Exam 1 social

Gender and Education

Women represent the majority of undergraduate students Men receive more degrees in math, computer science, and engineering than women The hidden curriculum perpetuates gender inequalities in math and science courses Boys tend to dominate class discussion and monopolize instructor attentionWomen represent the majority of undergraduate students Men receive more degrees in math, computer science, and engineering than women The hidden curriculum perpetuates gender inequalities in math and science courses Boys tend to dominate class discussion and monopolize instructor attention

refugees

are defined by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1980 as "aliens outside the United States who are unable or unwilling to return to his/her country of origin for persecution or fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion

According to Jeanne Ballantine and Keith Roberts (2012), sociologists examine the

software and hardware of society. -A society consists of individuals who live together in a specific geographic area, who interact with each other, and who cooperate for the attainment of common goals. -The software is our culture. Each society has a culture that serves as a system of guidelines for living. A culture includes norms (rules of behavior shared by members of society and rooted in a value system), values (shared judgments about what is desirable or undesirable, right or wrong, good or bad), and beliefs (ideas about life, the way society works, and where one fits in). -The hardware comprises the enduring social structures that bring order to our lives. This includes the positions or statuses that we occupy in society (student, athlete, employee, roommate) and the social groups to which we belong and identify with (our family, our local place of worship, our workplace). - Social institutions are the most complex hardware. Social institutions, such as the family, religion, or education, are relatively permanent social units of roles, rules, relationships, and organized activities devoted to meeting human needs and to directing and controlling human behavior

Interactionist Perspective

•Interactionists focus on how classroom dynamics and practices educate the perfect student and at the same time create the not-so-perfect ones •The interaction between teachers and students reinforces the structure and inequalities of the educational system •With tracking (separating advanced and other learners) students are identified as college-bound versus work-bound -Teachers, parents, and others might view students differently and the student's true potential may be hindered

Interactionist Perspective

•Interactionists reveal how our age-related roles are socially defined and expected •Age is tied to a system of matching people and roles -Role expectations can stigmatize age groups -Older adults are discredited in society, stereotyped as less capable, fragile, weak, and frail

Conflict Theory

•Karl Marx—father of conflict theory -Conflict emerged from the economic substructure of capitalism -It created conflict between the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (owners) -Capitalism alienates humans from their species being, or true human potential -Workers must achieve a class consciousness, an awareness of their social position and oppression, if they are to organize to seek chance

Head Start and Prekindergarten

•Largest early childhood program, serving over 30 million poor and at risk preschoolers since 1965 •Began with preschool centers, expanded to serve school aged children, high school students, pregnant women, and Head Start parents •Research indicates that there is a positive relationship between early childhood program enrollment and high school graduation, home ownership, school attendance, and motivation •As of 2013, there were 53 state-funded preschool programs in 40 states and in the District of Columbia •High-quality pre-K programming can improve the academic and socio-economic outcomes for students

Interactionist Perspective

•Social interaction helps create and maintain our definition of a family •Within families, interactions through words, symbols, and meanings define our expectation of what the family should be like •Problems may also occur when partners' expectations of family or marriage do not match their real life

Ethnic groups

—Display a unique set of cultural traits, such as language, religion, or diet

•Labor migration

—The movement of people from one country to another for employment -Has been part of U.S. history beginning with Chinese male workers brought to build railroads in the 1800s

Immigration

—The movement of people leaving their country of origin to move to another

Population aging

—a change in our demographic structure -The median age of our population is increasing

Theory

—a set of assumptions and propositions used for explanation, prediction, and understanding. Macro theories—focus on societal level analysis. Micro theories—focus on individual level analysis.

•Social problem

—a social condition that has negative consequences for individuals, our social world, or the physical world •Our physical and social worlds can be threatened by problems related to urbanization (lack of affordable housing) and the environment (global warming)

•Subjective reality

—addresses how a problem becomes defined as a "problem." Based on the concept of the Social Construction of Reality which refers to how our world is a social creation originating and evolving through our everyday thoughts and actions -

•Objective reality

—comes from acknowledging that a particular social condition exists -Objective realities of a social problem can be confirmed by collection of data. For example, we know from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017) that more than 1.1 million Americans were living with HIV/AIDS at the end of 2014

Institutional discrimination

—discrimination practiced by political or social institutions •Segregation—physical and social separation of ethnic or racial groups •Exclusion—the practice of prohibiting or restricting the entry or participation of groups in society •Expulsion—the removal of a group by direct force or intimidation

•Race

—group sharing a set of genetic characteristics and physical features -Race is a social construct - In the United States, race tends to be a bipolar construct—White versus non-White

Individual discrimination

—prejudiced actions against minority members by individuals; may include avoiding contact or physical or verbal attacks

Social constructionism

—social problems become problems when we perceive them to be problems

Racism

—the belief in the inferiority of certain racial or ethnic groups, often accompanied by discrimination

Ethnocentrism

—the belief that one's own group values and behaviors are right

Ageism

—the stereotyping of (or discrimination) of older adults -Damages the self-concepts of the elderly -This may increase social isolation, dependency, and elderly abuse and may become a self-fulfilling prophecy for others

Demography

—the study of the size, composition, and distribution of population populations •In the U.S., Europe, and other parts of the world, populations will continue to age rapidly

Native

refers to anyone born in the United States or a U.S. island area such as Puerto Rico or the Northern Mariana Islands or born abroad of a U.S. citizen parent

foreign born

refers to anyone who is not a U.S. citizen at birth.

•Functionalist perspective

-Says the differences between racial and ethnic groups are largely cultural -The solution is assimilation—a process where minority group members become part of the dominant group, losing their original group identity -•Assimilation allows a society to maintain its equilibrium if all members, regardless of their racial or ethnic identity, adopt one dominant culture •Other countries maintain pluralism, where each ethnic or racial group maintains its own culture (cultural pluralism) or a separate set of social structures and institutions (structural pluralism)

•Identifying social problems (Spector and Kituse, 1987)

-Stage 1—Transformation process—transforming a private trouble into a public issue ---In this stage, an influential group, activists, or advocates call attention to and define an issue as a social problem -Stage 2—Legitimization process—formalizing the manner in which the social problems or complaints generated by the problem are handled ----For example, an organization or public policy could be created to respond to the condition. -Stage 3—Conflict stage—readjusting, renegotiating, and reorganizing the formal response system -Stage 4—Begins when groups believe that they can no longer work within the established system and must either radically change the system or work outside it

•Immigration

-The regulation of immigration became a federal responsibility in 1875, and the Immigration Service was established in 1891 -Anti-immigrant groups claim that immigrants compete with U.S.-born workers for jobs. Evidence continues to prove that immigration has little effect on wages of U.S.-born workers -Unauthorized immigration has declined in recent years -DHS and ICE have been criticized for targeting immigrants with minor offenses, sometimes breaking up families in the process

•The sociological imagination

-Understanding the link between personal experiences and our social world •Using the sociological imagination -Learn to distinguish between personal troubles and public issues

Feminist theory

-defines gender as a source of social inequality, group conflict, and social problems -Patriarchy—the basis of social problems is male devaluation and domination of women -Feminist scholars may adopt a conflict, functionalist, or interactionist perspective, but focus on how men and women are situated in society, not just differently, but also unequally

Functionalism

-•A macro perspective, focusing on how society creates and maintains social order •A functionalist asks: -How does the social problem emerge from the society? -Does the social problem serve a function? •Robert Merton coined dysfunctionalism -Social problems may be negative for those experiencing them, but can also have positive consequences or functions at the social level

Functionalist Perspectives

-•Émile Durkheim: society is like a human body -The body: organs with specific functions all work together in balance to maintain the whole -Society: institutions like the family, politics, and religion and they all work together in balance to meet societal needs •Rapid change threatens social order because it disrupts the balance of society -During this state of normlessness or anomie, society was particularly prone to social problems

Milton Gordon's Seven-Stage Assimilation Model

1.Cultural assimilation—change of cultural patterns, e.g., learning the English language 2.Structural assimilation—interaction with members of the dominant group 3.Marital assimilation—intermarriage 4.Identification assimilation—developing a sense of national identity, e.g., identifying as an American, rather than as an Asian American 5.Attitude receptional assimilation—absence of prejudiced thoughts among dominant and minority group members 6.Behavioral receptional assimilation—absence of discrimination, e.g., lower wages for minorities would not exist 7.Civic assimilation—absence of value and power conflicts

How do social problems emerge from interactions?

1.Problem behavior is learned from others. 2.Social problems emerge from the definitions themselves. 3.Solutions to problems also emerge from definitions.

Globalization

is the process of increasing transborder connectedness -Taking a global perspective allows us to look at the interrelations between countries and their social problems

Sociology

is the systemic study of individuals, groups, and social structures -Analysis of relationships between individuals and society -Analysis of the role of the social structures in problems and their solutions

Problems and Challenges

•1983 National Commission on Excellence in Education report, A Nation at Risk, was a scathing indictment of the education system -Found widespread failures in educational system -Claimed we were raising a scientifically and technologically illiterate generation -Noted relative poor performance of American students compared to international peers, declining test scores, weaknesses of our school programs and educators, and the lack of skilled American workforce Some sociologists contend that the crisis in public education is manufactured by politicians, educational experts, and business leaders. Does not address the real problems facing our schools—social and economic inequalities

Functionalist Perspective

•Age helps maintain the stability of society by providing a set of roles and expectations for each particular age group -Roles are reinforced by our major social institutions—education, the economy, and family •Disengagement theory—defines aging as a natural process of withdrawal from active participation in social life -This perspective fails to acknowledge how vulnerable and powerless adults are in their older years

Age and Aging

•Age is both a biological and social classification -There are social dictates regarding age—socially and culturally defined expectations about the meaning of age, our understanding of it, and our responses to it •The life course perspective -Examines the entire course of human life from childhood to old age -Views "stages of life" as social constructions that reflect the broader structural conditions of society -Social context influences one's experience of aging

Expanding the Definition of Family

•Almost half of young adults in the United States have lived in a cohabiting union at some point in their lives •Sixty-five percent of marriages began as cohabiting relationships as of 2002 •Increase in unmarried childbearing •Grandparent households are more likely to be poor

Contemporary Conflict Theorists

•Argue that conflict emerges from other social bases, such as values, resources, and interests -C. Wright Mills—suggests a "power elite", a small group of political, business and military elite, control our society -Ralf Dahrendorf—conflict of interest is inherent in any relationship since the powerful always seek to maintain their dominance -Lewis Coser—suggests a functional aspect. Conflict creates and maintains group solidarity by clarifying positions and boundaries between groups

The New Educational Standard

•Bachelor's degree is becoming the educational standard in the U.S. -In 2016, 88.4% of adults 25+ completed at least a high school degree -More than 33% of all adults had attained at least a bachelor's degree -Approximately 76.5% of all Americans 65 years or older attained a high school degree or more compared with 87% of those 25-34 years old -Educational attainment level of adults will continue to rise, as younger, more-educated age groups replace older, less-educated ones

The Science of Sociology

•Basic research expands our understanding of the causes and consequences of a social problem •Applied research—used for application or policy evaluation •Variables—a people or objects that can take on two or more values -Quantitative methods rely on the collection of statistical data. Qualitative methods involve field observation, depth interviews, or focus groups. -•Hypothesis—tentative statement about how the variables are related to each other -Independent variable—the variable expected to account for the cause of the dependent variable -Dependent variable—the variable to be explained -

Does Having a ChoiceImprove Education

•Charter schools, magnet schools and school vouchers are designed to provide choice •The research remains mixed and divided on the effectiveness of these choice options •Students from poorer families or with less-educated parents are less likely to participate in choice programs •Race has been a persistent factor in school choice

Conflict Perspective

•Conflict theorists—education is not an equalizer, but a "divider"—dividing the haves from the have nots •The socialization function of education is part of the indoctrination of Western bureaucratic ideology •Creates an organizational child who is -Rewarded for conformity -Discouraged from individuality -Prepared for the demands and constraints of a bureaucratic adult world •The educational system can also perpetuate racial and economic inequalities -Middle- and upper-class children have more "cultural capital" giving them advantages over lower class children -Social capital can also be procured through engagement in class linked extra-curricular activities and organizations

Conflict and Feminist Perspectives

•Conflict theorists—the family is a system of inequality where conflict is normal -Families are also subject to powerful economic and political interest groups who control social programs and policies -Conflict arises when the needs of particular family forms are promoted while others are ignored •Feminist perspective—inequality emerges from the patriarchal family system, where men control decision making in the family -Men maintain their position of power in the family through violence or the threat of violence against women

family

•Family—a construct of meaning and relationships both emotional and economic -A social unit based on blood, by choice, marriage, partnership, or adoption Household—an economic and residential unit

Feminist Perspective

•Feminist theory intersects with multiculturalism through the analysis of multiple systems of oppression •Black feminist scholars note the misguided application of traditional feminist perspectives of "the family," "patriarchy" and "reproduction" to understand the experience of Black women's lives -Black women do not lead parallel lives, but rather different lives

Conflict Perspective

•Focuses on how the dynamics of racial and ethnic relations divide groups while maintaining a dominant group -Dominant group may be defined according to racial or ethnic categories, but can also be defined according to social class -Relationships are based on power, force, and coercion, rather than consensus (or assimilation) -Ethnocentrism and racism maintain the status quo by dividing individuals along racial and ethnic lines

Interactionist Perspectives

•Focuses on how we create and maintain our social reality through language, words and symbols -More than any other perspective, interactionists stress human agency—the active role of individuals in creating their social environment •George Herbert Mead—society is the organized and patterned interactions among individuals -The "self" is a mental and social process, the reflective ability to see others in relation to ourselves and vice versa •Symbolic interactionism coined by Herbert Blumer -Emphasized how the existence of mind and self emerges from interaction and the use of symbols

Health and Medical Care

•Geriatrics is a medical specialty that focuses on diseases of the elderly •Elderly also experience chronic conditions such as hypertension (high blood pressure) and heart disease that may contribute to fatal disorders •American elderly, who constitute 13% of our population, consume more than 35% of total health expenditures—more than 4 times what is spent on younger people Older women face different health challenges than older men. Women: Make up a higher proportion of the older and frailer population. Are less likely to have a spouse to assist them. Need more help with personal care and routine needs. Require more health care and long-term care services than men do, services often not covered by Medicare. This results in higher out-of-pocket expenses for older women

Myths of the Family

•Image of the nuclear family—a father, a mother, and biological or adopted children living together—is exalted as the ideal family •Several changes in family composition occurred between 1970 and 2010 -Families composed of married couples with children declined from 40.3% in 1970 to 19.6% in 2010 -There has been an increase in the percentage of non-family households, individuals living alone or with nonrelatives

Violence and Harassment in Schools

•In 2015, 5.6% of surveyed students nationwide reported missing school for one or more days because of safety concerns -16.2% reported carrying a weapon on campus •LGBTQ youth are subject to verbal and physical harassment. In 2015, 57.7% reported feeling unsafe because of their orientation •In 2011, 48% of students experienced some form of sexual harassment

Age and Social Class

•In 2016, 9.3% of the elderly were living in poverty in the U.S. -Retirement represents a precipitous income drop for most elderly -Recessions deplete savings and other assets -Poverty rates among the elderly vary by race/ethnicity and gender •According to the U.S. Census, the poverty rate for children was 19.9%, or 14.7 million, in 2013

Intimate Partner Violence

•In the U.S., one in three women and one in four men reported they had been raped or assaulted -Globally, 52% of women report physical abuse from a partner •Research has linked the following to family violence: low socioeconomic status, social and structural stress, and social isolation •Feminist researchers argue domestic violence is rooted in gender and represents men's attempts to maintain dominance and control over women

Elder Abuse and Neglect

•Institutional elder abuse—forms of abuse that occur in residential facilities for older people •Domestic elder abuse—any form of maltreatment by someone with a special relationship with the elder -Includes physical, sexual, or psychological abuse, neglect/abandonment, or financial exploitation -Caregiving can positively affect physical and psychological well-being, but the added burden may strain the caregiver's emotional and financial resources

No Child Left Behind

•Major provisions included: -New reading and math standard assessments for grades 3-8 and high school -More flexibility for states and local school officials for budget spending and program development -The creation of a teaching quality program -Consolidation of bilingual/immigrant education programs Increases in federal funding for Reading First plan •Controversial elements include: -Public school choice and charter schools -Annual testing of students in reading and math, in order to establish academic benchmarks -Parents have the option to move their children to another school if their school is not improving -Critics say that school choice provisions will only work if there are schools to choose from within a district and if there is room in these schools

Functionalist Perspective

•Manifest functions (intended consequences) -To educate, socialize, develop, prepare for employment •Latent functions (unintended consequences) -Public babysitter, controls the timing of entry into labor force, establishes and protects social networks •Educational system has taken over functions of other institutions, particularly the family •Functionalists argue that these additional tasks make it difficult to accomplish education's primary task of educating young people

The Problems of Time and Money

•Many people are under constant stress for time •About 30% of families with children have parents who work full-time •Economic realities make it difficult for working-class parents to balance work and family •Lower income families deal with the most basic problems on a daily basis: managing the safety, health, and education of their children while staying employed •Structural changes in the economy undermine the quality of life among working-class families

Ageism in the Workplace

•Mature workers are not offered the same promotion opportunities, training, or compensation as younger workers •Older women experience discrimination based on their appearance and "team fit" •Programs including tuition reimbursement, intergenerational mentoring, training programs, part-time work schedules, flexible work schedules and phased retirement plans support older workers

Conflict Perspective

•Modernization theory of aging—suggests that the status of the elderly declines with industrialization. -Their power is linked with their labor contribution or their relationship to the means of production -In modern industrial society, life experience is surpassed by technological expertise, thus the status of the elderly declines This pits young and old against each other --•Modernization lowers the status of older people: -As life expectancies increase, workers retire (rather than die). They lose prestige in the process -Younger workers have more opportunities to obtain education and have an advantage in the workplace -The economic system is increasingly reliant on the most recent technology, which makes older workers obsolete -Urbanization—the young migrate to urban areas seeking opportunity more than the old do

Responses to Domestic Violence

•Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention -Established community-based children's advocacy centers to provide support for victims in the investigation, treatment, prosecution, and prevention of child abuse •Violence Against Women Office -Offers a series of program and policy technical papers for individuals, leaders, and communities to support their efforts to end violence against women •National Center on Elder Abuse -Supports community "sentinel" programs, which train and educate professionals and volunteers to identify potential victims of abuse, neglect, or exploitation

Medicare

•Part A—hospital insurance primarily helps pay for care received through inpatient care -Financed through a payroll tax paid equally by employers and workers •Part B—physician and outpatient coverage pays for medically necessary services and supplies that are not covered under Part A -Majority is funded from general tax revenues ad the remaining quarter is financed through paid premiums •In 2003, Medicare reform law included prescription drug benefits for the first time

Child Abuse and Neglect

•Physical abuse—non-accidental injury •Neglect—a failure to provide for a child's basic needs -Physical -Educational -Emotional -Neglect often goes unnoticed •Immediate effects—isolation, fear, low academic achievement, delinquency—may lead to lifelong low self-esteem, depression, criminal behavior, and adult abusive behavior

Family Medical Leave Act of 1993

•Provides employees with up to 12 weeks of unpaid, job-protected leave per year •Only applies to all public agencies and all private employers with 50 or more workers •Nearly two-thirds of eligible workers have not taken advantage of FMLA because they couldn't afford the lost wages

Interactionist Perspective

•Race is a social construct -"Race is, so to speak, a human invention" •We learn about racial and ethnic categories through our social interactions •Racial categories and identities serve as intersections of social beliefs, perceptions, and activities that are reinforced by enduring systems of rewards and penalties -ethnic attrition= not identifying as a member of one's group

Ethnicity/Race and Education

•Race/ethnicity often predicts educational success •Persistent academic achievement gaps remain between black, Latino, and Native American students and their white and Asian peers •Stereotype threat—the risk of confirming in oneself a characteristic that is part of a negative stereotype about one's group

Community, Policy, and Social Action

•Reformers argue that school choice, standardized testing, and school vouchers are improving our educational system -Critics argue this threatens to erode an already-weak public school structure -There is a deepening chasm between what the public deems important (safety, skills, discipline) and the goals of the reform movement (access, standardization, multiculturalism)

Feminist Perspective

•Research shows the replication of gender relations in schools by the privileging of males -Males have favored status in interactions with teachers -Girls are invisible and treated as "second-class educational citizens" in the classroom -Boys received more praise, corrections, feedback, and active teaching -Girls received a cursory "okay" response -Over time, may have intense effect on a girl's life

Antiviolence and Antibullying Programs in Schools

•Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (RCCP) is a research-based K-12 school program in social and emotional learning -Aggression and violent behavior is learned and therefore can be reduced through education -Students in RCCP were more pro-social, perceived their world in a less hostile way, saw violence as unacceptable, chose nonviolent ways to resolve conflict, had higher reading and math scores

Social Security

•Social security was established in 1935. It focuses on providing social insurance rather than assistance -Includes monthly payments one receives after retiring, unemployment, aid to dependent children, and state grants to provide medical care -Pay-as-you-go system—current workers support current beneficiaries of the program -Danger of having too few workers to sustain growing elderly population -The elderly population was 5% in 1935, 12% in 2000, and is projected to be 21% by 2050 Swedish System Pensions based on average life expectancy at time of retirement. Can retire anytime after age 61, but the later they retire, the higher their payments. Allows Swedes to draw a partial pension for partial retirement, mixing employment income with their pension funds. Funded by an 18.5% payroll tax (the United States collects 12.4%). partially privatized, individuals can invest the money from their pension account or the government invests on their behalf. Canadian System Three parts Old Age Security program Canada Pension Plan private pensions and savings Minimum age of eligibility for early retirement benefits is 60. Collects a 9.9% payroll tax to support the program.

Feminist Perspective

•Social standards lead to greater social problems for women in the middle and late years •Double standard of aging—men are judged in our culture according to what they can do (their competence, power, and control), but women are judged according to their appearance and beauty -Society considers men "distinguished" in their old age, but women must disguise the fact that they are aging

The Conflict Perspective

•Society is held together through power and coercion -Social problems emerge from conflict between groups. Powerful groups usually win •Biggest social problem from this perspective is the system itself and the inequality it creates

Social Class and Education

•Socioeconomic status is one of the most powerful predictors of student achievement •The likelihood of dropping out of high school is five times higher among students from lower-income families than among their peers in high-income families •Poor children begin school less prepared and struggle to keep up with their classmates

The Transformation from Problem to Solution

•Solutions require social action -Social policy—the enactment of a course of action through a formal law or program -Social advocates—people who use their resources to support, educate and empower victims and their communities -Social innovation—may take the form of a policy, a program, or advocacy, but features an untested or unique approach

Quantitative Research

•Survey research collects data based on responses to a series of questions •Secondary data analysis usually involves the analysis of previously collected data that are used in a new analysis •Historical/comparative methods focus on one historical period (historical events research) or traces a sequence of events over time (historical process research)

Functionalist Perspective

•The family is the most vital social institution •Family confers social status and class •Family helps define who we are and how we find our place in society •Family provides for the essential needs of the child: affection, socialization, and protection •Social problems emerge as the family adapts to a modern social society which has taken over many of the family's original functions (religion, education, work) •Family functions in concert with the other institutions, so changes in the economy, politics, or law, contribute to changes and problems in the family •Because of the family's social and emotional functions, problems in the family (e.g. divorce or domestic violence) can also lead to problems in the society, such as crime, poverty, or delinquency

Teen Pregnancies

•U.S. has the highest teen birthrate in the developed world -Teen mothers are likely to be poorer and less educated and are less likely to be married -Children often lag behind in early development, are less likely to receive proper nutrition, health care, and cognitive stimulation, and are at greater risk of social behavioral problems and lower academic achievement -Newborn abandonment is a significant social problem •Provision of free or subsidized contraceptives is associated with relatively low birthrates worldwide

The Problem of Basic Literacy

•UNESCO estimates that there are more than 781 million illiterate adults and 126 million illiterate youth in the world •Women account for 64% of adults worldwide who cannot read or write •In the U.S., 43% of all Americans demonstrate "below basic" or "basic" literacy skills •U.S. spends more on education than other high-income countries, but our literacy scores are average in a world comparison •Implications of low literacy skills -Inability to find and retain jobs -Support their children's education -Participate in communities

Divorce

•Was rare until the 1970s •Rising divorce rates are attributed to: -No-fault divorce laws -Economic independence of women -Transition from extended to nuclear families -Increasing geographic and occupational mobility -Stigma has decreased •Under some circumstances, divorce can be beneficial to the well-being of children •Although men experience minimal economic declines after divorce, most women experience a substantial decline in household income and increased dependence on social welfare

Socially Constructed Beliefs on Family

•We tend to believe that families of the past were better and happier than today •We believe that families should be safe havens, protecting their members from harm and danger •There is a persistent belief that nontraditional families, such as divorced, fatherless, or working-mother families, threaten and erode the integrity of the family as an institution

Responses to Teenage Pregnancy

•Welfare Reform Act (1996) mandated the HHS to assure that at least 25% of communities had teen pregnancy prevention programs •There is little evidence to suggest that abstinence-only education delays sex •Comprehensive programs have increased condom and contraceptive use. •Safe-surrender or safe-haven laws have been passed in all states