EXAM 1 Buisiness Ethics

Unsound argument

Have at least one false premise (go over arguments)

What is a sound argument?

Have true premises and valid reasoning

Defensible Moral Judgments

If a moral judgment or conclusion is defensible, then it must be supportable by a defensible moral standard, together with relevant facts

What makes a moral judgment defensible?

If it is supported by a defensible moral standard and relevant facts. ** evaluating moral arguments is composed of clarifying terms of premises, examining factual claims, assessing the moral standard.

What are the requirments for a sound argument?

If its statements are true and its form is valid

What is validity?

If the assumption that an arguments premises are true guarantee that the conclusion is true, then its valid

Invalid argument?

If the assumption that the arguments premise is true does not guarantee that the conclusions is true, its invalid

Non consequentialism in an orginazational context:

Moral decision involves the weighing of differnt moral factors and considerations. this theory acknowledges that the organization has its own legitamte goals to pursue

What is justification of moral norms?

Moral philosophers study mainly the justification rather than the origin of moral norms

Business ethics are mainly concerned with morality in the____

Narrow sense **but values, ideals and aspirations also effect the behavior and ethical choices of business professionals.

Assisting others :

Nonconseqentialist believe that we have a much stronger obligation to refrain from violating peoples rights than to promote their happiness. Moral philossophers argue that utilitarianism fails to distinguish between morally required acts and supergatory acts.( those that exceed call of duty).

How does ethical relativism relate to business?

* Albert Carr argued that busines professionals are expected to follow a code that has little or nothing to do with ethics in other contexts * practices of business professionals cannot be evaluated from an ordinary moral standpoint

Solving ethical dillemas involve

* Appeal to theoretical constructs * reevaluation of established moral standards and inherited intuitions.

Pattern of defense and challenge ?

* Evaluating factual claims * Challenging the moral standard * Defending the moral standard * Revising and modifying the argument.

Groupthink is?

The pressure on group members to conform to morally questionable policies or strategies, often resulting in unethical conduct

Ethics

The study of right and wrong, duty and obligation, moral norms, individual character, and responsibility.

Psychological egoism

The theory of ethical egoism is often justified by psychological egoism- the belief that human beings are only motivated by self interest.

Prima Facie Obligations

W.D Ross : a biritish scholar who held that our moral experiences are too complex to be reduced to the principle of utility His beliefs: we have various duties that oftentimes come into conflict with eachother. there are no universal

What is good will?

the capacity to act from rational moral principles. acts "out of duty"

personal egoist

whose who adopt an egoist ethic for themselves but do not make universal claim that all individuals should do the same.

Morality and personal values( What is morality in the narrow vs broad sense?)

* Narrow = The moral principles or rules that do govern the conduct of individuals in their relations with others. * broad sense = Values, ideals and aspirations that influence the decision and lifestyles of individuals and entire societies.

what appropiate principles do we rely on when making moral judgments?

* No consesus among those who study ethics. *A variety of different moral principles and ethical considerations intertwine and sometimes compete.

What is a ethical dillema:

* Situations involving conflict between ethical principles or normative priorities * dillemas have a deep impact on the evolution of ethical reflection

What are criticism of utilitarianism?

* The practical application of the principle of the utility involves considerable difficulties. * Some actions seem to be intrinsically immoral though performing them can maximize happiness

what is criteria for moral judgments?

* logical * should be based on facts * should be based on acceptable moral principles.

features of moral standards

* moral standards take priority over non moral standards * the soundness and validity of moral standards depend on the quality of the arguments or the reasoning that support them.

What is utilitarianism in an organizational context?

* provides a clear and straightforward standard for formulating and testing policies * offers an objective way for resolving conflicts * suggest a flexible, result oriented approach to moral decision making

The claim that morality is based on religion

* religion provides incentive to be moral * Religion provides moral guidance * Moral norms are in essence divine commands

How is morality related to etiquette?

* rules of etiquette are ordinarily non-moral in character and are meant to serve as guidelines for socially acceptable behavior. * violations of etiquette can sometimes have moral implications. * The strict observance of rules of etiquette can sometimes conceal serious moral issues.

requirements for moral judgments

* should be logical * should be based on facts * Should be based on acceptable moral principles

An argument can be challenged by?

* uncovering ambiguity in the terms * questioning the factual claims. * challenging the moral standards

What is Kants ethics?

** german philospher with a non consequentialist approach ** said moral worth of an action is determined on the basis of good will.

what are the six points concerning utilitarianism?

1.) In choosing between alternative courses of action we should consider the net worth of happiness vs unhappiness produced by each course of action. 2.) we should consider to all individual preferences, then calculate the net worth of the various kinds of pleasures and pains. 3.) Anything can be morally praise worthy in come circumstances if it promotes the greatest balance of pleasure vs pain for the greatest number of people 4.) we should seek to maximize happiness, not only immediately, but in the long run. 5.) we should do what is likely to cause happiness and likely not to cause suffering when we lack certainty. 6.) we must guard against bias in our utilitarian calculations when our own interest are at stake. so it is advisable to rely on rules of thumb

Criticism of Kants ethics:

1.) Kants ethics is too extreme insofar as it excludes emotion from moral decision making and make duty paramount. 2.) Kant fails to distinguish between excepting oneself from a rule and qualifying a rule on the basis of exceptions. 3.) It is not always clear when people are treated as a ends and merely as a means

How do we reach an agreement on controversial ethical issues in business?

1.) agreement on relevant facts 2.) once in agreement, spell out the moral principles endorsed by participants 3.) articulate the common grounds between the diverse ethical viewpoints of the participants

basic prima facie obligation

1.) duties of fidelity 2.) duties of reperation 3.) duties of gratitude 4.) duties of justice 5.) duties of beneficence 6.) duties of self improvement 7.) duties not to injure others.

Key features of human rights :

1.) human rights are universal 2.) human rights are applied equally to all 3.) human rights are inalienable and not transferable. 4.) human rights are natually in that they do not depend on human institutions.

What is an argument?

A group of statements, one of which (conclusion) is claimed to follow from others (premise )

humanity as an end, never only as means:

All human beings have inherent worth because they possess rationality and they should be treated with respect.

What is distinction between morality and legality?

An action can be illegal but morally right and vis versa.

What are moral argument ?

Arguments whose conclusions are moral judgments ** moral reasoning or argument typically moves from a moral standard, through one or more factual judgments about some person, action, policy related to that standard, to a moral judgment about that person, action, or policy

Utility and self interest?

Business are concerned with increasing profit and can be viewed as egoistic, but pursing ones own economic advantage can increase the well being of society as a whole * adam smith: the main promoter of classical capatilism who argued that society can flourish if businesses are left to freely pursue their self interest.

prima facie obligation

Can be overridden by a more important duty in specific circumstances Example: we are in conflict over the duty to keep our promise to a friend and the duty to help person in need. we may have to override the promise and favor the more important duty to help the person. But in some other circumstances we ought to do the opposite

guidelines for handling cases involving conflicting obligations, ideals and effects:

Choose the stronger of two or more conflicting obligations honor the more important of two or more conflicting ideals of the two or more rival actions, choose the one that produces the greater good or the lesser harm.

what is a impersonal egoist?

Claim that the pursuit of ones self interest should motivate everyones behavior.

What is a moral argument?

Conflicting theories and beliefs whose conclusions are moral judgments, based on the premise of moral standards and statements of fact

What are the limits of conscience?

Conscience is not always a reliable guide because it can be conflicted and erroneous.

What is constitutional law?

Court rulings on the requirements of the US constitutionality of legislation

Responsibility( what are orgizational norms?)

Employees of business organizations are: * expected to profit goals * often pressures to compromise moral values and ignore or violate rules of ethical conduct *conformity = studies show indivisuals are more prone to act unethically when they are a part of an organization or group

what are regulations?

Laws enacted by special boards or agencies for various kinds of conduct

what is common law?

The body of judge made laws developed in English speaking countries over the course of many centuries

What is utilitarianism?

The moral theory that we should act in ways that produce the most pleasure or hapiness for the greatest number of people affected by their actions. **main reps: British philosphers jeremy Bentham and John stuart mill **principle of utility: actions are right if they promote the greatest human welfare, and wrong if they dont

How are moral principles and self interest related?

The morality of an action can run counter to our self interest * the moral point of view requires that we restrict our own self interest to satisfy social existence. * in situations of conflict between moral principles and self interest, it is important to appeal to shared principles of justification.

Diffusion of responsibility is?

The multiplicity, complexity, and distribution of tasks that can lead to individuals to feel less responsibility or accountability for their actions.

What is Ethical relativism?

The view according to which moral norms derive their ultimate justification from the custody of the society in which they occur. * moral norms are not universal, but are dependent upon a particular cultural or social context.

What is egoism ?

The view that morality coincides with the self interest of oneself or an organization one is part of.

what are the implications of relativism?

There is no independent standard by which to judge the rightness or wrongness * the idea of ethical progress loses its significance * It wouldnt make sense to criticize the moral code of ones own society or culture.

What is an egoist?

Those that determine the moral value of an action based on the principle of self interest

nonconsequentialist theory

Those that do not only determine the moral rightness or wrongness of an action based on the actions consequences

Positive rights

Those that reflect the vital interest that humans have in receiving certain benefits.(right to education, medical care, equal job)

Negative rights:

Those that reflect the vital interests that humans have in being free from outside interference.(freedome of speech, assembly, religion)

What is an example of a categorical imperative?

a building contractor promises to install a sprinkler system , but he is willing to break that promise to suit his purposes, His subjective principle can be expressed as " Il make promises that il never break whenever keeping them no longer suits my purpose

Moral reasoning ( What is an argument?)

a group of statements in which one statement (conclusion) follows from the other(premise)

What does it mean to have principles?

a profound individual commitment to a set of values.

moral rights:

a right is an entitlement to act or have others act in a certain way. ** some moral rights derive from special relationships, roles, or circumstances in which we happen to be. ** moral rights are not the result of a particular role, special relationships, or specific circumstances and apply to all people are called human rights.

two step approach ?

identify the relevant considerations involved obligations, ideas and effects. determine which of these considerations deserve empahss int the situation at hand

What is conscience?

internalized set of moral principles taught to us by various authority figures- parents and social institutions.

what are statutes ?

laws enacted by legislative bodies such as US congress and state legislatures.

What is the categorical imperative?

morality as a system of laws analogous to the laws of physics in terms of their universal applicability. ** the morality of an action depends on whether the subjective principle behind it can be willed as a universal law of nature without committing a logical contradiction. ** perfect duties are violated when universalizing our subjective principle leads to a contradiction.

how are professional codes related to morality?

professional code is a set of rules that govern the conduct of members in a given profession. * individuals have the responsibility to critically asses the rules of their professions * These rules are not always complete and reliable guidelines to adequate moral conduct.

moral standards

standards about behavior or practices with serious effects upon human well being.

nonmoral standards

standards about the behavior or practices with no serious effects upon human well-being

Objections to egoism

the theory is not sound: not all humans are selfish by nature * egoism is not a moral theory at all: Egoism misses the whole point of morality, which is to restrain our selfish desires for the sake of peaceful coexistence *egoism ignores blatant wrongs: all patently wrong actions are morally neutral unless they conflict with ones advantage

consequentialist theory

those that determine the moral rightness or wrongness of an action based on the actions consequences or results

What is universal acceptability?

to determine whether a principle is a moral law, we need to ask whether the command expressed through it is acceptable to all rational agents

Whats an example of a perfect duty? and imperfect duty?

to oneself: Not to commit suicide To others: keeping a promise to oneself: to cultivate ones talents To others: to help others in need