Exam 1 Study Guide

social information processing model

-Attention to, understanding of, and interpretation of social situations -Cognition and emotion may interact -Poor understanding of emotion can lead to misperception of social cues Ex: If an adult has a mad face, the child may think that their face means that they are sad or scared.

How can gender bias in clinic samples indirectly affect gender differences in the prevalence of behavioral disorders (what methodological issues can create the appearance of gender differences)?

-Boys tend to be referred more for problems, so they are more represented in clinic samples. -Due to this referral bias, boys end up in more research studies. Thus diagnoses can be based on what boys look like (in terms of symptoms) and not girls, resulting in the appearance that more boys "have" a certain disorder than girls.

What are some behavioral indicators of disorder in children?

-Developmental delay -Developmental regression or deterioration--can be indicator of autism -Extremely high or low frequency of behavior -Extremely high or low intensity of behavior -Behavioral difficulty persisting over time -Behavior inappropriate to the situation -Abrupt changes in behavior -Several problem behaviors -Behavior qualitatively different from normal

Classical conditioning can "cause" psychopathology (e.g., fear), while operant conditioning can serve to maintain it.

-E.g., Watson conditioned Albert to fear fuzzy things by pairing a loud noise (an unconditioned stimulus [UCS] which is something that causes a response naturally) with a conditioned stimulus [CS] (something that becomes associated with the UCS to cause a negative response, even though it was not originally associated with anything negative). The UCS leads to an unlearned or unconditioned response [UCR] (e.g., fear) that is, a "normal" response. However, with repeated pairings, the CS can elicit the same fear response as the UCS, thus resulting in a conditioned response (fear) to the fuzzy things. -If Albert's fear of fuzzy things was not extinguished, he may avoid fuzzy things all of his life. His avoidance of fuzzy things would be reinforcing to him. Specifically, it would be a negative reinforcer, as the more he avoids, the less fear and anxiety he feels. So by "taking away" the anxiety, Albert's avoidance is increased.

How do we define "abnormal" behavior?

-Impairs functioning -Developmentally inappropriate -Contextual influences

What are the major risk factors associated with psychopathology in youth? IMPORTANT

-Influence of the child's genes and hereditary material that is passed to them -Prenatal/birth complications -Low intelligence -Environmental factors -Poor parenting -Poverty -Racial, ethnic, & gender justice -Early puberty

adoption studies

-adopted and nonadopted individuals and their families are compared in various ways -for adopted children with a disorder, the rate of a disorder can be examined in their biological families and adoptive families -higher rate in the former indicated genetic influence -another strategy starts with biological parens with a disorder and examines the rate of the disorder in their offspring who were adopted by non related families -this rate can be compared to the rate in the biological children of the adoptive parents -a higher rate in the adopted children indicates genetic effects

twin studies

-comparisons is made b/w monozygotic twins (100% shared) and dizygotic twins (50%) -genetic influence is suggested when monozygotic twins are more similar to each other than dizygotic twins

What is an ecological model and how does it conceptualize risk? IMPORTANT

-development occurs over time as systems interact -microsystem (individual), exosystem (mass media, policies, government institutions), mesosystem (localities, communities, schools), macrosystem (ideologies of the culture)

family studies

-these evaluate the likelihood of family members displaying the same or similar attributes as the index case -if genetic influence is operating, family members displaying the same or similar attributes as the index case -if genetic influence is operating, family members who are genetically closer to the index case should be more likely than those less close to display the attribute -however, this pattern is also consistent with family psychosocial influence

social information processing model steps

1. Encoding of cues 2. Interpretation of cues 3. Clarification of goals 4. Response access or construction 5. Response decision 6. Behavior enactment

List five themes (premises) viewed by the text's authors as central to the current study and practice of developmental psychopathology.

1. identify psychological disorder 2.describe psychological disorder 3. classify psychological disorder 4. reveal the causes of disturbance 5. treats and prevent disorder

Youth who have been rejected by their peers or who exhibit high levels of aggression tend to see the world as more _____ than other youth. A. Hostile B. Envious C. Secretive D. Rational

A. Hostile

Billy and Kyle are both evaluated at a child assessment clinic at age 6. Billy comes from an affluent, loving and intact family. He is meeting all developmental tasks and is well adjusted. Kyle is living in poverty with his maternal grandmother after being abandoned by his parents. He is scoring in the clinically significant range on measures that test for behavioral problems. Years later, both boys are re-evaluated, and both are found to be well adjusted and developing normally. Kyle reports that he became active in sports and was mentored by caring adults over the years. This is an example of A. Resilience B. Multifinality C. Unstable, maladaptive development. D. Non-normative development.

A. Resilience: but also equifinality because two different pathways led to the same outcome

How can something intended as a punisher actually function as a reinforcer? A. if frequency of the "punished" behavior goes up B. if it comes too late after the behavior C. if shaping is used D. if punishment is actually desired by the child

A. if frequency of the "punished" behavior goes up

In twin studies, genetic influence is suggested when A. monozygotic twins are more concordant than dyzygotic twins. B. dyzygotic twins are more concordant than monozygotic twins. C. there is no difference between monozygotic and dyzygotic twins. D. the twins are more concordant with non twin siblings than each other.

A. monozygotic twins are more concordant than dyzygotic twins.

How heritable is psychopathology in general?

About 50%

What is a punishment? A. An unpleasant event or stimulus B. Any undesired event or stimulus that weakens or decreases a behavior. C. A disagreeable consequence. D. Something the individual dislikes.

B. Any undesired event or stimulus that weakens or decreases a behavior.

A depressed child views herself as less capable than her peers, whereas others do not view her this way. This is an example of A. cognitive deficiency. B. Cognitive distortion C. Thought disorder D. Protective cognition

B. Cognitive distortion

The Lansford et al. (2005) study found that African American children may respond differently to physical discipline than European American children. Therefore, which of the following is true? A. Culture had a mediating effect. B. Culture had a moderating effect. C. Culture had no effect. D. Culture is a sufficient cause.

B. Culture had a moderating effect.

A particular child develops a fear of all men with mustaches similar that of his uncle, who is stern. This is an example of the operant conditioning process of A. Negative reinforcement B. Generalization. C. Shaping D. Discrimination

B. Generalization.

On the first day of class, Derek draws an obnoxious picture on the blackboard and the entire class laughs. As a result of the attentions from the other students, Derek draws an obnoxious picture on the blackboard for the rest of the week. His behavior is the result of A. Negative punishment B. Positive reinforcement C. Negative reinforcement D. Positive punishment

B. Positive reinforcement

Know the main tenets of developmental theory. IMPORTANT

Bidirectionality- we elicit a response from our environment and our environment elicits a response from us -Ex: Our professor not only has an influence on us, we have an influence on her. Equifinality/multifinality- talks about how do behavior problems develop Youth are active agents of change in their own lives -Piaget -Youth are choosing what they want to take information from to use in their lives Importance of critical periods/transitions Importance of context and culture -Developmental contextualism (ex: Bronfenbrenner)

Discuss how attachment is studied and how they confer risk for psychopathology. IMPORTANT

Bowlby -Ensures infant survival -Theorized that the reason we need attachment bonds for security is because this is how babies survive. The Strange Situation -Secure -The best attachment style -The infant is able to explore on their own, but comes back to check if their mom is still there. -When the parent leaves they cry, but they can be soothed by another person after a while. -Insecure- fail to use caregiver as secure base -Resistant-distress -They want mom and dad when they leave, but when the parents come back they also don't want them b/c they're mad at them. -Avoidant-ignore -They don't really realize that the parent left and then when the parent comes back they don't realize that the parent came back. -Disorganized Attachment is not only important when you are a child, but also when you are an adult.

Which is least likely to be considered an indication of problem behavior in youth? A. A behavior is excessively intense. B. A behavior is qualitatively atypical. C. A behavior is unusual but not harm to anyone. D. A behavior is exhibited in inappropriate settings.

C. A behavior is unusual but not harm to anyone.

In contrast to Sigmund Freud, John Watson argued for A. an emphasis on internal psychological conflicts. B. The study of biological influences on behavior. C. An emphasis on learning experiences. D. A stage theory of development.

C. An emphasis on learning experiences.

Human development is best viewed as A. Always occurring in stages. B. Changes in individuals due to environmental influences. C. Change in persons over time due to the interactions of many variables. D. Quantitative rather than qualitative growth.

C. Change in persons over time due to the interactions of many variables.

You had a car crash; now all cars scare you. In this example, you are associating the car crash with all cars which results in fear each time you get into a car. What type of conditioning is occurring? A. Positive conditioning B. Operant conditioning C. Classical conditioning D. Negative conditioning

C. Classical conditioning

Jake is a 9 year-old boy. What does the book say about his risk factors for psychopathology? A. They do not differ from a 9-year-old female. B. He is at lower risk for neurodevelopmental disorders. C. He is at higher risk for experiencing a traumatic brain injury. D. He is at higher risk experiencing an inappropriate sexual encounter.

C. He is at higher risk for experiencing a traumatic brain injury.

In the Strange Situation Kevin does not use his mother as a resource. He does not seem distressed when she leaves and ignores her when she returns. Which attachment style is Kevin exhibiting? A. Secure B. Insecure resistant C. Insecure avoidant D. Disorganized

C. Insecure avoidant

Mr. and Mrs. Smith have recently adopted Jimmy, age 9. They do not know much about his birth history. They are concerned because Jimmy exhibits slow growth and poor motor skills. He also has small eyes and a thin upper lip. Finally, Jimmy seems to have difficulty learning and is quite hyperactive. His pediatrician suspects that A. Jimmy was exposed to lead early in life. B. Jimmy's mother had Rubella while pregnant with Jimmy. C. Jimmy's mother drank while pregnant with Jimmy. D. Jimmy was born breech.

C. Jimmy's mother drank while pregnant with Jimmy.

In an ecological model of development, _______ contexts would be expected to have relatively more direct impact. A. Cultural B. Distal C. Proximal D. Pathological

C. Proximal

Why is it important to know about the developmental level of a child when diagnosing or treating psychopathology?

Can depend on -Skills that are developing -Gender -Contextual variables Age of onset -Either is worse -Severity, course, prognosis -Implications for intervention

Discuss how temperament is studied and how they confer risk for psychopathology. IMPORTANT

Chess & Thomas Easy (characterized by their regular bodily functions, positive approach to new situations, adaptability, positive mood and non-intense reaction to stimuli), Slow to Warm Up (characterized by low activity level and low intensity of reaction although they also have tendency to withdraw from new situations, slow adaptability and somewhat negative in mood), Difficult (characterized by their irregular bodily functions, withdrawal from new situations, slow adaptability, negative mood and intense reaction) Goodness-of-fit- describes the compatibility of a person's temperament with the features of their particular social environment Three widely recognized dimensions of temperament: Negative reactivity Inhibition Self-regulation/Emotion Regulation

A depressed youngster has come to view negative events in his life as due to his lack of intelligence. According to Kendall (2006), this is an example of A. Cognitive structure B. Cognitive content C. Cognitive process D. Cognitive product

D. Cognitive product

Many complex human characteristics, such as intelligence and behaviors implicated in behavior disorders, are believed to be associated with A. A single gene. B. A single gene in combination with environmental influences. C. Multiple genes D. Multiple genes in combination with environmental influences.

D. Multiple genes in combination with environmental influences.

Which of the following is true about child maltreatment? A. Maltreatment occurs equally across socioeconomic classes. B. Parents are rarely the perpetrators of abuse. C. Parents who have children later in life are at higher risk for perpetrating abuse. D. Social isolation of the parent from family and friends contributes to abuse.

D. Social isolation of the parent from family and friends contributes to abuse.

Be familiar with the serotonin/depression and dopamine/schizophrenia examples discussed in class.

Deficit of serotonin related to depression, excess of dopamine related to schizophrenia

systems developmental theoretical model

Development occurs over time as systems interact Macrosystem, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, classroom environment, church environment, etc.

transactional developmental theoretical model

Development occurs via transactions between individual and environment Ex: Because of behavioral and personal factors, we chose to be in this Psych class which decided our environment.

Give an example of a GxE (gene-environment interaction)

Differences in genotype cause differences in vulnerability to environment Depression example: -5-HTT serotonin transporter gene (depression gene?) -Long and short alleles (could have ss, ls, ll) -Measured stressful events and subsequent depression -Short-short → most, short-long → moderate, long-long → low

The goal of any type of punishment is to DECREASE a behavior.

E.g., a parent might want to decrease temper tantrums at the grocery store. How can one achieve this? -Through POSITIVE punishment: Parent gives child a spanking when he throws tantrum -Through NEGATIVE punishment: Parent takes away TV time -Both scenarios are designed to decrease the tantrum behavior

The goal of any type of reinforcement is to INCREASE a behavior.

E.g., a parent might want to increase compliance with instructions that they give to a child. So, "once you are in bed, stay in bed" is a behavior I want to increase in my house. How can I achieve this? -Through POSITIVE reinforcement: I give a sticker each time the kids stay in bed -Through NEGATIVE reinforcement: I take away a hated chore each time the kids stay in bed -Both scenarios are designed to increase the "staying in bed" behavior

mediators ex:

Explain the relationship between variables "Theoretically" accounts for the issue between 2 variables Ex: alcoholic parent → marital problems → problems in a child

T/F? Although emotional knowledge is important in relationships later in life, it is not linked to social problems in childhood.

False

T/F? Emotion and temperament can be considered the same construct.

False

T/F? In order for a dominant gene to be expressed, it has to be genetically transmitted by both parents.

False

T/F? Research indicates that the fetus is surprisingly resistant to high levels of maternal stress.

False, stress can negatively affect the fetus

T/F? The notion that a child's nervous system is "plastic" refers to the seeming artificial manner in which the child is behaving.

False-it means the brain can change over time, it is malleable by experience

T/F? Research indicates that parental psychopathology is only influential when the child inherits vulnerability genes.

False-parental psychopathology also influences the environment in which the child grows up

T/F? Risk factors reside in both the environment and the person, but resilience factors reside exclusively in the person.

False: Resilience factors also reside in both the environment and the person.

Generalization

In Albert's case, he generalized his fear to all fuzzy things, even though the initial fear response was conditioned with a white rat.

postnatal biological influence thought to affect the functioning/behavior of the developing child

Malnutrition -Child could have lack of vitamins, etc. Accidents -Ex: children falling down, running out in street & getting hit by cars Illness -Ex: chicken pox, measles, mumps Accidental poisoning -Ex: having things out that look like candy (tide pods), Pine Sol Exposure to chemicals -Ex: Flint Michigan Water Crisis → babies drinking lead in water → learning disorders, criminal behavior -Can be unintentional Brain damage

perinatal biological influence thought to affect the functioning/behavior of the developing child

Medications Unusual delivery/complications Anoxia (lack of oxygen) -Ex: Umbilical Cord Prolapse Preterm delivery/prematurity -Would be caused by smoking cigarettes Low birthweight -Would be caused by smoking cigarettes

interactional developmental theoretical model

More than 1 factor interacting to produce an outcome Diathesis (vulnerability) stress model -Diathesis/vulnerability- Something that predisposes someone to an outcome -Ex: often prenatal influences → someone with schizophrenia could have experienced prenatal stress in the womb

Do most disorders result from a single gene? If so, explain. If not, what role does genetics play in behavior?

No, multiple genes interact with environmental influences to effect behavior.

Positive and negative are not value-based; in other words, they are not "good" or bad"

POSITIVE = giving something NEGATIVE = taking something away

prenatal biological influence thought to affect the functioning/behavior of the developing child

Poor maternal diet, stress -Severe malnutrition can cause prenatal risk Teratogens- anything that the fetus is exposed to that could cause maladaptive development -Ex: Fetal alcohol syndrome -Ex: Thalidomide- medication intended to help pregnant women with nausea, but it caused severe malformations in fetus (ex: born without limbs) -Medications

What are the protective (resilience) factors associated with psychopathology in youth? IMPORTANT

Positive outcome in the face of risk -Problem solving -Active coping -Self-regulation -Positive views of self -Achievement motivation -Perceived self-efficacy and control -Close, caring family relationships -Supportive relationships with adults -Friends or romantic partners -Spirituality, finding meaning in life

moderators ex:

Presence or absence of a factor influences the relationship between variables Ex: If you have different findings between boys and girls, then gender is the moderator.

What is behavior genetics?

Study of genetic influences on behavior.

Discrimination

The opposite of generalization. If Albert had only been afraid of rats and not other fuzzy objects, he would be showing stimulus discrimination. Ex: you are scared of pomeranians, but not of great danes (discriminate against certain dogs)

Shaping

The reinforcement of successive approximations of a behavior you wish to increase. Skinner conditioned a pigeon to turn in a circle by using reinforcers (food) each time the pigeon turned slightly. The pigeon had to turn a little more each time in order to get the food, until eventually it was turning in a full circle. -https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtfQlkGwE2U You might use this with a child, say, if you wanted him to clean his room. You don't expect it to be perfect the first time, but if he does part of it (e.g., picks up toys), you reinforce that, then the next time he must pick up toys and make the bed before he gets the reinforcer, etc. until he cleans the entire room eventually.

T/F? If treatment X is more effective for girls than boys, then gender could be considered a moderating variable.

True: Moderators are typically categorical variables like gender, race, and age. Mediators account for the relationship between two other variables.

What are some methods researchers use to study genetic influences on behavior?

Twin studies, adoption, and family studies (Know how these are conducted)

You had a car crash; now all cars scare you. In this example, you are associating the car crash with all cars which results in fear each time you get into a car. What type of conditioning is occurring? -Classical Conditioning Now identify the UCS, CS, UCR, and CR in the above question.

UCS = Crash CS = Cars UCR = Fear of crash CR = fear of all cars

What are some historical influences on our understanding of the origins of disorder? For example, how did Freud view the origins of disorder? How did Watson view the origins of disorder?

What did we use to think caused disorders? -Demonology -Somatogenesis- psychological disorders arising from the brain Modern impact: -Role of brain in behavior Psychogenesis Modern impact: -Importance of childhood Social Learning Theory -Bandura Application of learning principles in treatment -Behavior modification -Cognitive behavior therapy

Are there some disorders that have higher heritability estimates than others? Which ones?

Yes, ex: Autism and Bipolar have higher heritability than Depression

Give an example of a polygenic (multiple-gene) inheritance.

You can have any combination of "D"s (D = allele that determine your skin tone) ex: 2 dark skin parents can have a light skin child

Cognition (the way we think) affects psychopathology in numerous ways. Be familiar with the ways in which Kendall and colleagues distinguish between cognitive functions (page 47). Relate each of these to either depression or anxiety in children.

cognitive-behavioral perspective- incorporates cognition, emotion, behavior, and social factors cognitive factors influence whether the individual pays attention to environmental events, how the person perceives events, and whether these events affect future behavior cognitive structures- schema for representing info stored in memory cognitive content- the actual content of the cognitive structures stored in memory cognitive processes- how people receive and interpret experience cognitive products- the combination of cognitive structures, content, and processes--interacting with actual events

What are the differences between the diathesis-stress and differential susceptibility models? IMPORTANT

diathesis (vulnerability)-stress model- Something that predisposes someone to an outcome Ex: often prenatal influences → someone with schizophrenia could have experienced prenatal stress in the womb differential susceptibility model- Overall sensitivity to ANY environment

shared environmental influences. ex:

factor in the environment affects both individuals in the same way ex: set of twins that grew up in the same house

T/F? A child's behavior should be consistent and not vary across settings (e.g., classroom, playground, home).

false

T/F? According to the autism prevalence study discussed in class, actual symptoms of autism are increasing, but diagnoses of autism are not increasing.

false

T/F? Early disturbances, for example, feeding issues or sleep disorders in infancy, do not have developmental consequences.

false

T/F? If a child has a mental disorder, it is more important to work with that child directly than it is with the child's parents.

false

T/F? Researchers have proven that some disorders are only due to nature (genetic or biological influences) and others are only due to nurture (environmental influences).

false

T/F? Schizophrenia is a disorder that typically begins during childhood.

false

What is social cognitive processing and how does it relate to maladaptive behavior?

focuses on how individuals take in, understand and interpret social situations and how behavior is then affected ex: numerous studies indicate that children and adolescents who display more than average aggression or who have been rejected by their peers tend to interpret the behaviors of others as hostile

Give an example of a GE. (gene-environment correlation)

genetic differences in exposure to environments -can be passive (family's environment is influenced by the genetic predisposition of the parents), reactive (child evokes reactions from other people on the basis of her or his genetic predisposition so that the child's genetic propensities are linked to environmental experiences), or active (a child, particularly as he or she grows older, selects or creates environments on the basis of his or her genetic predisposition passive ex: child who has a genetic propensity for a high activity level also experiences a high-activity family environment reative ex: other react to the child's gene-based high activity level active ex: the child with a genetic propensity for high activity level engages in activities requiring high activity rather than restrained, quiet activities such as reading

authoritative parenting style

high control, high warmth -set and enforce standards -considerate of children's needs -encourage independence, individuality *best style

authoritarian parenting style

high control, low warmth -strictly set rules which cannot be challenged -parents encourage independence and individuality

Observational learning is learning by watching a model (see Bandura's Bobo doll experiment):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU

insecure attachment

infants fail to use the caregiver as a resource to cope with the stress; tend to either give fewer signals of distress and ignore the caregiver or display distress to make ineffective attempts to seek contact with the caregiver

secure attachment

infants, when distressed by caregiver separation, seek contact with her upon her return, react positively, and use the caregiver as a secure base from which they venture forth to explore the environment

non shared environmental influences ex:

influences that are different for kids growing up in the same family Ex: The older sibling has to learn how to do everything & be independent, younger child is "spoiled"

permissive parenting style

low control, high warmth -make few demands for mature behavior -allow children to regulate themselves -tolerate children's impulses

neglectful parenting style

low control, low warmth -uninvolved -parents lack emotional commitment to their children

What does "prevalence" mean and how is it interpreted?

means how common, or how often something occurs APA says psychopathology is 10% serious, 10% mild moderate

In general, how do neurotransmitters relate to psychopathology?

neurotransmission (communication between neurons) can cause biological risk deficits or excess can relate to/cause psychopathology ex: deficit of serotonin causes depression; excess of dopamine causes schizophrenia

Be able to list important prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal risk factors.

prenatal- teratogens, FAS perinatal- excessive medication given to mother, unusual delivery, anoxia can lead to neurological problems; postnatal- preterm delivery and low birthweight are associated with behavioral and academic difficulties; effects on nervous system can result from malnutrition, accident, illness, exposure to chemicals

disorganized attachment

reflects the lack of consistent strategy to organize behavior under stressful situations; infants seem apprehensive and they display contradictor behaviors that may be misdirected and atypical; associated with child maltreatment and poor parenting

What does cumulative risk mean, and how does it relate to risk for youth mental health problems?

risk factors accumulate overtime ex: child's parents get divorced → economic status goes down → child gets moved to worse school district Risk is cumulative -Clusters -Intensity, duration, timing -Different for onset vs. persistence -Increased susceptibility -**Picture on slide → A child takes the test and circles every ACE that has happened to them. More ACEs = higher risk → the risk is cumulative

What are shared versus nonshared environmental influences?

shared- influence that contribute to family members developing in similar ways ex: divorce of parents nonshared- influences that are different for children growing up in the same family and result in siblings being different from each other ex: effects of differential treatment of siblings by the parents; siblings having different friends or teachers

T/F? Youth rarely refer themselves for clinical evaluation.

true