge. This includes an interest in the concept of T/truth. Other topics of relevance to this branch include perception, reliability, certainty, and doubt. Those who do work in this branch of philosophy are called epistemologists.

ordinary arguments

those nested in larger passages of written or spoken language, e.g. a paragraph, essay, newspaper article, letter or a conversation, court defense, or even a professor's lecture

legitimate interests

those that do not violate other people's similar and equal interests

prima facie duties

universal moral duties that are not absolute and may on occasion be overridden by stronger moral claims

moral dilemma

when moral duties have a conflict with one another.

Rawls' "veil of ignorance"

where everyone is ignorant of the advantages or disadvantages he or she will receive in this life

intellectual perseverance

willing to work through complex, difficult, challenging cognitive tasks. Such a person recognizes that understanding, knowledge, and authentic learning sometimes require a lot of time, focus and mental energy. vice = intellectual laziness

*intellectual courage*

wills himself or herself to listen to or read about idea perceived as threatening or harmful. Such a person is willing to listen to different ideas even when experiencing strong, negative feelings such as fear or insecurity. Such a person is also willing to share his or her beliefs despite inner- or group created-fear about "dangerous" or "harmful" ideas or ways of thinking. vice = intellectual timidity

most important virtue according to Aristotle, and why

wisdom - because it makes all other virtues possible

excess verbiage

words or phrases that add nothing to the actual inference presented in an argument