Exam 1 Review - Darwin & Politics of Evolution

How did Darwin's study of economics influence his theory of evolution?

1. in his work, the Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith stated that competition among businesses -- capitalism -- would help nations; thus, the government needs to step out of the way of the practice to allow their economies to grow. 2. Thomas Malthus' "Principles of Population" stated that food supply increases arithmetically, while populations increase geometrically. In other words, this meant that all the poor people in the world eat, and the more the food supply increases, the more they will have to eat and the more offspring they will create as a result. He argued that breeding the poor people keeps people behind, as the increase in population will always surpass the increase in food supply, perpetuating the issue of poverty. As a result, Darwin came to believe that there are always more creatures than can actually survive, which suggests that competition is involved. Some creatures live, and some die. Those who live, reproduce.

What is the error of the use of evidence known as Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc?

A Latin term that means "after this therefore because of this," which assumes the causal nature of an A-B relationship based on the fact that A came before B. For example: The cause of the Great Depression was the stock market crash of 1929. In truth, we now know that it was the Fed's tight money policy of the 1930s that caused the Depression; the fact that the stock market crash of 1957 was not followed by a depression has buttressed the modern belief.

What is sophistry?

A deliberately deceptive argument that is not actually a lie. It is typically a statement that cannot be proven to be factually false, but it clearly intended to deceive the audience.

Define and explain magic.

A remarkably hard thing to define; It's a non-explanation we come up with to act as an explanation. More specifically, when we describe something as magical, we basically see that thing to be unexplainable. This is significant because put together magic with personalism (a humanlike agent -- a deity, perhaps -- caused something to happen). Furthermore, many people have tried to blame homosexuality or bad behavior for "causing" something magical to do something bad to us.

How common are creation myths?

Almost every distinct culture has its own creation myth.

What is the difference between sophistry and a flawed argument?

An arguer might use spurious correlation (or some other flawed reasoning or use of evidence) mistakenly, but if he uses it purposefully to fool the audience, it is sophistry.

What is an argument in general? What is a formal argument?

An argument generally speaking is trying to make another person agree with your conclusion based on some reason or another. More formally put, a logical argument is one that is correct if its conclusions follow from its premises and its premises are true. Example: Socrates is man, and man is mortal. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

What is science?

An elaborate series of methods to discern real patterns from fallacious ones which our mind created.

What is equivocation?

An error of reasoning based on ambiguity in which a word is used to mean multiple things in an argument to confuse the process of reasoning. For example: America was attacked by terrorists on 9/11 Saddam Hussein supported terrorists while he was in power; therefore, to remove Hussein from power is to remove one of our 9/11 attackers. Ambiguity: The terrorists Hussein supported while he was in power were anti-Israel terrorists; there was no connection between them and the 9/11 hijackers.

What is an ad-hominem fallacy? Where is it most common?

An error of reasoning, Latin term meaning "at the man," in which an argument is based on attacking the moral standing or sincerity of the arguer rather than engaging his/her argument directly. This is significant because it is a common tactic in political argument.

What is an ancillary assumption?

An unstated assumption which acts as a premise for an argument. For example: Criminality is bad. Therefore, Darwinism is bad. Ancillary assumption: Darwinism causes criminality in some fashion.

Describe Darwin's religion

At first, he was an Anglican. Nonetheless, he became increasingly dissatisfied with the unscientific argument for design the more he learned about nature. He lost his religious values after the death of his favorite daughter, Anna, in 1851, when he decided he was no longer a Christian. Rather, he identified as an agnostic.

Why was Darwin famous when he came back from his travels on the Beagle in 1836?

Because his letters to scientists in England from the Galapagos Islands were published in newspapers in England.

Why was Darwin's trip to the Galapagos Islands so important?

Because it made him think, why would God make slightly different tortoises? Hence, it added to his knowledge that animals that were essentially the same could differ in important ways, ultimately contributing to his theory of evolution.

How do we know that scientific thinking is unnatural?

Because psychologists studying children show they do not naturally think scientifically.

Why does Paine's argument from design rely on magic?

Because there is no explanation for why/how the design happened, only that it did happen.

Why do Christians/Jews like the Big Bang Theory?

Because they feel it implies consistency with the Judeo/Chritian bible's out-of-nothing creation myth.

What are the two main types of social arguments?

Causal and moral

What's the difference between moral and causal arguments?

Causal and moral arguments have the same basic structure (reasoning from premises), but causal arguments can appeal to evidence in both their premises and their reasoning, while moral arguments rely far more upon value assumptions.

What did the 18th century discovery of fossils make Christians do?

Christians became worried by the discoveries, because why would God bring in creatures to let them go extinct? Many Christians then began to believe that they just hadn't seen these animals yet! This was the case to the extent that Jefferson told Louis and Clark to look out for extinct species like mammoths, saber-tooth tiger, etc.

What is begging the question?

Circular reasoning; surreptitously accepting the premise as true, then reasoning back to affirm it (fallacy of presumption) For example: Aggregate utility theory proves there is more total utility in a country with free, open markets. Tariffs by definition violate free, open markets. Therefore, everyone will be better off with free trade.

What is the error of evidence known as a spurious correlation?

Closely related to a post hoc argument, this is an argument which argues that the observed co-variation of two variables implies that one causes the other; but there may well be a third variable that causes both. Essentially, then, it is an argument that assumes that the fact that two things vary and the fact that they vary in time means one causes the other.

What are some examples of sophistries?

Contorted interpretation of a fact Omission of contextual information that is essential to a correct interpretation. Selective use of evidence Inclusion of irrelevant information, interpreted as relevant. Deceptive framing Straw man Implication Assumption without argument

What is the significance of false dichotomies in society as it relates to the study of Darwin?

Creationists very often use false dichotomies when attacking evolutionary biology -- the only two possibilities are supposedly "Darwinism" and creationism; since they have discredited Darwinism, creationism must be true.

Describe Darwin's wife

Darwin married into a rich family to Emma. Her wealth allowed Darwin to not have to work' rather, he could study what he wanted on his big estate. Emma was very religious, so his increasing secularism was distressing to her. It was so to the extent that she "feared the future of his soul."

Define and describe what a premise is

Definition: An assumption posited as true at the beginning of an argument. A premise is a reason for the truth of a conclusion; the truth or falsity of a premise is usually established by appeals to evidence.

What should we ask ourselves when determining if an argument includes a spurious correlation?

Did it happen by chance? Are there other factors at play?

Give examples of Pareidolia

Duck in the clouds Constellations "In 1977, a woman making "In 1977, a woman making burritos in Lake Arthur, N. M., saw the face of Jesus in the pattern of skillet burns on a tortilla. She built a shrine to house the Jesus tortilla, which was blessed by a priest, and thousands of people from across the country came to gaze and pray for its divine assistance in healing their ailments." c. It's not just a Christian tendency: "Followers of Islam have said they've seen the Arabic script for Allah or Muhammad on fish scales, chicken eggs, lambs, and beans."

Define and explain essentialism

Essentialism is an unconscious attitude or belief that things have some essence which defines them that is unchanging. For example: Some essential quality of being a cat makes them a cat to people who see them. This is significant because Darwin does not believe there is an essence of a cat. Rather, he tells us there's a creature that's sort of a cat, and the difference between it and the next thing that's called a cat is not objectively different. (what?)

Do more people believe in their culture's creation myth or the theory of evolution?

Far more people believe in their creation myth than the theory of evolution. In modern society, many people are religious, but don't find their creation myth to be true in a literal sense; rather, it's an allegory of morals.

What is deduction?

Finding what things must be true in order for your hypotheses to be true.

What relation do the disciplines of rhetoric and logic have to argumentation?

For about 2500 years, they have been trying to understand the difference between a good and bad argument, and teach that understanding to ordinary people, so that they will be harder to fool.

Give an example of a spurious conclusion.

For example: A study conducted by three scholars in 2015 concluded that "on the day of college football games, reports of rapes by 17-24 year old victims in colleges' local policing areas climbed 25%. Football games thus cause between 253 and 770 additional rapes per year. This is a spurious conclusion because football games are normally held on Saturday, when college partying activity reaches its peak; it is Saturday that causes rapes, not football. In other words, both football and rapes occur mostly on Saturday. Therefore, the argument above is flawed.

What is a main implication of the Theory of Evolution?

From the first day his book was published, conservatives/liberals have argued over its validity.

Describe the Jewish/Christian creation myth

Genesis lays out that the world was created out of nothing by God. This is the creation myth believed by a majority of people in the U.S, and many Americans want this to be the story that children are taught in Biology class.

What is the Christian/Judeo creation myth?

God created Earth in 7 days; created man as they were and all the animals as well. Adam & Eve began life, but then God flooded the Earth and Noah -- a descendent of Adam & Eve -- repopulated the Earth.

Who was Alfred Russell Wallace?

He was a biologist who, unlike Darwin, did not have many connections. He made his way to South America, where he gathered many specimens. He lost those specimens in a big storm on the way back to England, so instead he went back to Indonesia. While in Indonesia, he gather many specimens again, but contracted malaria while there. During this time under a sickness, Wallace begins to lay out his theory of evolution, which he writes up in a 30 page paper and sends to the most famous biologist of the time: Charles Darwin. This pushed Darwin to finally publish his theory in the book, "On the Origin of Species" in 1859.

How was Darwin influenced by geology in writing his theory of evolution?

He was influenced by Charles Lyle's (a friend of his and a top geologist of the era) "Principles of Geology," which included the concept uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism helped Darwin to believe that tiny changes over a long period of time result in huge changes.

Who is Rodney Ellis

He wrote an article called "Affirmative Action Must be Continued" Ellis argues that an education policy of discriminating in favor of blacks is good because in the past educational institutions discriminated in favor of whites. The flaw is that he does not show how the one justifies the other.

What did Darwin do while he stalled to publish his theory of evolution (post 1838, when it was finished)?

He wrote other books and became the #1 expert in the world on barnicles (creatures that are on the bottom of ships).

Who was Thomas Paine?

He wrote the 1809 book that describes the classic argument from design, which states that because we know the difference between people and other objects, people must have been designed, and things that are designed are designed by something. In this case, Paily believed it to be God.

Describe Darwin's dad

His dad was a doctor, and he wanted for Darwin to become a doctor. He went to med-school and tried it, but it didn't work. Then his dad wanted him to go into the church, but he didn't want to do that either.

What is a moral argument?

If B is bad, and A causes B, then A is bad. OR A is bad because B is bad and B implies A. For example: Premise: Murder of a human being is bad. Premise: Abortion is the murder of a human being. Conclusion: Therefore, abortion is bad.

What is empiricism?

In philosophy, it is the view that all knowledge is based on or exhausted by what is known through sensory experience; This is important because science is based on the belief that all theories, in order to be accepted, must survive empirical tests based on induction, deduction, etc.

Define and explain replication

In science, it is the reproduction of an empirical test, which produces the same result as the original test; an important component of the scientific method. This is important because it is what makes religion non-empirical nor a scientific explanation for our existence. When specifically applied to genetics and the reproduction of organisms, the production of exact copies of complex molecules such as DNA.

What are some aspects in all scientific study?

Induction Deduction Empiricism

What is the main assumption of teleology?

It assumes that nonanimate things have desire or consciousness.

What is a false dichotomy fallacy?

It is an error of reasoning in which one assumes (without stating) that there are only two alternatives, and that both alternatives are equally respectable and viable; if one alternative can be discredited, then the remaining one (which is favored by the speaker), must win by default. For example: There are terrorists and there are real Americans; I am a real American. If you disagree with me, you must be on the side of the terrorists.

What is non-sequitur?

It is latin for "it does not follow;" it's an extreme form of asking the wrong question, in which the conclusion does not follow from the premises.

What is an implication?

It is something not explicitly stated, but may follow from some sort of assertion theory, or fact. For example: The Democrats won the House in 2018. Therefore, Trump will have more difficulty getting his bills passed than during the first two years of his presidency.

What is the purpose of glittering generalities?

It is the opposite of name-calling, but both are attempts to associate words that have good or bad connotations with a person, cause, ideology, group, etc.

What was the MMS Beagle?

It was the ship on which Darwin sailed from 1831-1836 and collected and observed many animals. It was the ship from which he learned that the Earth is always changing.

What did people think of Paine's argument from design? (though he may not have made the argument himself...)

It was treated as a treatise of biology even though his explanation relies on magic.

What is a better argument in favor of affirmative action than Ellis's?

Material equality should be the most important goal for American society. Equalizing racial access to college admissions will create material equality. Therefore, the most important goal of public policy should be equalizing access to college admissions.

Are ad-hominem arguments always bad?

No, sometimes they are good for hindering the credibility of a questionable arguer who may be known to connive.

What is a causal argument?

"If A, then B" For example: Premise: Children must receive religious instruction in school, or they will become criminals as adults. Premise: Scientific biology (Darwinism) is non-religious instruction. Ancillary assumption: Darwinism's non-religious teachings will not be balanced by other, pro-religious teaching in school. Conclusion: Therefore, if children are taught Darwinism in school, they will become criminals as adults.

What are the three types of creation myths we are learning about this semester?

1. Emergence myths 2. Coming out of a cosmic egg/embryo 3. Creation out of nothing

What are some common devices of propaganda?

1. Name-calling 2. Glittering generalities 3. Transfer

Chapter 1: origin on species What caused variation under domestication according to Darwin?

Page 18 The most frequent cause of variability he suspected was not during life for a given animal or during the late period of an embryo; rather, he suspected the reproductive system of male and female animals, as being subject to confinement, at least in pigeons, showed the reproductive system being far more susceptible to change than other conditions in life.

Chapter 1: origin on species What role do habits play into Darwin's theory of evolution and domestic variation?

Page 20 In animals, habit has a marked effect. Darwin found that domestic duck bones entail heavier leg bones and lighter wing bones. The wild duck, on the other hand, is the opposite. Darwin attributes this variation to the increased habit of domestic ducks flying much less and walking more than its wild parent.

What problem could be present with relation to induction? How is this problem solved?

Paraedolia could be involved, making the generalization invalid. To solve this problem, one must test the generalization empirically.

How is paraedolia related to personalism?

Paraedolia partnered with personalism results in conspiracy theories. For example: 9/11 was an inside job. Or even better example: The CIA invented AIDS. Best: We are superstitious; we change things when things are going bad, and we keep them the same when they're going right.

Define and explain paraeidolia

Pareidolia is the tendency to see patterns where none exists. This is significant because the human mind is built to recognize patterns even when they don't exist. Paraeidolia garners in the need for science to distinguish between patterns that do exist and which are paraedolia.

Before Darwin, what did people believe about life on Earth?

People believed things were designed as they are and not changing, which is a form of essentialism.

Describe the 11th century as it related to the argument from design.

People tried to make rational arguments and wanted to reason why God was real and believed in Christianity.

What is one common form of informal flawed arguments?

People will ask the wrong question -- or, more commonly, pretending to answer the question in front of us, but in reality substituting another.

Define and explain personalism

Personalism is the human tendency to see human agency behind things that have none. For example: God was angry, so he made an earthquake to punish us. This is important because one thing necessary to begin to think scientifically is seeing events as non-personal, i.e. avoid personalism.

How can Ellis' argument be made better?

Premise: If group A has acted unjustly to group B, then it is morally appropriate for group B to act unjustly to group A. Factual assumption: Group A (whites) have acted unjustly toward Group B (blacks). Conclusion: It is morally appropriate for Group B to act unjustly towards group A.

Define and explain propaganda

Propaganda is the deliberate attempt to influence opinion, using slanted, one-sided evidence and/or emotionally manipulative stories. Propaganda is significant because it is very common in political controversy, and therefore in disputes relating to the theory of evolution.

Define and explain teleology

Teleology is the belief that things have a purpose and not just randomly moving through existence. This is significant because we talk about things as if they have importance. For example: "The stock market is trying to extend its gains," or "Water levels itself out."

When Darwin was born, what was the accepted account for how humans came to exist on Earth?

The Christian account of the origin of life was believed to be a true account of how humans came to be on Earth.

What was the most important destination for Darwin on the Beagle and why?

The Galapagos Islands, as this is where he studied Galapagos tortoises and recorded an Ecuadorian man saying that if he got a Galapagos tortoise carapus, he could tell Darwin which island it came from.

Describe the Finnish creation myth

The Kalevala lays out that the world was created from the fragments of an egg laid by a diving duck on the knee of Ilmatar, the goddess of the air.

Give an example of the misuse of statistics as the incorrect use of evidence.

The Trump administration argued that our NATO allies are not paying their fair share, and, as evidence, released a chart of the estimated percentage of each NATO country's GDP spent on Defense in 2016. The US had spent .2% more than other countries. The argument is flawed because the figure shows the amount that the USA spends all around the world, not just in Europe. Therefore, the statistics are used to deceive rather than make a true argument.

What is induction?

The action of observing a phenomena and from that observation, a generalization is made about the phenomena.

What was the argument from design?

The argument from design is the argument that humans were created -- as they are now -- in 6 days by God.

What is uniformitarianism?

The belief that the Earth's past geological changes can be fully explained by current processes. That is, over long periods of time, small changes to the Earth's surface resulted in huge changes.

What are glittering generalities and how are they propaganda?

The propagandist associates his or her program with "virtue words" such as truth, freedom, honor, liberty, social justice, progress, democracy, patriotism, homeland security, etc.

What is transfer and how is it propaganda?

The propagandist attempts to associate the prestige of some person or symbol with something he would have us accept. It has been typical that political projects try to establish identification between the political project and the audience's reverence for national or religious symbolism. Example: use of the flag

How is name-calling propaganda?

The propagandist conjures hate or fear by attaching unattractive labels to individuals, races, groups, nations, policies, practices he condemns. Closely connected to Aristotle's "ad-hominem" argument. Name-calling is significant because it has been used constantly by President Trump. For example, "crooked Hillary," "Lyin' Ted," etc.

What did Thomas Disraeli have to say about statistics?

There are three types of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.

Describe the Navaho emergence myth

They believed that people arrived on Earth by walking through four different worlds within the Earth.

How did theology and science differ at the beginning of Darwin's life?

They didn't; they were considered one and the same.

How good of friends were Darwin and Wallace?

They were such good friends that Darwin helped Wallace gain a royal appointment, where he'd receive money each month for doing nothing, which gave him time to do scientific work. Furthermore, after Darwin's death, Wallace was a paulbearer. And, as said in the previous slide, Wallace wrote his own book on evolution and called it "Darwinism."

Who created the concept "agnosticism"

Thomas Huxley

What was Darwin's book about his travels on the Beagle?

Voyage of the Beagle.

What was the nature of Darwin and Wallace's relationship?

While Darwinism is really Darwinism/Wallacism, it nonetheless is called Darwinism, largely in thanks to Wallace, who, after the death of Darwin, wrote a book with all he knew about the theory of evolution and titled it "Darwinism." This goes to say that, unlike other scientists who developed discoveries at the same time (Newton with calculus and some other guy), Darwin and Wallace became great friends. Darwin always gave half-credit to Wallace for developing the theory of evolution.

Did Darwin understand the implications of his theory of evolution? If so, how did it impact his choices?

Yes. Thanks to the journal that he kept from young adulthood till 1859, we know that he felt that publishing his theory "felt like confessing to murder." He was very emotionally conflicted. As a result, Darwin, knowing what'd happen when it was published, sat on his theory in 1838 and waited until 1859 to publish it. He didn't decide to publish until after Wallace had developed the theory too.