Exam 2

the current situation- are american women working? for how long?

mothers employed full-time - 73 hours (37-15-21) (paid, child care, other unpaid family work) mothers employed part time -66 hours (20-21-25) fathers with wives employed full-time -68 hours (46-9-13) fathers with wives employed part time -68 hours (44-9-15)

Chart: Growth in Female Breadwinners

single mother providers: -from 7.3-25.3% since 1960 married mother/primary provider: -3.5 to 15? or 10.8 to 40.4

Second shift

the unpaid work a person does at home after they get home from their paid work

Coltrane- fatherhood as a "paradox"

there are more married fathers spending time with children than in past decades but marriage rates have fallen and most marriages end in divorce

Building Stepfamilies: 2 Periods (Transitional, Stabilization)

Transitional Period (First 2-4 years) -Stepparent- goes from "Affinity Seeker" or "Polite Outsider" to "Warm Friend" -Young children - accepting. -Adolescents - Distant, resistant. Stabilization Period (Subsequent years) -Stepparent- Continued warmth. Support biological parent, but avoids discipline. "Intimate Outsider" -Stepchild- Accept stepparent (but some long-term problems with late adolescents).

civil law vs religious law

Under a civil-law system, religious marriages have no legitimacy according to the State. All marriages are considered civil unions. -Ex: Argentina: Catholic country, Civil law Gay marriage is legal there as of 2010.

Historical vs modern reasons for getting remarried

Historically: Why did most people remarry? -Death of one spouse. -Institutional Marriage Model/Restricted Divorce. Over time: What happened to change this? -Adult death rates declined. -Divorce rate increased. -TODAY: 9 in 10 remarriages follow a divorce rather than a death.

How many people remarry? Why do so many people remarry?

How Many -Approximately 70% of divorced people will remarry. -2 out of 3 who remarry will cohabit first. Why: Support -Economic support & security -Social support & intimacy ! Support for children Norms -Marriage is still considered the normative place for enduring relationships -Negative stigma attached to divorce -Feel pressure to remarry

PEW graph: How has ethnicity been changing in the US (1960 vs 2011 vs 2050)? What is the US population projected to look like by 2050?

How has it been changing? -less whites, large increase in hispanics, slight increase in blacks, decent increase in asians What is it projected to look like by 2050? - less than half white (47) -29% hispanic -13% black (slight increase) -9% asian

Material Well-Being

Marriage increases the economic capital available to children -Public and private economic benefits (family leave; spousal health insurance eligibility) -Ensures financial continuity if a spouse dies or is disabled (eligible for entitlement programs) -Pooling of income & resources

Remarriage rates since the 1970s- Going up or down? What explains this trend?

Remarriage rates are actually DECLINING ... Why? -The rate of cohabitation has increased! ■ A strong predictor for cohabitation is being previously married. ■ Many divorced people today have substituted cohabitation for remarriage or are cohabiting before they remarry.

care work

When one person meets the needs of spouses, partners, children, parents, or others who cannot fully care for themselves

2 Noteworthy Findings: Father Effects

"Generativity" -Fathers have a long-term but subtle (weaker) influence than mothers (especially in day-to-day behavior of children) -Why? Mothers still complete more child care in a typical two-parent family. Mothers are also more likely to oversee & manage care. Actions are more important than time spent -Quality > Quantity -Behavior during visits is more important than how often they visit

The Problem with Umbrella terms (oversimplification)

-There are great differences in family structure within each racial-ethnic category -Ex: Hispanic: Anyone with Latin American ancestry -Ex: Asian American: Anyone from an Asian country (Japan to Pakistan) -There are as many variations in family patterns within each category (e.g., among Hispanic) as there are between each category and the other racial-ethnic categories we compare them to (e.g., between Hispanics and African Americans).

Changes in housework trends. Reasons why:

1. Women's roles in families changed § Housewife=career --> working full or part time § More time at work = less time for housework 2. Smaller families = less housework 3. Technology -> machinery -> more efficient 4. Outsourcing (hiring someone to do your housework) 5. Reduced standards

Housework: Changes over time

1965 vs. Today -Americans, as a whole, are doing less housework. -Men are doing slightly more housework. -Women are doing significantly less housework. -Women still do the majority of housework (1.7-2x).

3. Era of Unrestricted Divorce (1970-present)

-1970 - California (first State) -Virtually without restriction to anyone who wants one -Can be granted simply on basis of marriage breakdown -No fault involved -No guilty party -No longer plaintiff vs. defendant as court antagonists -Hailed - law now in line with changes in social attitudes -Individualized marriage era - belief that a person should not be forced to continue a marriage that she or he found to be personally unacceptable -Typical waiting period of <1 year -Settlement was supposed to be gender neutral

Cherlin- "A Profound Change"

-Cherlin: This great movement of married women into labor force is one of most important changes in American family life in the 20th century! -Today, the norm = women working from young adulthood until retirement. -2012: U.S. Labor Force = 53% M, 47% F

Stepmothers vs. Stepfathers

-Children tend to live with their biological mother and a stepfather. -Children tend to visit (less often) their biological father and stepmother. -Stepfathers can often fill a vacuum left by the departed biological father. -Stepmothers must crowd into a space already occupied by the biological mother.

Difficulties studying same-sex couples

-Diversity - Lots of types! -Small population -Difficult to find a representative population -Clustering problems -Not a lot of variance (race/ethnicity or SES of samples)

2. Era of Divorce Tolerance (1850s-1970)

-Divorce became easier to obtain -Grounds for divorce were widened -Adultery, desertion, mental cruelty, habitual drunkenness, failure to provide -More accessible to women -Era of Companionate marriage -Failure to bring love seen as valid reason to divorce -Emphasis on protecting women (as wives, mothers)

Societal Risk Factors for Divorce

-Divorce law changed (No Fault) -Female labor force participation (Independence effect vs. Income effect) ○ Independence effect: increased divorce risk § More money= more independent = more likely to leave ○ Income effect: decreased divorce risk -More money=more happiness, less conflict -Men's employment opportunities decreased (1970s on) -Stagnation of male wages, failure to provide= increased divorce risk -Cultural Change -Marriage ideal changing -Increasing social acceptance of divorce

1. Era of Restricted Divorce (1600s-1850s)

-Divorce rare or forbidden -Only granted on grounds of adultery or desertion -Custody normally granted to fathers -Generally only granted to men -Marriage as an economic partnership -Romantic aspects were secondary -Concerns with land and labor

Asian American Families

-Emphasize interdependence among kin -Greater emphasis on children's loyalty and service to parents -Prosperous group - often pool economic resources -Previous patterns may not survive through subsequent generations -Why? Rates of intermarriage are highest

Main Arguments Used BY OPPONENTS OF GAY MARRIAGE

-Heterosexual marriage has deep roots in history. Marriage between a man and woman is natural because it is the source of reproduction. -Straight marriage is a Judeo-Christian tradition. Many Americans consider themselves to be Christian. -There are risks of causing gender confusion if a child is raised by two mothers or two fathers. -Legalizing gay marriages would further damage the institution of marriage. -Legalizing gay marriage would open the door to others seeking the right such as polygamists, friends, relatives, and children wanting to marry. -Some people think homosexuals are unable to form stable marriages or families due to psychological and moral reasons.

movement/trends from single to dual earner marriages

-In the 1950s, few wives worked outside home. Most households = breadwinner/homemaker families. Graph: Labor Force Participation of Married Women w/Children Under 18 -Rates of employed women rose sharply through the 1970s, 80s & 90s & leveled off around 2000. -By 2007 - 76% of all married women with school-aged children were in labor force & 62% of married women with preschool-aged children were in the labor force.

American Indian Families

-Kinship networks important for identity and resources -Very economically disadvantaged -High rates of poverty, unemployment, alcoholism -Substantial number of families headed by women 1/3 live in reservations where this is common and there are few jobs

Child Well-Being: Children in Stepfamilies

-Lower than the well-being of children in married, two biological parent families -The same as the well-being of children in divorced or single parent families Why doesn't having a stepparent in one's life improve child well-being? - Competing Demands -Weaker bonds between stepparents/stepchildren -Uncomfortable situations more likely -A lack of legal rights or responsibilities for stepparents

Stepfamilies- incomplete institutionalization

-No normative guidelines set! -Our taken-for-granted rules and roles do not apply! ■ Ex: What is a stepfamily? What are the boundaries? ■ Stepparents have virtually NO RIGHTS in the US today.

Fathers relate to young children differently than mothers

-Playfulness, physical activity, autonomy -Teach children to regulate their emotions and learn the limits of excitable behavior -"Rough and tumble play" & risk taking

Main Arguments Used BY SUPPORTERS OF GAY MARRIAGE

-The past isn't always the best guide for the present or future. Do we want to return to ugly parts of our history (racism, sexism)? -America is a secular nation. Our government is not supposed to promote any one faith or enact laws based on religion. Not all Americans are Christian and not all Christians are opposed to same-sex marriage. -The argument that homosexuals could not create a stable marriage or raise a family is based on stereotypes and bigotry, not social scientific research. -Advocates aren't challenging the belief that marriage should be between two consensual adults who desire long-term love and commitment, so the door won't be opening to all kinds of relationships. -The institution of marriage is already changing. Many choose not to have children and gender roles are no longer as important as they once were. -Having parents who are married would benefit children. Two loving parents who are married is what matters, not what their gender is.

what studies have found about the fare on children

-There is no scientific basis for concluding that lesbian mothers or gay fathers are unfit parents on the basis of their sexual orientation ... Overall, results of research suggest that the development, adjustment, and well-being of children with lesbian and gay parents do not differ markedly from that of children with heterosexual parents -There is no evidence that children of lesbian and gay parents are confused about their gender identity, either in childhood or adulthood, or that they are more likely to be homosexual.

Stats- divorce in the US today

-US has highest rate of divorce of any developed country. -Probability of a marriage ending in divorce doubled between the early 1960s and late 1970s. -About one-third of all children born to married parents are likely to experience the breakup of their parents' marriage by age 16.

Why race/ethnicity is "socially constructed"

-complex, fluid, created by society -people did not decide to call themselves these things -change over time, place, and context -ex. black pacific islanders classified as African American due to appearance

Gender Wage Gap

-narrowed since the 1970s, but this is mostly due to a decline and stagnation in male wages, rather than an increase in female wages -Women make 21% less, on average, than men (controlling for all other factors/explanations) -And there is also a wage gap AMONG female workers - By Race/Ethnicity and Mother-Status "Motherhood wage penalty"

PEW Graph: A tale of two fathers

-percentage of children living apart from father has grown from 11-27% since 1960 -percentage of children living apart from mother has only rose from 4-8%

socialization of children- teaching norms and values

-supply most of the love, nurturing, and care that children need in order to develop a basic sense of trust in other human beings -train young children to become more autonomous -later provide guidance, support, and discipline children need to become competent members of their society -socialize daughters different than sons -conservative protestant men tend to combine strict discipline with an involved style of fatherhood -african american parents more likely to use physical punishment, asians insist on obedience

Cohabiting vs married stepfamilies

-well-being of children in cohabiting stepfamilies is lower. -more likely to engage in risky or antisocial behavior Why? - less commitment between cohabiting stepparents -many cohabiting partnerships are short-term, may be gone soon, do not see them as family, less involved

Top 5 Myths about Stay-at-Home Dads - By Kevin McCarthy

1) It makes you more attractive to women. 2) Stay-at-home dads get to drink beer and watch TV all day. 3) Men do not make as good of parents as women. 4) You must have a rich wife/partner to be able to give up work. 5) Stay-at-home dads are not "real men."

What's behind this rise?

1. A growing service sector of the economy! -Workers doing personal services (education, health care, communication, food industry, entertainment). -Demand increased, wages increased, women recruited into these jobs! 2. Other Factors -Each generation had fewer children. -Invest more $ in fewer #s of kids -Reduced years young children are at home -Decline in wages of men without college education. -Rising divorce rate & #s of single moms.

key historical events of same-sex marriage

1. Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) - September 1996 (Pres. Clinton) Defined marriage as only between one woman and one man. No State has to recognize a gay marriage performed in another State. The federal government also would not recognize same-sex marriages. 2. Attorney General Eric Holder & President Barack Obama (2011) DOMA unconstitutional -- Would no longer defend it in court. 3. Supreme Court (5-4) struck down part of DOMA (June 2013) Legally married gay couples who lived in States that allowed same-sex marriage could receive the same federal benefits as heterosexual couples. 4. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear appeals (October 2014) State Court decisions that ruled State-passed gay marriage bans as unconstitutional now stand. Paved the way for other States to do the same. 5. The U.S. Supreme Court (June 2015) Same-sex marriage is a constitutional right in all 50 States.

Bohannon- 6 Station of divorce

1. Emotional divorce ○ Feel strong, core emotions 2. Legal divorce ○ Court ○ Being certain place certain time ○ Paying money ○ Dividing up property ○ Dealing with attorneys 3. Economic divorce ○ Two incomes to one ○ Losing income ○ Dividing up assets 4. Co-parental divorce ○ Single parenting ○ Managing alone 5. Community divorce ○ Neighborhood friends ○ Church ○ What to tell people? ○ Who keeps the friends? 6. Psychic divorce ○ Who am I now that I'm divorced? ○ Coming to terms with being ok about yourself and how you are alone • A very difficult transition • No institutionalized norms telling people how to handle it all

3 Eras of Divorce - What are they and when did they occur?

1. Era of Restricted Divorce 1600s-1850s 2. Era of Divorce Tolerance 1850s to 1970 3. Era of Unrestricted Divorce 1970 to present

Potential Benefits for Children if Same-Sex Marriage is Legalized

1. Material well-being 2. Durability and stability of the parental relationship 3. Social investment

Deutsch- "Strategies Men Use to Resist"

1. Passive Resistance 2. Incompetence 3. Praise 4. Different Standards 5. Denial

How fathers indirectly influence children

A father's influence is often indirect -Works through the mother -Gives emotional support -Backs up her authority -Provides income to the family ($)

The Census' Definition of a SAHD

A stay-at-home dad is a "married father with children under the age of 15 who has remained out of the labor force for more than one year primarily so he can care for the family while his wife works outside the home." Fathers left out of the count -Unmarried fathers (single, cohabiting) -Gay fathers -Fathers who reported working any weeks (ex: third shift, part-time, temp work, freelance, summers) in the past year -Fathers who reported looking for work at any point in the past year or reported being laid off at any point in the past year -Fathers who began staying home less than one year ago -Fathers with children over the age of 15 -Fathers gave another reason for why they were unemployed (stigma) -Fathers whose wives have been out of the labor force at any point (ex: in between jobs) in the past year - ill or disabled - retired - going to school - could not find work - or "other"

Hispanic Families

As much variation within each Hispanic subgroup as between Hispanics and all Non-Hispanic groups. -Ex: Mexican American vs. Puerto Rican vs. Cuban, etc... Mexican Americans -Kinship ties very strong -Marry at a younger age -Two-parent, single-earner families more common -Higher birth rate Puerto Ricans -US Citizens (47% live here) -Most economically disadvantaged of Hispanics -Highest unemployment levels -Lowest LF participation and education levels -Consensual unions common CUBAN AMERICANS -First wave immigrated for political asylum -The most likely of all Hispanics to go through assimilation. -Many live/lived in immigrant enclaves -Large, dense, almost self-sufficient communities of Cubans. -Most prosperous of Hispanic groups -Entrepreneurs - high rate of business owners. -Most early immigrants settled in Miami, FL -More likely to be headed by married couple. -Families help set up businesses, provide social capital.

highest rate of intermarriage

Asians

Crisis Period vs long-term adjustment

Crisis Period • 1st year or two after parents separate • Both the custodial parent and children experience difficulties • Diminished parenting often occurs • Frequent decline in family's standard of living • Parental conflict • Multiple transitions After the Crisis Period • The majority of children resume normal development within 2 years • A minority of children experience long-term problems as a result of the breakup that may persist in adulthood ("sleeper effect")

Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)

Defined marriage as only between one woman and one man. No State has to recognize a gay marriage performed in another State. The federal government also would not recognize same-sex marriages.

Racial-ethnic groups

Definition: -People who share a common identity and whose members think of themselves as distinct from others by virtue of ancestry, culture, and sometimes physical characteristics. 5 Racial Ethnic Groups: 1. African Americans 2. Hispanics 3. Asian & Pacific Islanders 4. Native Americans 5. Non-Hispanic Whites

African American families- economic changes since the 1960s

Economic Trends -Economic ups and downs during last half of 20th century had profound effects -Lower and working class Black families - growth in poverty. -Simultaneously - A growth in the number of middle class Black families. Trends in Marriage & Childbearing -Marriage - Rates decreased. -Non-Marital Childbearing - Rates increased. -70% of African American children born outside of marriage.

Explanations for Decline in Marriage among black families

Explanation #1: Availability of Men in Marriage Market -Shortage of employed Black men -Textbook: For every three unmarried Black women there is one Black man with earnings above the poverty line. -Society-wide shift in economic restructuring -Jobs eliminated in central city areas (manufacturing). -Higher high-school dropout rates. -Violence and drugs taking a toll high rates of incarceration. Explanation #2: Kinship Patterns -Black families are much more likely to have a grandparent or other kin living with them. -Female centered kinship ties and network -Research suggests a network of extended kin ties is more important or common in Black families. -Female-centered networks can often ease the hardships of persistent poverty.

Gender & Chores

Feminine housework chores -Interior cleaning -Laundry -Cooking Masculine housework chores -Yard work -Taking out trash -Household maintenance • Feminine chores are "routine"/mandatory and masculine chores are "non- routine"/non-mandatory • Frequency? Cooking, laundry, interior cleaning • Location? Inside vs outside

US vs other countries- same-sex marriage rights

Gay marriage is legal in: Abroad - The Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada, South Africa, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, Denmark, Brazil, France, Uruguay, New Zealand, Mexico, the UK, Ireland, Luxembourg. U.S. - On June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the U.S. Constitution guarantees the right for same-sex couples to marry in all 50 U.S. states. Hotly debated in US unlike other countries

Groups who are more likely to remarry and why

Gender -Men (especially older men) 1. The Supply Favors Men -More women for them to marry due to norms about age. -Older women face a shrinking marriage market. Older men have a growing market. ■ Expected to marry from the diminishing pool of older single men. -Older, educated, career-oriented women (especially) are less likely to get back into marriage. - Older, educated, career-oriented women (especially) are less likely to get back into marriage due to being financially independent. 2. Gender roles -Research suggests that men are more likely to rely on a wife for intimate companionship -Women often have wider social support networks on their own (friends, siblings). -Theory: Women have less need for remarriage? 3. Children -Theory: Women with children might be less attractive to marriage partners -Women are more likely to be the primary/sole custodian of children from a first marriage. Race/Ethnicity: Non-hispanic Whites 1. Socioeconomic Status -Theory: Correlation with SES - Poor families are less likely to remarry and racial/ethnic minorities have disproportionally higher rates of poverty in the US. 2. Culture & Religion -Theory: Less emphasis on marriage for African American families due to wider/extended kinship patterns? -Theory: Catholic Church's opposition to divorce for Hispanics?

Social Investment

Marriage would improve social resources, legal and regulatory protections, social prestige and unquestioned parental authority -Closer and more formal relationships with in-laws and grandparents. -Stronger community support and kinship networks. -Added support and investment from neighbors, teachers, employers, peers, and others. -Reduced stigma and social pressure on children with same-sex parents.

Durability & Stability

Marriages are more durable and stable than cohabitation & stability is of vital importance to children. -Marriage fortifies, as well as deepens, couples' bonds. -Gay couples who have been formally married in Massachusetts, Canada, and San Francisco have attested that the act of marriage has deepened their relationship.

Remarriage and the Risk of Divorce

People in a 2nd marriage are MORE LIKELY to divorce than people in a 1st marriage ... WHY? 1. Socialization - You learned "how to divorce" -> Easier the second time around! 2. Selection Effect - "You are the common denominator" -> You possess traits that make you prone to divorce every time you marry. 3. The Complexity of Stepfamily Life - You don't know how stepfamilies are "supposed to work" -> Conflict!

Baumrind- 3 parenting styles

Permissive (highly responsive, low demandingness) Authoritarian (high demandingness, low responsiveness) Authoritative (high demandingness, high responsiveness)

Responsive workplace and family-friendly workplace policies

Responsive workplace -Work setting in which job conditions are designed to allow employees to meet their family responsibilities more easily Family-friendly workplace policies -Flextime: Policy allows employees to be flexible with hours within limits -Parental Leave: Time off from work to care for children (PAID!) -Part-time work: With fringe benefits -Telecommuting: Doing work from home using electronic communication

Role overload and spillover

Role overload -The state of having too many roles with conflicting demands. Spillover -Stressful events in one part of a person's daily life often spill over into other parts of his/her life.

Mechanisms Explaining Risks (link between societal and individual)

Stressors on families & relationships -Premarital pregnancy -Socioeconomic status -Parents' marital history -Heterogeneity between spouses Socialization (learning how to deal with conflict) -Parents' marital history -Remarriage Immaturity -Age Selection effect -Cohabitation -Remarriage Strength of commitment -Religiosity

Loving vs Virginia (1967)

a landmark civil rights decision of the United States Supreme Court, which invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage. The case was brought by Mildred Loving, a black woman, and Richard Loving, a white man, who had been sentenced to a year in prison in Virginia for marrying each other. Their marriage violated the state's anti-miscegenation statute, the Racial Integrity Act of 1924, which prohibited marriage between people classified as "white" and people classified as "colored". The Supreme Court's unanimous decision determined that this prohibition was unconstitutional, reversing Pace v. Alabama (1883) and ending all race-based legal restrictions on marriage in the United States. The decision was followed by an increase in interracial marriages in the U.S., and is remembered annually on Loving Day, June 12.

mop bucket half full vs half empty

half full -increasing similarity in the domestic and parenting trends between men and women half empty -regardless of the fact that men are completing more housework and being more involved as fathers, men's behavior and participation in unpaid work have not changed much or grown enough to compensate for the dramatic reduction in women's housework and increased employment

motherhood wage penalty

§ Wage gap between men and women is less than the wage gap between childless women and mothers § Mothers are stereotyped as less competent and committed § Mommy track- when women become moms, they receive less but when men become dads they receive a "fatherhood bonus"

Individual Risk Factors of Divorce

• Age at marriage (young) • Cohabit before marriage ○ Experience vs selection • Less religiosity • Parents' marital history (divorced) • Homogamy vs heterogeneity (heterogeneity) • Low socioeconomic status • Race/ethnicity (African American esp. ) • Premarital pregnancy • Remarriage

chart: annual divorce rate

• Early 1920s: After WWI ended, divorce rate went up. ○ Infidelity ○ Personality changes, PTSD ○ Shotgun weddings didn't work out • 1930s: Divorce went down. ○ Great Depression • 1945-1950: After WWII ended, divorce rate went way up. ○ Infidelity ○ War changes people ○ PTSD ○ Beginnings of feminist movement § Women took men's jobs • 1970-now: Shoots way up. ○ Counterculture § Hippies § "Free love" ○ Feminist movement ○ Anti war movement ○ Civil rights movement ○ Gay rights movement begins ○ Divorce seen as an individual right ○ No fault divorce begins

Effects of Divorce on Children

• Mixed findings: ○ Divorced children DO tend to come out alright ○ Divorce increases the risk of facing negative outcomes (increased drug use, delinquency, premarital pregnancy, poor school success) ○ But, MOST children who experience divorce will NOT have those negative outcomes

Does divorce harm children?

• The glass is half empty (YES): ○ Effects parenting (1 parent vs 2 parent) ○ Lower standard of living for mothers ○ Psychiatrically hard on parents and kids • The glass is half full (NO): ○ Pre-divorce context is relevant (ex. If relationship was abusive) ○ The majority resume normal development after 2 years, few have long-term problems ○ In class: § Learn resilience

effect of divorce on women vs men

○ Men- average standard of living tends to improve § Likely to have 11% more than the year before ○ Women-average standard of living tends to decline § 1/3 decrease in standard of living Many suffer substantial decline in standard of living. Why? -Women more likely to have custody of children. Not on equal footing financially at time of divorce? -Sacrificed employment and educational opportunities to take care of children (?) -Child support often not paid or the costs of child rearing are underestimated.