Exam 2 Animal Phys

In what form is most of the carbon dioxide transported?

90 % is In the form of bicarbonate.

In vertebrates, where is hemoglobin found?

Inside a red blood cell.

In mammals, which organs receive the most blood flow, relative to organ mass? the least blood flow?

Kidneys, liver, heart, and brain receive the most and the skin muscles and remainder of the organs receive the least.

How is heart activity changed in mammals?

The cardiac output is from only the right or only the left ventricle, not both, also seen in birds.

over what part of the ODC does hemoglobin normally function in animals?

around 30 PO2 and 58% saturation

how does aerobic metabolism affect acid-base balance?

can increase carbon dioxide levels, making things more acidic

what is the effect of increasing dissolved carbon on pH?

carbon dioxide reacts with water and decreases blood pH causing the Bohr effect making acid.

what enzyme catalyzes the reaction of carbon dioxide with water to form bicarbonate?

carbonic anhydrase

how is blood pumped by the venous system to aid blood return to the heart?

constriction by smooth muscle compensates for blood loss and maintains venous pressure and return to the heart.

Be able to draw the pathways for carbon uptake from the tissues to its conversion to bicarbonate, ending up in the blood plasma.

figure 24.23

what is alkalosis?

pH is too high, conditions are too basic.

what is acidosis?

pH is too low, conditions are too acidic

What is systole?

rythmic contraction

Be able to graph a normal ODC, curve with lower affinity and a curve with higher affinity.

see figure 24 10., on test!

where on the oxygen dissociation curve would describe conditions at the respiratory surface of an animal?

see figure 24.5, but around 90 PO2

most animals maintain a pH that is, neutral, alkaline, or acidic?

slightly alkaline usually between 7.35 to 7.45

What is myocardium?

the cardiac muscle

for tubes connected in parallel, how does individual tube resistance affect total resistance?

1 divided by Rt = 1 divided by R1 + 1 divided by R2 etc. Thus, as more and more resistances are added to each other in parallel, the total resistance decreases

during exercise what are the three ways that oxygen delivery to the tissues can be increased?

1. Increased heart rate. 2. Increases stroke volume. 3. Increased carrying capacity of the fluid, or amount of oxygen extracted from blood.

What are the two types of heart pacemaker cells found in animals?

1. Neurogenic, which are neuron cells found in some inverts like crustaceans. 2. myogenic, which are specialized muscle cells found in some inverts and vertebrates.

what are the three main divisions of blood vessels within a closed circulatory system?

1. arterial system. - blood is pumped into arterial system from the heart, has high pressure. 2. capillaries. - small and thin, allowing transfer of material between blood and tissues. 3. venous system. - collects blood from capillaries, has low pressure, compliant structures

What are the three basic element and or components of a circulatory system?

1. liquid tissue - blood or hemolymph. 2. pumps like the heart to provide a propulsive force. 3. vascular system of tubes and sinuses through which circulating fluids move.

How does the heart regulate to ensure that cardiac output matches input? 4 Ways.

1. stretch of muscle results in greater tension during contraction. 2. strength of ventricular contraction is proportional to amount of ventricular wall distention. 3. more venous return = greater end diastolic volume producing a stronger ventricular contraction. 4. stronger ventricular contraction causes increase in stroke volume.

how many oxygen molecules can bind to one hemoglobin molecule?

4

if cardiac output from the heart is 500ml per min, what would be the total blood flow through all of the arteries combined? The capillaries? The veins?

500ml per min. Because fluid is incompressible, all flows in any part of the circulatory system must be equal

what is the effect of actylcholine on the heart?

Acetylcholine is released from parasympathetic (rest and digest) cholinergic nerve fibers ( the vagus nerve) and slows the heart rate, has a negative chronotropic effect

Oxygen dissociation curve

Be able to graph, for vertebrate hemoglobin, label the aces and identify the location of the p50.

How are flow and velocity related? how does the total cross-sectional area of part of the circulatory system affect blood velocity?

Because total flow must be equal, the velocity is dependent on the total cross-sectional area of that part of the system

write the equation describing the reaction of carbon dioxide with water.

CO2 + J2O <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + HCO3-

Where in the circulatory system does exchange of substances with the tissues occur?

Capillaries

Cardiac output is the product of what two parameters?

Cardiac output = heart rate multiplied by stroke volume.

what is the effect of epinephrine and norepinephrine (catecholamines) on the heart?

Catecholamines are released from the sympathetic (flight or fight) andrenergic nerve fibers, or as circulating hormones. They increase heart rate which is a positive chronotropic effect and increase the force of contraction which is a positive inotropic effect.

What is chronotropic and Inotropic

Chronotropic means changes in heart rate and inotropic means changes in contraction force or stroke volume.

why are the effects of gravity on blood pressures not a problem for aquatic animals?

Density of water only slightly less than blood Therefore, hydrostatic pressures outside animal, increase with depth matching hydrostatic pressure inside animal.

what are the functions of the capillaries?

Extremely thin-walled vessels that are the only place where exchange occurs with the tissue. • Site of formation of lymph • Second most important site of pressure decrease - blood leaving capillaries at very low pressures

why in a standing person is the arterial blood pressure much lower in the head than at the heart, and much higher in the legs than at the heart?

Gravity and added hydrostatic pressure.

to which two organs is maintaining sufficient blood flow the most critical?

Heart and Brain

compare and contrast hemocyanin with hemoglobin.

Hemoglobin is an iron containing respiratory pigment found in most vertebrates and invertebrates. carried in red blood cells in verts and solution in inverts. It is bright red when oxygenated and dark maroon red when unoxygenates. Hemocyanin is a copper-containing respiratory pigment found in most molluscs and arthropods carries in solution not in cells and is light blue when oxygenated and clear when unoxygenated.

How is hemoglobin oxygen affinity affected by temperature, binding of organic phosphates, pH, Hydrogen ion concentration, and CO2

Hemoglobin oxygen affinity is decreased, causes an increase in p50 and a right shift on the oxygen dissociation curve.

what is the frank-starling law of the heart?

Increase in venous return will increase stroke volume. The heart must pump out the same volume that comes in, and if the heart is divided in two, amounts pumped by left side must equal amount pumped by the right side.

In what form is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?

It has 3 main forms for transportation, 1. physically dissolved as molecular carbon dioxide. 2. bound to proteins, including hemoglobin as carbamate groups. 3. as bicarbonate.

Why is the oxygen dissociation curve for vertebrate hemoglobin sigmoid in shape.

It is due to the subunit cooperativity, so when 1 oxygen molecule binds it makes the other binding sites more receptive and more likely to readily take up oxygen so their is a rapid increase in the dissociation curve but there can only ever be 100% saturation so it eventually levels off.

how does a giraffe maintain high arterial pressures at the brain which is much higher than the head? in the lower limbs?

Must have higher blood pressure at heart to maintain 100 mmHg pressure at brain and have Tight connective tissue around legs to prevent blood pooling (like fighter pilot g-suit), and valves in veins.

How does it prevent pressures at the brain from increasing to dangerous levels when it lowers its head for a drink of water?

Must make compensatory adjustments in blood pressure and flow so that added pressure when it lowers head to drink it doesn't blow its brains out.

If total flow increases and resistance stays the same, what must happen to the pressure?

Pressure must increase.

What is the equation that describes the rate of fluid flow through a rigid tube? What is Poiseuilles Law?

Q dot = delta p divided by R. where Q is the flow rate, ∆P is the difference in pressure between two points, and R is the total resistance.

for tubes connected in series end to end how does individual tube resistance affect total resistance?

Rt = R1 + R2 + ....+ Rn • So the longer the tube, the higher the resistance

What does the p wave, QRS complex, and T wave mark the beginning of?

The P wave marks the depolarization of the atria, the QRS complex marks the depolarization of the ventricle, and the T wave marks the re-polarization of the ventricle.

where is resistance highest in the circulatory system?

The arterioles

what part of the circulatory system is where regulation of blood flow occurs? how?

The arterioles by the changes in diameter

what is the function of the vertebrate heart atria, ventricles, and valves?

The atria collects blood from venous system and primes the ventricular pump. The ventricle is more muscular and generates pressure to pump blood to the rest of the body and is thicker walled. The series of valves ensure the unidirectional flow.

what is hydrostatic pressure and how is it calculated?

The pressure in a column of mercury, or any other fluid, is due to the force of gravity. it describes the increase in pressure with depth of fluid relative to pressure at the surface. P = ρ•g•h where ρ (rho) is the density of the fluid, g is the gravitational constant, and h is height of fluid (or depth).

What is the Bohr effect or a Bohr shift?

The reduction in hemoglobin oxygen affinity with decreasing pH/ increasing hydrogen ions. Causes right shift in the ODC.

what are the functions of the veins?

Thin-walled vessels with little smooth muscle • High compliance - pressures are low and variable • Large storage reservoir for blood (50%+ of blood volume in mammals)

In what way can an animal change its hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?

To achieve a left shift in a hypoxic environment the animal will decrease its organic phosphate concentrations in the blood to increase it's affinity for oxygen, like a fish in an oxygen poor lake, it acclimates.

What are the 7 functions of circulatory systems in animals?

To transport respiratory gases, metabolic fuels, waste products, hormones, elements of the immune system, and heat. It also functions as a transmittal of force in hydraulic and hydro static skeletons for support and movement, like a hydraulic system.

how does the velocity of blood in the circulatory system compare as blood flows from the arteries to the capillaries to the veins?

Velocity is an upside down bell shape curve and is at its lowest point at the capillaries because they are so delicate.

what does it mean to say that the blood is 100% saturated with oxygen?

all 4 sites on the hemoglobin are bound to oxygen.

what causes metabolic acidosis?

anaerobic metabolism, too much lactic acid

what is the difference between an artery and vein?

arteries carry blood away from the heart to tissues and veins carry blood back to the heart from the tissues. definition does not depend on if blood is oxygenated, it can vary.

In what form does carbon dioxide enter and leave the blood?

as carbon dioxide because carbon dioxide diffuses through membranes easily.

How is the pH of water and body fluids affected by changes in temperature and why?

as temperature increases, the dissociation of water increases producing more hydrogen ions and the pH of neutrality decreases, more acidic. The relative alkalinity however is constant the hydroxyl to hydrogen ion ratio.

what is the Fick principle? Describe the equation and each variable?

assumes all the oxygen consumed (VO2) by an animal is carried by the blood ejected from the heart VO2 = Q • (CaO2 - CvO2) VO2 = HR • SV • (CaO2 - CvO2) - where (CaO2 - CvO2) is the difference in arterial oxygen content and venous oxygen content. - Fick equation can be applied to whole animal, or to specific tissue (or organ)

what is the chloride shift?

at the tissues, bicarbonate quickly diffuses from RBCs into the plasma; the chloride shift works to counterbalance the out rush of negative bicarbonate ions from the RBCs, chloride ions move from the plasma into the red blood cell

Between what waves of the electrocardiogram does the atrial systole take place, ventricular systole take place, ventricular diastole take place, ventricular filling take place, and when ventricular emptying take place.

atrial systole takes place at the P wave, ventricular systole takes place between the ORS complex and the and of the T wave, ventricular diastole takes place at the end of the T wave until the beginning of the next p wave, ventricular filling takes place at the T wave, and ventricular emptying takes place during the QRS complex.

how does the total cross sectional area of the circulatory system compare as blood flows from the arteries to the capillaries to the veins??

bell shape curve that peaks at the capillaries which have the most surface area.

Why do some animals require a circulatory system to transport respiratory gases?

bigger animals cant rely on diffusion because it would take to long for the oxygen to get to their tissues. convection carries the fluid necessary for transport.

what acts as buffers in body fluids and cells?

blood and tissues are buffered from pH changes by proteins especially hemoglobin, the bicarbonate buffer system, and phosphates that are important in intracellular fluids.

how does the blood pressure in the circulatory system compare as blood flows from the arteries to the capillaries to the veins?

blood pressure decreases, decreases most rapidly at the capillaries and stays low in the veins back to the heart.

how is blood pressure measured?

blood pressure is measured relative to ambient atmospheric pressure 760 mm mercury

how do each of the following directly affect local blood vessel diameter? blood pressure, oxygen levels, carbon dioxide levels, and pH

blood pressure prevents change in diameter to remain constant flow. low Oxygen levels, high carbon dioxide levels, and low pH will cause vasodilation meaning blood vessel diameter increases.

how does anaerobic metabolism affect acid-base balance?

can increase lactic acid levels, making things more acidic

how does the Bohr effect aid oxygen uptake and release?

carbon dioxide reacts directly with hemoglobin to reduce affinity, aids in the release of oxygen from hemoglobin at the tissue and then a decrease in carbon dioxide at the lung or gills, has the opposite effects, increasing hemoglobin oxygen affinity and aids in oxygen uptake.

how does respiration affect acid-base balance and pH?

change amounts of carbon dioxide loss, if you increase ventilation carbon dioxide levels go down, increasing pH, more basic. If you decrease ventilation carbon dioxide levels go up, decreasing pH, more acidic.

what mechanisms are used to achieve the acid-base balance?

changes in ventilation the change in amount of carbon dioxide loss. Also changes in excretions, getting rid of hydrogen and bicarbonate ions.

Describe the basic structure of vertebrate hemoglobin.

contains 4 subunits 2 alpha and 2 beta, each globin protein with iron containing heme that can bind to oxygen.

How is perfusion, flow of blood, of the various capillaries controlled?

controlled by constriction of arterioles, capillary blood flow adjusts to meet the demands of the tissues.

how is oxygen delivery to the muscles increased during exercise in humans?

flow to muscle may increase 20 times and oxygen extraction from blood (CaO2 - CvO2) may increase 3 times -equals 60 times increase in oxygen consumption of muscle tissue. 1. Vasodilation in muscles; reduced resistance, reflex increase in cardiac output. 2. Reduction of flow to gut, kidney, and maybe skin 3. Cardiac output increases 10 times (sympathetic stimulation)- mostly due to increased heart rate and small increase in stroke volume.

how does the capacity of blood plasma alone to carry oxygen compare with the capacity of the hemoglobin in the blood to carry oxygen?

hemoglobin have about a 20% capacity to carry oxygen while blood plasma alone only has about a 4% capacity. or only about 2% of the oxygen capacity of blood.

What is the function of respiratory pigments and why are they needed?

hemoglobin or hemocyanin. they bind oxygen at high partial pressures of oxygen and release it t low partial pressures of oxygen. They are called pigments because they change color when they bind to oxygen.

what is the bohr effect

hemoglobins oxygen binding affinity is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide.

when is the circulatory fluid referred to as hemolymph and to blood?

hemoymph is in open circulatory systems and blood is in closed circulatory systems.

how are blood pressure oscillations dampened in the arterial system?

high pressure, acts as a pressure reservoir in order to maintain flow through the capillaries, and dampen oscillations in pressure and flow generated by heart,

what are the functions of the arterial system?

high pressure, acts as a pressure reservoir in order to maintain flow through the capillaries, and dampen oscillations in pressure and flow generated by heart, Thick walls resulting in low compliance (compared with venous system)

what is meant by the hemoglobins affinity for oxygen?

how readily hemoglobin binds to oxygen

what causes respiratory alkalosis?

hyperventilation

why must the internal pH of an animal be regulated within a certain range?

if not regulated it would lead to alkalosis or acidosis which slows the reaction of enzymes and they can't function properly.

what is the effect of increasing the fluid pressure gradient on total flow? Increasing resistance?

if pressure is increased flow will increase. if resistance is increased flow will decrease.

where is carbonic anhydrase located?

in the red blood cells.

what organs are used for excretion of excess hydrogen ions or bicarbonate in most terrestrial vertebrates? what about it fish? frogs?

kidneys in terrestrial vertebrates, excreted from the gills in fish, and from the skin in frogs.

how does the length of the tube affect resistance?

length of the tube is directly proportional to resistance.

what causes metabolic alkalosis?

loss of acid , an increase in pH, happens for example when an animal vomits too much or eats a huge meal.

for the proper function of enzymes what is more important, maintaining the same pH as temperature changes, or maintaining the same relative alkalinity as temperature changes.

maintaining the same relative alkalinity as temperature changes, the hydroxyl to hydrogen ion ratio. The Alphastat hypothesis.

what are the functions of the arterioles?

major resistance component of arterial side; largest pressure drop occurs in these small, but variable diameter vessels. - main source of resistance that heart must work against. - changes in diameter are major factor in regulating blood flow.

compare and contrast open versus closed circulatory systems.

open systems, directly bathe tissues in blood, exchange areas are large sinuses and lacunae, have lower pressure, have less regulated flows, return toe the heart slower and are found in most arthropods, molluscs, and urochordates. Closed systems, the blood remains in the vessels and exchange areas are small, thin closed vessels called capillaries. have high pressure, regulations of flow to each organ, return rapidly to heart and are found in vertebrates, echinoderms, cephalopods, and annelid worms.

how does a peristalic circulatory pump/heart work? the contractile chamber?

peristalic pumps are found in insects and worms and work by pushing blood in one direction. The contractile chamber or vertebrate heart must have valves to open and close as the blood can enter and leave the same area. They also have collapsible tubes with pressure from surrounding tissues i.e. vertebrate veins. these accessory pumps must have muscles around the soft walled vessel to push blood back to the heart, they also have valves and move in one direction.

what acts as the most important buffer inside cells?

proteins! hemoglobin especially. high concentrations of proteins in cells.

how does the radius of the tube affect resistance?

radius is inversely proportional to resistance. so very small changes in radius will have a large effect on resistance, and therefore flow.

what causes respiratory acidosis?

reduced ventilation, for example it happens during diving in air-breathing animals

what is Diastole?

relaxation of the myocardium

A low affinity for oxygen favors oxygen uptake or release by hemoglobin?

release

how can the arterial oxygen content of the blood be increased?

release of RBCs from spleen, increasing oxygen carrying capacity of blood

be able to draw the pathways for bicarbonate conversion to carbon dioxide and release from the blood to the respiratory surface

see figure 24.23

where on the oxygen dissociation curve would describe conditions in the tissues of an animal?

see figure 24.5, but between 20 and 60 PO2 and

how does the blood vessel wall anatomy differ in arteries, capillaries, and veins?

see hand out

what is the significance of carbonic anhydrases location within the red blood cell?

so the hydrogen ions produced from the reaction are safely kept inside the red blood cell and not in the plasma.

What is meant by systolic and diastolic blood pressure? pulse pressure?

systolic is when the artery is closed the maximum arterial pressure and diastolic is when the audible sounds stop the minimum arterial pressure. pulse pressure is the difference between systolic and diastolic.

how is the carbon dioxide transport linked with oxygen transport in the blood?

the bohr effect

Within mammals, what is the general relationship between species resting heart rate and body size?

the heart rate is inversely proportional to body mass. meaning the smaller you are the faster your heart rate.

how are P 50 and oxygen affinity related?

the lower the P 50, the higher the oxygen affinity and vice versa.

what is vasoconstriction and what is its affect on resistance? Blood flow?

the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels. It increases resistance and reduce blood flow.

what property and or parameter of oxygen determines how much is bound to hemoglobin

the partial pressure of oxygen

what is the P 50 of hemoglobin?

the partial pressure of oxygen at which the hemoglobin is 50% saturated with oxygen.

what is compliance?

the ratio of change in volume to change in pressure

how does the viscosity of the fluid affect resistance?

the viscosity of the fluid is inversely related to resistance.

What is stroke volume?

the volume of blood ejected by each beat of the heart, you can obtain this value by subtracting end systolic volume from the end diastolic volume.

what is cardiac output?

the volume of blood pumped per unit time from the ventricle in milliliters per minute.

how does the circulatory system of amphibians and reptiles compare to that of fish and mammals?

they are both closed but unlike mammals the heart is not completely separated into separate chambers.

what is the function of pocket valves?

to prevent back flow or blood pooling due to gravity, skeletal muscle activity provides accessory pump.

Hemoglobin has 2 important functions that are at odds with each other, what are these 2 functions?

to transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and then transport CO2 back from the tissues to the lungs.

A high affinity for oxygen favors oxygen uptake or release by hemoglobin?

uptake

what prevents blood from pooling in the venous vessels of our lower limbs when we are standing?

valves in the veins help prevent this .