Exam 2

refractive defects

- myopia (nearsightedness) - before the retina - our lenses is convex, elongated eyeball = - we want to use diverging lenses - concave lenses - hyperopia (farsightedness) - image from behind the retina, can see far way well = converging lenses - convex - astigmatism - football shape when one of the angle are off, curved visual axis= you use cylindrical lenses ti make it correct

refractive index

- the refractive index of the cornea is greater than that of air - light rays in refractive index of air: 1 - refractive index of cornea : 1.38 - unite of converging is called diopter - refractive index water:1.33, you cannot see anything underwater and it's called hypermetropic eye

degenerated disc

- when you age fibroblasts start declining in vertebral disc - can become thinning disc - can be desiccated, lose water, disc started thinning - when it started to thin, you get spinal stenosis - get pinch nerve

β1-adrenergic receptor (NE/EPI)

- ↑ strength of heart contraction (contractility or inotropy) and ↑ heart rate- antagonists (i.e., β1 blockers) ↓ blood pressure (metoprolol (Lopressor)

Hypermetropic (farsighted)

-eyeball is too short -glasses convex (coke-bottle)

Cataracts

- clouding of the lens - light is scattered or blocked by cloudy lens causing foggy images

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

- subconscious information - has two sub division as sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (ex. heart cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, stomach, glands, sweat gland, endocrine gland, adipose - Enteric nervous system (little brain in the guts), located small wall in your stomach, small intest, large intest

image formation

- light rays are focused on the retinal surface of the eye - the image formed is inverted, backwards, and a fraction of the object size - if light ray reflect top will hit the bottom, down will hit the top

the near reflex triad

- light rays ≥ 20 feet from the eye run parallel, lans get flat, it's get bigger - light rays < 20 feet from the eye are diverging, lans back to normal, suspensory ligaments loosen

Vision: Sense of Sight

>visual accessory structures >primary visual structures are the eye and visual pathway - eye ball has three layer as sclera(outermost layer, connective tissue, choroid (loose connective tissue, very vascular blood supply) , retina (inner most layer, has photoreceptor cell response to photon)

Question 18 18a: How many cells are involved in the peripheral processing of gustatory information?

Answer: 2 cells are involved in the peripheral processing of gustatory information. These are the taste receptor cell and the bipolar sensory neuron.

37b: What does 20/20 vision literally mean?

Answer: 20/20 vision is considered "normal" vision. From 20 feet away, the smallest you can read are the letters on the 20/20 line of the Snellen chart. Most humans should theoretically be able to read that line from 20feet away.

Question 37 37a: What is a Snellen chart?

Answer: A Snellen chart is an eye chart that can be used to measure visual acuity.

36b: What is a cataract?

Answer: A cataract occurs when the lens of the eye accumulates pigments and becomes progressively opaque.

24f: A diopter is a unit of converging or diverging power?

Answer: A diopter is a unit of converging power.

5e: What is a dorsal ramus?

Answer: A dorsal ramus is the posterior division of a spinal nerve.

What is a dorsal root ganglion composed of?

Answer: A dorsal root ganglion contains the cell bodies of unipolar neurons.

. 5b: What is a dorsal root composed of?

Answer: A dorsal root is composed of sensory neurons.

8f: What is a myofiber?

Answer: A myofiber is a skeletal muscle cell

8e: What is a myofibril?

Answer: A myofibril is a linear, repeating sequence of sarcomeres.

Question 7 7a: What is a neuroeffector junction?

Answer: A neuroeffector junction is the synapse between a neuron and an effector other than another neuron.

23b: What is a refractive index?

Answer: A refractive index is the number that reflects the degree to which a particular medium bends light rays. Larger numbers bend light more than smaller numbers.

6c: What is a sarcolemma?

Answer: A sarcolemma is the plasma membrane of a muscle cell

8d: What is a sarcomere?

Answer: A sarcomere is the smallest structural and functional unit of amyofibril in striated muscle.

. 5d: What is a ventral ramus?

Answer: A ventral ramus is the anterior division of a spinal nerve.

5a: What is a ventral root composed of?

Answer: A ventral root is composed of motor neurons

Question 15 15a: What is a cardiac slow cell funny channel?

Answer: A voltage-gated sodium channel.

Question 28 28a: What is a withdrawal reflex?

Answer: A withdrawal reflex is an involuntary process that causes a part of the body to automatically pull away from something that is causing pain.

Question 21 21a: How do erectile dysfunction medications work? Explain the entire mechanism with all cells, signaling molecules and enzymes involved?.

Answer: Acetylcholine activation of the M3 receptors in endothelial cells leads to the activation of nitric oxide synthase, which will induce nitric oxide production. Nitric oxide will diffuse into the smooth muscle cells of blood vessels and activate guanylate cyclase. Guanylate cyclase convertsGTP into cGMP, which stimulates the vascular smooth muscle cells torelax (causing vasodilation). Because of this, more blood has the capability to flow into the genitals, causing an erection

29b: Which neurotransmitter binds to the M3 receptor?

Answer: Acetylcholine.

6c: What neurotransmitter is secreted from pre ganglionic PNS fibers and SNS fibers?

Answer: Acetylcholine.

18b: In what cell are action potentials generated?

Answer: Action potentials are generated in the bipolar sensory neuron.

23d: What are the efferent SNS and PNS responses to the heart and vasculature in response to an acute increase in pH in the plasma?

Answer: During an acute increase in plasma pH (alkalosis), blood pressure needs to decrease. The SNS will decrease activity to the heart, slowing heart rate and decreasing contractility, as well as to the vasculature, causing vasodilation. The PNS will increase activity to the pacemaker of the heart to slow heart rate.

27d: What is the state of the ciliary body, suspensory ligaments, and lens when an object is less than 20 feet away?

Answer: Ciliary muscles are contracted, suspensory ligaments are loose ,and the lens is bulged (or very convex)

27c: What is the state of the ciliary body, suspensory ligaments, and lens whenan object is more than 20 feet away?

Answer: Ciliary muscles are relaxed, suspensory ligaments are taut, and the lens is flattened out.

33c: Which type of lenses are used to correct for this refractive defect?

Answer: Concave, or diverging lenses, are used to correct for myopia.

42a: Would you expect cones to be more sensitive in the light or dark?

Answer: Cones are more sensitive and function best in relatively bright light.

34c: Which type of lenses are used to correct for this refractive defect?

Answer: Convex, or converging lenses, are used to correct for hyperopia

Question 13 13a: The phenomenon of referred pain is thought to exist as the result of "cross-talk" between neurons. Where is it believed that this cross-talk occurs?

Answer: Cross-talk occurs in the spinal cord gray matter or dorsal root ganglia.

9g: What happens to the GI tract?

Answer: Digestion is inhibited. - decreases - skin sweet gland increse - blood vessel dilate

22d: What are the efferent SNS and PNS responses to the heart and vasculature in response to an acute increase in blood pressure?

Answer: During an acute hypertensive episode, blood pressure needs to decrease. The SNS will decrease activity to the heart, slowing heart rate and decreasing contractility, as well as to the vasculature, causing vasodilation. The PNS will increase activity to the pacemaker of the heart to slow heart rate

22e: What are the efferent SNS and PNS responses to the heart and vasculature response to an acute decrease in blood pressure?

Answer: During an acute hypotensive episode, blood pressure needs to increase. The SNS will increase activity to the heart, increasing heart rate and contractility, as well as to the vasculature, causing vasocon

23e: What are the efferent SNS and PNS responses to the heart and vasculature in response to an increase in carbon dioxide?

Answer: During an acute increase in carbo

55e: How does all of this relate to the process of hearing?

Answer: Endolymph is potassium-rich. Potassium will enter the hair cell and cause a depolarization. As a result, neurotransmitters are released, which activates neurons of the cochlear nerve to send the signal to the brain to be processed.

3b: What type of cell makes endomysium?

Answer: Fibroblasts.

Question 17 17a: What are the five different tastes we can perceive and what is/are the tastant (s) for each of these different tastes?

Answer: For bitter, the tastants are coffee, beer, unsweetened cocoa, earwax, etc.; for sweet, the tastants are monosaccharides; for umami, the tastant is glutamate; for sour, the tastant is proton; for salty, the tastant is sodium

12a: What is the structural organization of actin?

Answer: G-actin monomers dimerize and these dimers assemble into two strings of intertwining beads referred to as F-actin.

40a: In phototransduction, electromagnetic radiation gets transduced intoelectrical impulses. Which retinal cells are responsible for firing action potentials?

Answer: Ganglion cells are responsible for firing action potentials.

40b: Which cells have axons that comprise the optic nerve?

Answer: Ganglion cells have axons that comprise the optic nerve.

21d: What is glaucoma?

Answer: Glaucoma is the term applied to a group of eye diseases that gradually result in loss of vision by permanently damaging the optic nerve. This disease can occur due to high pressure in the eye due to an overaccumulation of fluid (aqueous humor)

18e: What happens to the heart?

Answer: Heart rate decreases.

9e: What happens to the heart?

Answer: Heart rate increases. - Contractility - cardiac output

20c: If someone took an M2 antagonist, what would happen?

Answer: Heart rate would increase.

12b: What do opiates mimic?

Answer: Heroin and prescription opioids chemically resemble the brain's natural opioids (i.e., endorphins).

11b: What condition could an antagonist for this receptor treat?

Answer: Hypertension.

4b: What condition could an antagonist for this receptor treat?

Answer: Hypertension.

21c: For what individuals are drugs like Viagra potentially dangerous?

Answer: Hypotensive patients.

33a: If an individual has an eyeball that is longer than normal, which refractive defect would they likely have?

Answer: If an individual has an eyeball that is longer than normal, they would have myopia.

34a: If an individual has an eyeball that is shorter than normal, which refractive defect would they likely have?

Answer: If an individual has an eyeball that is shorter than normal, they would have hyperopia.

6e: If you were microscopic and inside of a T-tubule, where would you technically be?

Answer: If you were microscopic and inside of a T-tubule, you would technically be on the outside of the cell, since a T-tubule is an extension of the sarcolemma.

22a: If you were to stand straight and look straight ahead, where would most light entering your pupil light fall on your retina?

Answer: If you were to stand straight and look straight ahead, where would most light entering your pupil light fall on the fovea centralis.

37c: What does it mean to have 20/40 vision?

Answer: If your visual acuity is 20/40, you are myopic. From 20 feet away, the smallest you can read are the letters on the 20/40 line of the Snellen chart. However, someone with 20/20 vision can read that same line from40 feet away.

Question 29 29a: What is a Golgi tendon reflex?

Answer: In a Golgi tendon reflex, skeletal muscle contraction causes the agonist muscle to simultaneously lengthen and relax.

Can you explain the process of dark adaption?

Answer: In dark adaption, blackness is seen because our cones cease functioning in low intensity light. Also, all the rod pigments have been bleached out due to the bright light. Because of this, rods are initially nonfunctional. Once in the dark, rhodopsin regenerates and the sensitivity of the retina increases over time. During the adaptation process, reflexive changes occur in the pupil size. The entire process occurs over a period of up to 30 minutes.

43a: Can you explain the processes that take place in the membrane discs of your rods in the light? How much neurotransmitter is being released?

Answer: In darkness, there are high levels of cGMP, increasing cellular activity. This allows the opening of Na+ channels, as these are internally gated by cGMP. Action potentials are generated and neurotransmitters are released.

36c: What is LASIK?

Answer: LASIK is laser eye surgery or laser vision correction. Essentially, it is a procedure where the cornea is reshaped with a laser to change the way

27b: What is lens accommodation?

Answer: Lens accommodation is the process by which the eye increase sits converging power by making the lens more convex.

31b: What receptors and neurotransmitters are responsible for miosis?

Answer: M3 receptors are responsible for miosis and acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter.

What are mechanoreceptors and what are some general examples?

Answer: Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stimuli. Some examples of mechanoreceptors include tactile receptors, baroreceptors and proprioceptors.

14c: What is an example of an antagonist to this receptor?

Answer: Metoprolol (Lopressor)

Question 30 30a: What is miosis?

Answer: Miosis is pupillary constriction.

5c: What do these cells secrete? in adrenal medullae

Answer: Mostly epinephrine (75%) comes from adrenal gland , but also norepinephrine (25%) (sympathetic nerve)

32b: Which part of the ANS is elicited?

Answer: Mydriasis is elicited by the sympathetic system of the ANS.

30b: What is mydriasis?

Answer: Mydriasis is pupillary dilation.

Question 32 32a: If you were being chased by a bear in the woods, would your eyes under go miosis or mydriasis?

Answer: Mydriasis.

5a: What is the name for a skeletal muscle stem cell?

Answer: Myoblast.

. 7b: Unlike a typical soma cell, what unique things are located in the sarcoplasm of a skeletal muscle cell?

Answer: Myofibrils, glycogen, and multiple nuclei are all located in the sarcoplasm of a skeletal muscle cell.

8a: How would you describe a myofilament?

Answer: Myofilaments are the protein fibers that constitute a myofibril.

38c: Is this person myopic or hyperopic?

Answer: Myopic.

38b: Can diopters be converted into Snellen chart numbers?

Answer: No, diopters cannot be converted into Snellen chart numbers.

37d: If the Snellen chart reveals that your visual acuity is 20/20, does this mean you have perfect vision?

Answer: No, it just means you perfect visual acuity.

55d: How do they interact with stereocilia via the tip-link mechanism?

Answer: Stereocilia and the kinocilium are connected by small connective tissue fibers. When the stereocilia are pushed towards the kinocilium, the fibers pull open mechanically-gated potassium channels in the shorter stereocilia.

52d: What are stereocilia supported by?

Answer: Stereocilia are supported by microfilaments.

31c: Can you list a few drugs that would cause mydriasis?

Answer: Stimulant drugs like cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, and ecstasy will cause mydriasis, along with cannabis and hallucinogenic drugs like LSD and ketamine.

1c: What does the term striated refer to?

Answer: Striations seen in muscle under a light microscope are the "A"and "I" bands of the sarcomeres in myofibrils.

25b: How do swimming goggles help improve your underwater vision?

Answer: Swimming goggles help to improve your vision under water because they restore the air-corneal interface.

5f: What are the sympathetic chain ganglia?

Answer: Sympathetic chain ganglia are paired bundles of nerve fibers ,and aggregations of nerve cell bodies, that run from the base of the skull to the coccyx. They are part of the autonomic nervous system.

6d: What is a T-tubule?.

Answer: T-tubules are extensions of the sarcolemma.

10b: When you put on your shirt/top/blouse in the morning, you can feel it onyour skin; however, several hours later the feeling is "gone." Based on this fact,are tactile receptors tonic or phasic?

Answer: Tactile receptors are phasic (quickly adapting).

Question 14 14a: What are the five different types of special senses?

Answer: Taste (gustation), smell (olfaction), sight (vision), hearing(audition), and balance/equilibrium (equilibrioception).

17c: Many individuals who have experienced COVID-19 symptoms have beensaid to have "lost their sense of taste". Is this a true statement?

Answer: Technically, no. Many patients notice a loss of their sense of smell. However, because smell is necessary to taste flavor, these individuals are no longer able to discern flavors.

4b: What is the function of a tendon?

Answer: Tendons help in transmitting the force from the muscle to the load.

3c: Can you identify some important things located in the endomysium?

Answer: Terminal knobs, capillaries, and satellite cells are located in this loose connective tissue

11a: Why is an A band also referred to as a dark band?

Answer: The A band is referred to as the dark band because it containsthick and thin filaments, and therefore picks up a lot of stain.

10a: What is the A band? What can you find there?

Answer: The A band is the length of the thick filaments. Myosin, actin, theM line, tit in, and myomesin can be found in the A band.

2b: While there are control centers in the CNS for ANS function, the ANS primarily works by way of reflexes. What division of the nervous system do longer flexes integrate with?

Answer: The CNS.

18g: What happens to the GI tract?

Answer: The GI tract stimulates peristalsis and secretion.

10c: What is the H zone? What can you find there?

Answer: The H zone is the distance between thin filaments in the center of the sarcomere. Myosin, myomesin, titin, and the M line can be found in the H zone.

11c: Why is an I band also referred to as a light band?

Answer: The I band is referred to as the light band because it containsonly thin filaments and does not pick up as much stain as the A band.

10b: What is the I band? What can you find there?

Answer: The I band is the distance between thick filaments between two adjacent sarcomeres. Actin, actinin, titin, and the Z line can be found in the I band

10e: What is the M line? What can you find there?

Answer: The M line is the point of attachment of the thick filaments.

Question 19 19a: Which muscarinic receptors are responsible for bronchoconstriction?

Answer: The M2 and M3 adrenergic receptors.

Question 20 20a: Which muscarinic receptor is responsible for decreasing heart rate?

Answer: The M2 receptor.

18b: Why is it referred to as this?

Answer: The PNS is referred to as the rest and digest division of the ANS because your body is in the recovery or rest phase from a flight or fight response. The digestive system is active during this time.

2c. What division of the nervous system do short reflexes integrate with?

Answer: The PNS.

10f: What is the Z line? What can you find there?

Answer: The Z line is the point of attachment of the thin filaments.

56c: How does the function of the crista ampularis relate to that of the organ of Corti?

Answer: The cupula of the crista ampularis functions similarly to the tectorial membrane in the organ of Corti.

7a: What is sarcoplasm?

Answer: The cytoplasm of a muscle cell

Question 1 What are the divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

Answer: The divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system, and the enteric nervous system (digestive system) - they control smooth muscle , cardiac muscle, exocrine gland, some endocrine gland

24d: What is the focal length?

Answer: The focal length is the distance between the center of the lens and the focal point.

34b: Where does the focal point form in this condition?

Answer: The focal point in this condition forms behind the retina.

33b: Where does the focal point form in this condition?

Answer: The focal point in this condition forms in front of the retina.

24e: What is the focal point?

Answer: The focal point is where the light rays converge after passing through the lens.

39c: What is the fovea centralis?

Answer: The fovea centralis is a region of the retina in the center of the macula that has the highest concentration of cone photoreceptor cells. T he visual axis normally falls on this location.

6f: What is the function of a T-tubule?

Answer: The function of a T-tubule is to allow action potentials to propagate as close to the inside of the cell as possible. This allows the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release its calcium stores.

6g: What is the function of a triad?

Answer: The function of a triad is to turn the excitation of the sarcolemmain to the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

9b: What is the specialized function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in skeletal muscle cells?

Answer: The function of sarcoplasmic reticulum is to store calcium in skeletal muscle

50d: What is the general function of the cochlea?

Answer: The general function of the cochlea is to produce nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations

22c: What carries the sensory information from these receptors to the medulla of the brainstem?

Answer: The glossopharyngeal nerve and the vagus nerve.

23c: What carries the sensory information from these receptors to the medulla of the brainstem?

Answer: The glossopharyngeal nerve and the vagus nerve.

14d: If someone took a β1 antagonist, what would happen?

Answer: The heart would contract less, thereby lowering the heart rate. If the heart isn't contracting as much blood per minute, then less blood is packed into the vessels at once, decreasing blood pressure.

14f: If someone took an β1 agonist, what would happen?

Answer: The heart would contract more frequently, thereby increasing heart rate. If the heart contracts more, more blood is pushed into the arteries, increasing blood pressure.

Question 24 24a: The human lens is concave or convex?

Answer: The human lens is convex.

7c: What signals exocytosis of neurotransmitters from varicosity?

Answer: The influx of calcium.

52a: What is the function of the inner hair cells of the organ of Corti?

Answer: The inner hair cells fire nerve impulses to the brain in response to distortion of the basilar membrane.

47b: What are the components of the middle ear?

Answer: The inner layer of the eardrum, the Eustachian tube (i.e., the internal auditory meatus), and the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes).

39a: What are the three layers of cells of the retina?

Answer: The innermost layer that is closest to the vitreous body is the ganglion cell layer. The middle layer is the bipolar cell layer. The rear most layer is the photoreceptor layer, where the rod and cone cells are located.

47e: What anatomical structure connects the middle ear to the pharynx?

Answer: The internal auditory meatus connects the middle ear to the pharynx.

55a: What is a kinocilium?

Answer: The kinocilium is the tallest of the stereocilia of a hair cell.

there is three sensory information

Exteroceptors (somatic senses, Special senses) Proprioceptors (positional senses) Interoceptors (visceral senses) -inner all sensory comes as afferent division

Sensory information enters the afferent division of the PNS. What are exteroceptors?

Exteroceptors are sensory receptors that receive external stimuli for both special and somatic senses, and send the sensory information to the CNS

16. Thinking anatomically, can you explain why smell is the only special sense that does not enter the brain by relaying through the thalamus?

Answer: The primary neurons enter the brain through tiny holes in the floor of the cranium and synapse with the secondary neurons in the olfactory bulbs at the base of the brain.

25a: The refractive index of the cornea is 1.38 while that of water is 1.33. If the two indices are so similar, why don't humans have clear vision underwater?

Answer: The problem is that the reflective indices are too similar, so light rays don't converge much. This causes the focal point to form behind there tin a, similar to hyperopia.

44c: After light exposure, how is retinal converted back to its original conformation?

Answer: The process is mediated by the pigmented epithelial cells at the back of the retina.

41c: What are the two structural components of rhodopsin?

Answer: The proteins opsin and retinal.

18c: During a parasympathetic response, what happens to your pupils?

Answer: The pupils constrict (miosis)

9c: During a sympathetic response, what happens to your pupils?

Answer: The pupils dilate (mydriasis).

30c: What muscle is contracted and what muscle is relaxed?

Answer: The quadriceps contract and the hamstrings relax

Question 11a: The receptor portion of tactile receptors (e.g., Meissner's and Pacinian corpuscles) is literally a modification of what portion of the neuron?

Answer: The receptor portion of one of these sensory neurons is a modification of a dendrite.

6a: What is the resting membrane potential of a typical skeletal muscle cell?

Answer: The resting membrane potential of a typical skeletal muscle is-85 millivolts.

9d: What happens to your salivary glands?

Answer: The salivary glands decrease secretion, producing less saliva.

. 18d: What happens to your salivary glands?

Answer: The salivary glands increase secretion, producing more saliva.

9a: Which structure of a typical somatic cell is the sarcoplasmic reticulum mostanalogous to?

Answer: The sarcoplasmic reticulum is most analogous to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

.Question 19 What are the three layers of the eyeball, and what composes each layer?

Answer: The sclera is composed of thick connective tissue and forms the "white" of the eye, as well as the cornea of the eye. The choroid is composed of vascular tissue and forms the ciliary body and iris. The retina is composed of photoreceptors, also known as rods and cones, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells.

56a: What are the two sensory organs of equilibrioception?

Answer: The sensory organs involved in equilibrioception are the crista ampularis and the macula.

Question 25 25a: What is the somatic nervous system (SNS)?

Answer: The somatic nervous system carries motor and sensory sign alsto and from the CNS.

24c: What are the alternate names of each plexus?

Answer: The submucosal plexus is also referred to as the Meissner'splexus, and the myenteric plexus is also referred to as the Auerbach'splexus.

. 24b: Where are they found in regard to the four layers of the GI tract?

Answer: The submucosal plexus is in the submucosa and the myenteric plexus is buried in the smooth muscle of the muscularis.

Question 13 Which adrenergic receptor decreases digestion? In other words, what adrenergic receptor decreases peristalsis of the GI tract, as well as insulin secretion from pancreas?

Answer: The α2 adrenergic receptor

Question 14 14a: Which adrenergic receptor is responsible for increasing heart rate and contractility of the heart?

Answer: The β1 adrenergic receptor.

Question 16 16a: Which adrenergic receptor is responsible for bronchodilation?

Answer: The β2 adrenergic receptor.

Question 28 28a: If the ciliary muscles of the eye are relaxed, which receptor must be activated?

Answer: The β2 receptors must be activated if the ciliary muscles of the eye are relaxed.

46b: What are their photoreceptor pigments collectively referred to as?

Answer: Their photoreceptor pigments are collectively referred to as photopsins, also known as iodopsins

How many pairs of cranial nerves are there and are these nerves mixed? In otherwords, do all cranial nerves contain both sensory and motor nerve fibers?

Answer: There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. Some, but not all, are mixed.

Question 15 15a: How many cells are involved in the peripheral processing of olfactory information?

Answer: There are 2 cells involved in the peripheral processing of olfactory information.

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

Answer: There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

46a: What are the three different types of cone cells?

Answer: There are blue, green and red cone cells.

11d: How many I bands are present in one sarcomere?

Answer: There are zero I bands present in one sarcomere

9a: Which receptors would inform you of an ice cube that was just placed on your arm?

Answer: Thermoreceptors

9h: Can you explain why each of these responses you listed occur?

Answer: These responses occur to prepare your body for a fight-or-flight response. For example, during dangerous conditions, you want your body to pump more blood to your heart, thereby increasing the amount of oxygen going to your lungs and tissues.

18h: Can you explain why each of these responses you listed occur?

Answer: These responses occur to restore your body to homeostasis from a fight-or-flight response. For example, during resting conditions, you want your body to pump less blood to your muscles and more to your digestive organs.

14b: Based on your list, would you expect these senses to enter the nervous system at the level of the spinal cord or brain?

Answer: These senses enter the nervous system at the level of the brain.

8b: The effectors of the ANS are said to have, in general, dual antagonistic innervation. What does this mean?

Answer: They are controlled by both the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

22b: How do they function?

Answer: They sense changes in blood pressure and stimulate a response in opposition to this change.

23b: How do they function?

Answer: They sense changes to the concentrations of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood, as well as changes in the pH of the blood.

23d: If light passes from a medium with a refractive index of 2.0 into a medium with a refractive index of 1.0, what will happen to the light rays?

Answer: They will diverge. If light comes from a medium with a lower refractive index and enters a medium with a higher refractive index, then the light rays will converge.

8c: What are the two major proteins that make up the two major types of filaments?

Answer: Thin filaments are primarily made of actin and thick filaments are made of myosin.

47f: Why does this connection exist?

Answer: This exists to balance the pressures on either side of the tympanic membrane

9b: Why is it referred to as this?

Answer: This response is referred to as fight-or-flight because the body will prepare you to respond during fight-or-flight situations. For example, fleeing from a bear chasing you in the woods.

32b: What about the signal that is sent to the brain after the reflex has already occurred in the patellar and Golgi tendon reflexes?

Answer: This signal is sent by what is known as the axon collateral. This axon collateral synapses with the interneuron that also synapses with the motor neuron, and is responsible for notifying the brain of the incidence happening peripherally.

24c: What does converging and diverging mean in reference to the visual axis?

Answer: To converge means to bend light towards the visual axis and to diverge means to bend light away from the visual axis.

Question 12 12a: If you had a lesion on your arm, what medications could you take to reduce the activity of prostaglandins, histamine, and substance P?

Answer: To reduce the activity of prostaglandins, you would take an NSAID (e.g., ibuprofen, aspirin); to reduce the activity of histamine, you would take an antihistamine (e.g., Benadryl); to reduce the activity of substance P, you would take capsaicin.

What are their functions?

Answer: Tropomyosin prevents the interactions between thin and thick filaments by blocking the active sites on the G-actin monomers. Troponinis attached to the protein tropomyosin and binds calcium. With bound calcium, troponin "pulls" tropomyosin out of the way of the G-actin active sites permitting the myosin heads to bind to actin

12b: What are the two regulatory proteins found within actin?

Answer: Troponin and tropomyosin.

8c: What are the exceptions?

Answer: Vascular smooth muscle (except in the heart and genitals), sweat glands, and adipose are all only innervated sympathetically.

12b: How can a blood vessel vasodilate and vasoconstrict when it is only innervated and controlled by the SNS?

Answer: Vasoconstriction is regulated through the firing frequency of the preganglionic sympathetic neuron. More SNS stimulus leads to vasoconstriction, while less SNS stimulus leads to vasodilation.

. 5g: What two components of the PNS combine to form a spinal nerve?

Answer: Ventral and dorsal roots combine to form a spinal nerve

. 21b: What is the mechanism by which drugs like Viagra work?

Answer: Viagra inhibits cGMP PDE; thus, cGMP is not degraded and allows for more vascular smooth muscle relaxation.

13b: Can you use this information to explain how an individual can experience pain in the arm when they are having chest pain due to a heart attack?

Answer: When a person is having a heart attack, the pain fibers in the heart and hand go to the spinal cord and they converge (cross-talk). The pain fibers from the heart can induce action potentials in the pain fiber coming from the arm.

color vision

Integration of information from red, green, and blue cones

Which of the following are examples of epidermal tactile receptors: a Pacinian corpuscles b Meissner's corpuscles c Merkel cells d a and b e a, b, and c

c Merkel cells

Darius is having chest pain and a sense of pain in his left hand that has long since been amputated. He goes to the hospital and is diagnosed with having a heart attack. The pain Darius was experiencing was: a referred b phantom c a and b

c a and b

presbyopia

farsightedness caused by loss of elasticity of the lens of the eye, occurring typically in middle and old age. - 50 year - laic is not involve ur lenses, its involve in your cornea - bifocals - eyeglasses with lenses that have two different sections- for seeing close up (convex) and far away - Trifocals- int. near - Progressive - distance + int. near

cells that make connective tissue is

fibroblasts

olfactory cilia

hairlike structures located in upper portion of nasal passages, receptors for smell - dendrite- loaded with odorant receptor - also have Sustentecular cells

Dilators contract

decreased light intensity increased sympathetic stimulation - a1 - receptor - agonist - norepinephrine stimulates the contraction of pupillary dilator muscle - Isoprenaline

mydriasis

dilation of the pupil

cochlear amplifier

Outer hair cells, including the motor proteins in the outer hair cell membrane, that amplify displacements of the basilar membrane in the cochlea - the outer hair cells in response to sound increases basilar membrane vibration and therefore amplifies the response of the inner hair cells. - electromotive protein

What is the functional organization of the PNS? In other words, can you schematically explain the organization of the efferent division and the afferent division of the PNS?

There are two divisions of the PNS. The afferent division consists of sensory innervation which include somatosensory, special sensory, and visceral innervation. The efferent division consists of somatic and autonomic innervation. Autonomic innervation includes cardiac, smooth muscle, glandular, and adipose innervation. The autonomic system also breaks down into the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nervous systems

sound processing

Vibration in tympanic membranes - Malleus l, incus, stapes moving in and out which creating pressure wave, then destroyer the basilar membrane, hair cell will move up and down, and push to tectorial members and stereocillia, kinocillium has mechanical receptor and it active

macula lutea

a yellowish central area of the retina that is rich in cones and that mediates clear detailed vision

How much the the cochlear amplifier amplify sound: a 10x b 100x c 1,000x d 10,000x

b 100x

Which of the following is a muscarinic bronchodilator: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Minipress b Atrovent c Lopressor d Ventolin

b Atrovent

Where are the cell bodies of autonomic (visceral) sensory neurons located: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a posterior horn b dorsal root ganglion c posterolateral horn d anterior root

b dorsal root ganglion

Where are the cell bodies of somatic sensory neurons located: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a posterior horn b dorsal root ganglion c posterolateral horn d anterior root

b dorsal root ganglion

With the stretch reflex, the muscle that senses the stretch is the same muscle inhibited by the reflex: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a true b false

b false

The anatomical region of the eye that contains the highest concentration of cones is the: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a iris b fovea centralis c lens d cornea

b fovea centralis

Can you taste while breathing in (orthonasally): a yep b hmmm...nope

b hmmm...nope

Which of the following associations is incorrect: a nearsightedness : elongated eyeball b hyperopia : concave lenses c farsighted : can see far away well d astigmatism : curved visual axis

b hyperopia : concave lenses

Which of the following is not located in a motor end-plate: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Cl- channels b voltage-gated Na+ channels c K+ leak channels d Na+/K+ pumps e nACh receptors

b voltage-gated Na+ channels

SSRIs

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Olfaction (smell)

sense of smell - stratify epithelium - the bone is ethmoid - bipolar neuron doesn't relate thalamus of your brain - they goes to the bone and snipes with olfactory bulb - primary neuron goes to the bulb and snips with secondary neuron, send this info to cerebrum cortex to give you sensation of smell

somatic senses

sense of touch, vibration, pressure, stretch, temperature, pain - free nerve ending (pain, temp.) - Merkel's disc (touch) - meissner's corpuscle (touch) - Hair follicle receptor (touch) - pacinian (or lamellated) corpuscle (vibration and pressure) - ruffini corpuscle (stretch)

Interoceptors (visceral senses) -inner

sensing internal environment of the body as varrial recpter which can sense blood presser, heart pain, stomach pain

Contralateral

sensory process is going to brain (pain, temp)

intervertebral discs

separate and cushion the vertebrae (made of fibroses cartilage) hyaline cartilage elastic cartilage - fibroblasts makes gages, proteoglycans (sugar proteins, - charge, osmotic protenstiol low)

SNRIs

serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors

Tonic receptors

slowly adapting receptors that respond for the duration of a stimulus - along is stimulus is there, there are is response - ex. pain, temp,

Exteroceptors has two type

somatic senses, general as in your skin as temp, touch, pain, vibration, streach Special senses - information coming from external environment as eyes, ears, nose, mouth, inner ears with equallibrem

Lidocaine and articaine

stop action potential to go in the brain - complex with epinephrine

sound transduction

how sound is converted to nerve impulses, turns air waves into mechanical vibrations then fluid waves, chemical signals, and finally action potentials - 20x - vestibular duct (perilymph) share same fluid (interstitial fluid, high in Na+ and low in K+) as tympanic - Tympanic duct (perilymph) - cochlear duct (endolymph) - (law in Na+ and high in K+)

analgesia

inability to feel pain or medicate pain

Glaucoma

increased intraocular pressure results in damage to the retina and optic nerve with loss of vision

Constrictors contract

increased light intensity increased parasympathetic stimulation -M3 receptor - antagonist - Tropic-amid

Spinal holle or a foramen between two spinal vertebrae called

intervertebral foramen

Proprioceptors (positional senses)

located inner joint in our muscle, sending information to central nervous system (CNS) to limb space - provide information about join tangle, muscle length, and muscle tension, which is integrated to give information about the position of the limb in space

choroid

middle, vascular layer of the eye, between the retina and the sclera - form smooth (ring) muscle call ciliary body , also makes iris (has pigments, white of the eye which is sclera) - ciliary body attached lens and suspensory ligament attached to the lens and ciliary body - ANS regulates it

MAOIs

monoamine oxidase inhibitors

NSAIDs

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs EX. Aspirin, ibuprofen - they inhibit Cox enzyme, which inhibit prostaglandin, which stimulate the nerve cause sensation of pain

SNS post ganglions secretes

norepinephrine or NE - also from chromaffin cell epinephrine or EPI

49b: What are some ways that these symptoms can be alleviated?

o Answer: By yawning, chewing gum, or performing the Valsalva maneuver. Essentially, you would want to open the internal auditory meatus in order to allow the middle ear to get more air, equalizing the air pressure

49a: How does being in an airplane affect the ear?

o Answer: The air pressure changes rapidly during ascent, and the internal auditory meatus can't react fast enough to accommodate this pressure change.

Chemoreceptors:

olfactory receptors (smell) , gustatory receptors (taste) , and nociceptors (pain)

Ipsilateral

on the same side of the body (touch and proprioception)

Osmoreceptors

osmoreceptors (osmolarity of ISF

phantom pain

pain felt in a body part that is no longer there

what is the rest and digest division of the ANS

parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) - The ANS controls the activity of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands, and adipose - vascular smooth muscle (except in the heart and genitals), sweat glands, and adipose are solely innervated by SNS nerve fibers

herniated disc

protrusion of a fragmented intervertebral disc in the intervertebral foramen with potential compression of a nerve - more cartilage is leaking

phasic receptors

rapidly adapt to a constant stimulus and turn off ex. taste, temp, touch, smell, touch

adrenergic receptors

receptor sites for the sympathetic neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine

sensory information coming in through dorsal ramus, stop at dorsal root where cell body is continue and goes in to spinal cord and Synapse up with interneuron

release the information to motor neuron and send the information out though ventral ramus or root

lens accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina - increases the curvature, and converging power, of the lens (i.e., more convex) - epinephrin / nor epinephrin bind with bate2 (B2), they are metabotropic - M3 bind to acetylcholine , makes the lens more convex

dorsal root + ventral root

= spinal nerve -dosal ramus + ventral ramus

vitreous body

the cavity between the retina and the back of the lens

Fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster - cones rods - when visual axis fall into fovea, where you can get most acute vision - Optic disc is blind spot because there are no photoreceptor cells on the optic disk

aqueous humor

the clear fluid filling the space in the front of the eyeball between the lens and the cornea.

the anatomical components of the peripheral nervous system(PNS) is

the cranial and spinal nerves

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Phototransduction

the eye transduces electromagnetic radiation into electrical impulses - cone - red, green, blue cell - photoreceptor cell has pigment and light goes there - bipolar cells - ganglion cells - sending action potential , form optic nerve - rod - has retinal (vitamin A)+ opsin (protein) = rhodopsin, transducin(G protein), GC >GTP > cGMP, PDE - enzyme - in dearjness, rhodopsin inactive, cGMP is high, and ligand-gated sodium ion channels are open, it's depolarized - in light bleaches rhodopsin, opsin decreases cGMP, closes Na+ channels and hyperpolarizes the cell

semicircular canals and cristae

- "yes" anterior - "idk" posterior - "no" horizontal

hearing sense of sound

- External acoustic (auditory) meatus - Tympanic membrans suparate external and middle ear - auditory ossicles is the smallest bone in human body and located in middle ear - Aditory tube or internal acoustic or auditory or eustachies- that tube connect your middle ear to your throat which is nasopharynx - Vestibulocoglear nerve (Auditiry)

airplane ear (barotitis media)

- External acoustic (auditory) meatus and internal acoustic both pressure at 760 - When you go up in the air, pressure is 745 in EAM and 760 in AAM - Eustachian Tube is where air bubble pop - yawing, chewing gum, valsalva maneuver

tate vs. flavor

- Orthonasal - when your breath with ur nose - Retronasal - breath out from your mouth - you can breath though ur nose, you cannot taste the flavor but sense the taste

Refraction

- bending of light rays as they pass through different refractive media - our lens is convex (converging) and focuses light at a focal point - light comes and converge to visual access - the focal length is the distance between the lens center and the retina - focal length + focal point = meter, and you will get diopter (d)

β2-adrenergic receptor (EPI/NE)

- bronchial smooth muscle relaxation (bronchodilation)- β2 agonists ↑ airway (bronchiole) diameter (e.g., SABAs - albuterol (Ventolin)

visual acuity and eyeglass prescriptions

- eyeglass prescriptions are given in units of diopters - a measure of converging power- if your visual acuity is 20/40, this is not your prescription! - if your visual acuity is 20/40, you need more diverging power (i.e., negative diopters) - Diverging lens- concave lenses - focal point forms before the lenses, you have (- diopters) - myopia - converging lens- focal point forms in front (+ diopters) - hyperopia

α1-adrenergic receptor (NE/EPI)

- vascular smooth muscle contraction (vasoconstriction), bronchial smooth muscle contraction (bronchoconstriction), and ↑ sweat gland secretion- antagonists (i.e., α1 blockers) ↓ blood pressure (prazosin (Minipress))

How is sound transduced through the ear? Sequentially discuss all structures of the external, middle and inner ear in your description?

. Answer: First, sound waves strike the tympanic membrane, becoming vibrations. The vibrations then strike the malleus, incus, and stapes, vibrating them as well. The stapes, which is attached to the oval window, causes a vibration to be transduced through the oval window. Vibrations within the fluid will travel throughout each duct, and in the cochlear duct, hair cells will bend and release neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters will send the signal to the brain. Eventually, the vibrations will reach the round window. Here, the vibrations will begin to dissipate

Muscle Physiology PEQ

1. Skeletal muscle contains a type of loose connective tissue called: b. endomysium 2. Which of the following is incorrect regarding T-tubules: b. if you were inside a T-tubule, you would be in sarcoplasm 3. Which of the following is incorrect regarding myofibrils: b. they are surrounded byendomysium 4. Which of the following is incorrect: b. calcium is stored in the longitudinalregions of the SR 5. Once calcium binds to CSQ, SERCAs transport calcium back into the sarcoplasmic reticulumvia secondary active transport: b. false 6. The neurotransmitter dripped onto muscles cells is acetylcholine, while the receptors found on the muscle cells are muscarinic: b. false 7. Which of the following is incorrect regarding a sarcomere: d. the H zone contains actin 8. Nebulin runs through the center of the myosin filament to hold it to the Z line, therefore, preventing the sarcomere from over stretching: b. false 9. Troponin is found on tropomyosin every seventh G actin monomer:a. true 10. Which of the following is not found in a cross-section of an I band: b. myomesin 11. Which of the following does not shorten in length during muscle contraction: c.A band 12. Which of the following is incorrect regarding CSQ: b. it transfers calcium from thesarcoplasm to the interior of the SR 13. Which of the following is incorrect regarding smooth muscle contraction: c. the calcium/calmodulin complex activates MLCP 14. ACh binds to ________ receptors, which are a type of ________:a. cholinergic : ligand-gated Na+channel

visual acuity and Snellen chart

1. Snellen eye chart: 20/20 means that "the patient can see at 20 feet what the normal person can see at 20 feet" (the larger the denominator, the poorer the patient's vision) -20/40 = a person can see at 20 feet what the normal person (without impairment) can see at 40 ft, nearsighted -If 20/30 = Referral stage - testing of myopia

Neurophysiology - PNS Efferent PEQ

1. The ANS receives afferent information from: b. interoceptors 2. Which of the following is not a control center of the autonomic nervous system: b. cerebellum 3. A preganglionic parasympathetic neuron releases ________ onto ________ receptors of postganglionic parasympathetic neuron cell bodies: b. ACh : ionotropic 4. Which of the following is incorrect: c. preganglionic sympathetic neurons release catecholamines 5. The autonomic nervous system controls the activity of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands, and adipose :a. true 6. The smooth muscle of all blood vessels are solely innervated by sterm-1ympathetic nerve fibers: b. false 7. PNMT converts ________ into _________: b. norepinephrine : epinephrine 8. Chromaffin cells are modified preganglionic sympathetic neurons in the adrenal medulla: b. false 9. The fight-or-flight response is mediated by the thoracolumbar division of the autonomic nervous system: a. true 10. Which of the following associations is incorrect: d. albuterol : β2 antagonist 11. Which of the following does not cause bronchodilation: b. atropine 12. Which of the following receptors is not found on cardio myocytes: c.α1 13. Which of the following associations is incorrect: b. α2-adrenergic receptor : increased digestive activity 14. If light does not induce miosis, a subject may be on a(n): b. M3 receptor antagonist 15. Atropine is a cholinergic M2 antagonist, and therefore atropine increases heart rate: a. true 16. An increase in stretch in carotid baroreceptors leads to an increase vagus nerve stimulation to the heart: a. true 17. An increase in CO2 sensed in the carotid bodies leads to a decrease in sympathetic activity blood vessels: b. false 18. Catecholamines bind to ________ receptors which are a type of ________: b. adrenergic : G protein-coupled receptor 19. It is a nice, sunny day, and you are taking a walk in the woods. Suddenly, an angry bear appears in your path. Which of the following is not occurring in your body at that moment: a. increase in vagal nerve activity on the pacemaker cells of the heart 20. Which of the following is incorrect regarding the α1-adrenergic receptor: a. α1 agonists increase chronotropy 21. Which of the following is incorrect regardin

Neurophysiology - PNS Afferent PEQ

1. Which of the following are responsible for sensing visceral stimuli: b. interoceptors 2. Pain sensed in your arm is sent to the spinal cord through the: b. dorsal root ganglion 3. Which of the following senses is not phasic: b. nociceptors 4. In a simple reflex arc, terminal knobs of afferent neurons synapse with the cell body and dendrites of an interneuron in the posterior horn of the spinal cord: a. true 5. Which of the following associations is incorrect regarding analgesia: c. NSAIDs : histamine 6. An increase of fluid pressure in the ________ of the eye can lead to glaucoma: b. anterior chamber 7. Which of the following has the greatest dioptric value: c. cornea 8. The activation of pupillary α1 receptors: b. increases retinal illumination 9. Which of the following is incorrect: b. convex glasses cause light rays to diverge before they hit the cornea 10. Activation of ciliary muscle ________ receptors cause the lens to become more convex and increases its converging power: b. M3 11. Lens accommodation is employed to converge divergent light rays from objects further than20 feet from the eye:b. false 12. Which of the following does not occur during the near reflex triad: c. increase in tension of suspensory ligaments 13. Which of the following is incorrect regarding rod cells in the dark: c. retinal in rhodopsin is in the trans conformation 14. Which of the following is incorrect regarding the inner ear: d. perilymph is a K+-rich fluid 15. Presbyopia results from a decrease in converging power of the lens with age: a. true 16. Which of the following associations is incorrect: c. utricle : statoconia 17. Which of the following is incorrect regarding ganglia: d. the dorsal root ganglia contain cell bodies of bipolar sensory neurons 18. Which of the following is incorrect regarding hyperopia: a. negative diopters are needed to correct this condition 19. Which of the following statements is incorrect: b. cGMP levels are low in darkness 20. Myopia is corrected with: a. negative diopters

PNS secreted

Acetylcholine or ACh

3a: What are aggregations of cell bodies referred to as in the CNS?

Answer: Aggregations of cell bodies in the CNS are referred to as nuclei. - Somatic sensory neuron (touch) comes in to spinal nerve, where call body hangs out in dorsal root ganglion, axon continue on and synapse with interneuron where it's located in posterior horn, those interneuron synapse with somatic motor neuron where cell body located in anterior horn and send action potential to muscle - visceral sensory neuron (autonomic) (heart) comes in to spinal nerve, where call body hangs out in dorsal root ganglion, axon continue on and synapse with interneuron where it's located in posterior lateral horn those interneuron synapse with Autonomic motor neuron where cell body located in anterior lateral horn and send it heart

3b: What are aggregations of cell bodies referred to as in the PNS?

Answer: Aggregations of cell bodies in the PNS are referred to as ganglia - somatic nervous system has one neuron where one motor neuron comes out and go to muscle - Autonomic nervous system has two neuron where one starts at spinal cord and synapse with sympathetic chain ganglion or collateral ganglion, than it goes to postganglionc neuron where located in sympathetic chain ganglion or collateral ganglion - pregangliioc neuron where cell body located in anterior horn of spinal cord and go to spinal nerve

30d: The pupil is not an anatomical structure. How can it be likened to a blackhole of the universe?

Answer: All light enters the pupil, but none exits it. That is why it appears black.

Question 17 17a: What is an EpiPen?

Answer: An EpiPen is an injection containing epinephrine, a chemical that constricts blood vessels and dilates bronchioles in the lungs.

17c: Why do some people carry an EpiPen on their person at all times?

Answer: An EpiPen is carried by people prone to severe allergic, anaphylactic reactions in response to insect stings, bites, and certain foods.

15b: In what cell are action potentials generated?

Answer: An action potential is generated in the primary bipolar sensory neuron and the secondary sensory neuron.

11b: What happens to the membrane of the receptor as a result of receiving a stimulus?

Answer: As a result of receiving a stimulus, ion channels open, allowing sodium to enter, leading to the generation of the first action potential at the initial segment of the neuron.

16b: What condition could an agonist for this receptor treat?

Answer: Asthma.

19b: What condition could an antagonist for these receptors treat?

Answer: Asthma.

Question 36 36a: What is astigmatism? light rays bend.

Answer: Astigmatism is a defect in the eye or in a lens caused by a deviation from the spherical curvature.

20b: What is an example of an antagonist to the M2 receptor?

Answer: Atropine.

Question 22 22a: Where are baroreceptors located?

Answer: Baroreceptors are located in the carotid arteries in the neck and in the aortic arch.

43c: Which retinal cells have receptors for the released neurotransmitters?

Answer: Bipolar cells have receptors for the released neurotransmitters

6e: What receptors do the cell bodies of the postganglionic neurons of both the PNS and SNS have?

Answer: Both post ganglionic cell bodies have nicotinic receptors(nAChRs)

9d: What is calsequestrin (CSQ), where is it located, and what is its function?

Answer: Calsequestrin is a membrane-bound, calcium-binding protein found in the lateral sacs of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Its function is to hold calcium in high concentration in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Question 8 8a: What are the target tissues and organs of the autonomic nervous system?

Answer: Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, adipose, and glands.

9b: Which receptors would inform you of the taste of a cup of coffee?

Answer: Chemoreceptors

Question 23 23a: Where are chemoreceptors located?

Answer: Chemoreceptors are located in the carotid bodies, which are located in the carotid arteries that run through the neck to the brain. They are also located in the aortic bodies, which are found in the aortic arch.

5b: What are the cells in the adrenal medullae?

Answer: Chromaffin cells (neuroendocrine, neurosecretary cell) - modified sympathetic ganglian because they secret endocrine hormone into your blood

. Question 29 29a: If the suspensory ligaments are loose, which receptor must be activated in the ciliary muscle?

Answer: Ciliary muscle contraction causes loosened suspensory ligaments. The M3 receptors must be activated in the ciliary muscles of the eye if contracted.

45a: Can you explain the process of light adaptation, that is, what happens in your eyes as you walk out of a movie theater into the bright light on a sunny afternoon?

Answer: In light adaptation, the bright light momentarily dazzles us and all we see is white light because the sensitivity of the receptors is set to dim light. Rods and cones are both stimulated and large amounts of the photopigments are broken down instantaneously. This adaptation occurs in two ways: the sensitivity of the retina decreases dramatically, and retinal neurons undergo rapid adaptation inhibiting rod function and favoring the cone system. The entire process occurs in a matter of a few minutes.

43b: Can you explain the processes that take place in the membrane discs of your rods in the light? How much neurotransmitter is being released?

Answer: In light, photons activate rhodopsin, causing retinal to change conformation to trans-retinal and dissociate from opsin (i.e., bleached). Transducin (a G-protein) is activated, activating cGMP phosphodiesterase(PDE), which degrades cGMP. Because of this, Na+ channels stay closed. K+ will leave the cell through leak channels, causing a hyperpolarization and inactivating the cell. Less neurotransmitters are released in comparison to darkness.

6b: Why does this difference between the axon lengths exist?

Answer: In the PNS, the ganglia are distant from the spinal cord and are often close to, and sometimes within, the organ where the target cell is located.

6f: Where are these cell bodies located?

Answer: In the PNS, these cell bodies are located in terminal ganglia and sacral ganglia. In the SNS, these cell bodies are located in sympathetic chain ganglia and collateral ganglia.

Question 26 26a: Where are the somatic motor nuclei located in the gray matter of the spinal cord?

Answer: In the anterior horn

31c: What muscle is contracted and what muscle is relaxed, in each leg?

Answer: In the leg stepping on the tac, the hamstrings will contract, and the quadriceps will relax. In the leg stabilizing the body, quadriceps will contract and the hamstrings will relax.

6a: What are the differences in lengths of the axons, both preganglionic and postganglionic, between the parasympathetic nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system?

Answer: In the parasympathetic nervous system, the pre ganglionic axons are long and the post ganglionic axons are short. - In the sympathetic nervous system, the pre ganglionic axons are short, and the post ganglionic axons are long.

. 26b: Where are the somatic sensory nuclei located in the gray matter of the spinal cord?

Answer: In the posterior horn.

Question 12 12a: Most blood vessels of the human body are innervated by just one division of the ANS - the sympathetic nervous system. What is the effect of the SNS nonvascular tone?

Answer: Increased vascular tone, which is known as vasoconstriction.

. 2c: What are interoceptors and what type of information do they send to the CNS?

Answer: Interoceptors are receptors that receive stimuli of internal organs(i.e., visceral senses)

What are the different types of intervertebral disc abnormalities that canoccur and how can these issues relate to spinal stenosis?

Answer: Intervertebral disc deterioration and herniation are intervertebral disc abnormalities that can occur. These can lead to spinal stenosis, causing a narrowing of the open spaces within your spine. This can put pressure on your spinal cord and spinal nerves

Question 26 What are the ways in which the image formed on your retina is different from the object itself?

Answer: Inverted, backwards, and a fraction of the actual size of the object.

41b: What pigment is found in the membrane discs of cones?

Answer: Iodopsins, also known as photopsins, are found in the membrane discs of cones.

14e: What are some examples of agonists to this receptor?

Answer: Isoproterenol and sympathomimetics (ephedra, ma Huang, synephrine).

17b: What receptor does the active drug of the pen act on?

Answer: It acts on β2 adrenergic receptors.

4c: How is a tendon formed?

Answer: It is formed when the perimysium and epimysium converge

6b: Is it more or less polarized than a typical neuron?

Answer: It is more polarized (i.e., more negative) than a typical neuron.

11b: Why is the zone of overlap arguably the most important region of asarcomere?

Answer: It is the place where actin and myosin interact.

15b: How is the funny channel regulated?

Answer: It opens when a slow cell re-polarizes. It is also internally regulated by cAMP.

If you touched a hot stove with your hand, you would reflexively remove yourhand from the stove. Does the brain regulate this muscle activity required toremove your hand? Do you sense the pain before or after your hand iswithdrawn?

Answer: No, the brain does not regulate this muscle activity required to remove your hand. The pain is perceived in the brain after the hand is withdrawn.

54a: Elephants can hear sound frequencies of 15 Hz. Can humans hear these frequencies?

Answer: No. Humans can hear down to about 20 Hz.

52c: These hair cells contain stereocilia. Are these motile structures?

Answer: No. Stereocilia are basically long microvilli.

12c: Does nociceptive information travel to the brain contralaterally or ipsilaterally?

Answer: Nociceptive information travels to the brain contralaterally.

. 9c: Which receptors would inform you of the pain of stepping on a nail?

Answer: Nociceptors and mechanoreceptors.

Question 10 10a: Are nociceptors tonic or phasic receptors?

Answer: Nociceptors are tonic (slowly adapting).

28b: What neurotransmitter binds to the β2 receptor?

Answer: Norepinephrine

7d: What does norepinephrine bind to once released from varicosity?

Answer: Norepinephrine binds to adrenergic receptors.

10c: Are odorant receptors phasic or tonic?

Answer: Odorant receptors are phasic.

17d: How does it affect the contractile state of the bronchiole smooth muscle cell?

Answer: Once epinephrine binds to the β2 adrenergic receptor, cAMP will inhibit myosin light chain kinase. This leads to bronchiole smooth muscle relaxation and opened airways in the lungs.

28b: Can you provide a specific example and explain how it works in detail?

Answer: One example is when you touch something hot. In this process, the pain receptors in the affected area send a message to the spinal cord. When the message reaches the spinal cord, an interneuron sends a message along to the nerves that control flexor muscles near the affected area. These motor neurons then tell the appropriate muscles to flex, which results in pulling the body part away from whatever is causing the pain.

31a: Can you list a few drugs that would cause miosis?

Answer: Opiates, such as heroin or morphine, and other central nervous system depressants, such as benzodiazepines and barbiturates, will cause miosis while under the influence of the drug.

. 17b: Is "spicy" one of the basic tastes? Why or why not?

Answer: Our bodies detect spice using a completely different system than the one for taste. The nerve that sends touch, pain, and temperature feelings from your face to your brain, interprets it.

5e: What is PNMT, what does it do and where is it primarily located?

Answer: PNMT is an enzyme found primarily in the adrenal medulla that converts norepinephrine to epinephrine.

8b: What are the three examples of tactile receptors in the skin and what do theydetect?

Answer: Pacinian corpuscles sense deep touch, while Meissner's corpuscles and Merkel cells sense light touch.

11e: What are some examples of agonists to this receptor?

Answer: Phenylephrine and pseudoephedrine.

What is the most likely reason why pirates wore a patch over one eye?

Answer: Pirates likely wore an eyepatch in order to keep one eye always dark-adapted. Without a dark-adapted eye (the eye under the patch),going below the deck would be a challenge due to the darkness. Sliding the patch to the other eye reveals a dark-adapted eye, which allows the pirate to navigate quickly under the deck of the ship

11c: What is an example of an antagonist to this receptor?

Answer: Prazosin (Minipress)

Question 32 32a: Classify these four reflexes as contralateral or ipsilateral?

Answer: The crossed-extensor reflex is contralateral, while the withdrawal, golgi-tendon and the patellar reflexes are ipsilateral.

Question 35 What is presbyopia and how does the amplitude of accommodation of the lens change over time?

Answer: Presbyopia is a disease caused by loss of elasticity of the lens. The amplitude of accommodation decreases with age due to this, and as a result, the lens cannot bulge as much during lens accommodation. Thus, an individual with presbyopia is essentially farsighted. .

What are proprioceptors and what type of information do they send to theCNS?

Answer: Proprioceptors are sensors that provide information about joint angle, muscle length, and muscle tension, which is integrated to give information about the position of the limb in space.

30c: What are the muscles of the iris that control the diameter of the pupil?

Answer: Pupillary constrictor (sphincter) muscles and pupillary dilator(radial) muscles control the diameter of the pupil.

Question 23 23a: What is refraction?

Answer: Refraction is the bending of light rays as they pass through different refractive media.

23c: What is the refractive index of air, water, the cornea, and the lens?

Answer: Refractive index of air is 1.00, water is 1.33, cornea is 1.38, and lens is 1.41.

41d: Based on what you know about proteins and membranes, what structural type of protein would rhodopsin be classified as?

Answer: Rhodopsin is classified as an integral membrane protein

41a: What pigment is found in membrane discs of rods?

Answer: Rhodopsin is the pigment found in membrane discs of rods.

42b: Would you expect rods to be more sensitive in the light or dark?

Answer: Rods are responsible for dark and white vision so they are more sensitive in dim lighting.

9c: What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum ATPase, abbreviated as SERCA,where is it located, and what is its function?

Answer: SERCA is a calcium pump found in the sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane. It is located in the longitudinal region. Its function is to transfer calcium from the sarcoplasm to the interior of the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

. 8c: What do ipsilateral and contralateral mean?

Answer: Senses that are processed ipsilaterally converge at the level of the brain stem. Senses that are processed contralaterally converge at the level of the spinal cord.

19c: What is an example of an antagonist to the M2 receptor?

Answer: Short-acting muscarinic antgonists (SAMAs), such asipratropium (Atrovent).

16c: What is an example of an agonist to this receptor?

Answer: Short-acting β agonists (SABAs), such as albuterol (Ventolin).

1b: How do each differ from one another structurally and functionally?

Answer: Skeletal muscle is attached to the skeleton, it is striated, and it is under voluntary control. Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart, it is striated, and it is under involuntary control. Smooth muscle is found in places like the GI tract and the vasculature, it is not striated, and it is under involuntary control.

25b: What effectors does it control?

Answer: Skeletal muscle.

1a: What are the three different types of muscle found in the human body?

Answer: Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

54b: Where would sounds with a frequency of 19,000 Hz deform the basilar membrane? Where would a frequency of 20 Hz deform the membrane?

Answer: Sounds with a frequency of 19,000 Hz would deform the basilar membrane at the base, while sounds with a frequency of 20 Hz would deform the basilar membrane at the apex

5a: Why are the cells in the adrenal medullae considered to be modified post ganglionic sympathetic neurons?

Answer: The adrenal medullae is under control of pre ganglionic sympathetic neurons. The cells in the adrenal medulla are modified post ganglionic sympathetic neurons and secrete epinephrine into the blood stream instead of neurotransmitters into a synaptic cleft.

.Question 21 21a: Where is aqueous humor located?

Answer: The aqueous humor is located in the anterior chamber of the eye.

21c: What are the functions of the aqueous and vitreous humors?

Answer: The aqueous humor plays an essential role in nourishing thecornea and the lens by supplying nutrition such as amino acids andglucose. It also maintains intraocular pressure. The vitreous humor (or body) allows the light to pass through the lens to the retina and helps to keep the eye in its round shape.

55c: What are kinocilia supported by?

Answer: The are supported by microtubules.

47a: What are the components of the external ear?

Answer: The auricle (i.e., the pinna), the auditory canal, and the outer layer of the eardrum (i.e., the tympanic membrane).

3c: Where are the autonomic motor nuclei specifically located within the gray matter of the spinal cord?

Answer: The autonomic motor nuclei are located in the anterolateral horn.

Question 53 What is the conformation of the basilar membrane at the base and at the apex ofthe cochlea?

Answer: The base is narrow, but thick, while the apex is broad, but thin.

28c: What muscle is contracted and what muscle is relaxed?

Answer: The biceps contract and the triceps relax.

. 11d: If someone took an α1 antagonist, what would happen?

Answer: The blood vessels of the individual would vasoconstrict less, leading to vasodilation, causing a decrease in blood pressure.

11f: If someone took an α1 agonist, what would happen?

Answer: The blood vessels of the individual would vasoconstrict more, increasing blood pressure.

. 5d: What are catecholamines?

Answer: The catecholamines are dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.

4b: The PNS is also referred to as the craniosacral division of the ANS. Why?

Answer: The cell bodies of the neurons originate from the cranial and sacral regions. - sacral ganglia - terminal ganglia

Question 4 4a: The SNS is also referred to as the thoracolumbar (T1 - L2) division of the ANS. Why?

Answer: The cell bodies of the neurons originate from the thoracic and lumbar regions. - lungs, heart - para vertebral - collateral ganglia (GI) OR Pre vertebral located in front of spinal cord

51b: What are all of the cells and membranes that make up the organ of Corti?

Answer: The cells and membranes that make up the organ of Corti are the tectorial membrane, outer hair cells, the basilar membrane, inner hai cells, and support cells.

47c: What are the components of the inner ear?

Answer: The cochlea, the vestibule, and the semicircular canals.

3a: What is the name of the connective tissue immediately parietal tosarcolemma?

Answer: The connective tissue immediately parietal to the sarcolemma is the endomysium.

24g: Which structure of the eye plays the most important role in focusing light on the retina?

Answer: The cornea plays the most important role in focusing light on there tin a because it has the highest converging power.

56b: Where are each located and what are their general functions?

Answer: The crista ampularis is located at the base of each semicircular canal in the ampulla region and it is responsible for detecting the movement of the head, including turning right and left, tilting right and left and nodding. The macula is located in the utricle and saccule of the vestibule. They detect linear and horizontal acceleration and deceleration and tilting forwards and backwards.

Question 31 31a: What is a crossed-extensor reflex?

Answer: The crossed extensor reflex is a withdrawal reflex.

2a: You are a teacher charged with explaining the structural organization of amuscle organ and the connective tissues associated with it. You decide to startfrom the smallest level of organization and work your way up, constructing theentire muscle organ. You take a single strand of red licorice and wrap a clearpiece of plastic wrap around. What does this layer of clear plastic wraprepresent?

Answer: The layer of clear plastic wrap represents the endomysium.

2b: You then make several more of these single strands of licorice wrapped withclear plastic wrap, bundle them all together and then wrap the bundle with a layerof green plastic wrap. What does this layer of green plastic wrap represent?

Answer: The layer of green plastic wrap represents the perimysium.

2c: Finally, you make several more of these bundles of licorice wrapped by plastic wrap, bundle them together and then wrap the entire bundle with a layer of white plastic wrap. What does this layer of white plastic wrap represent?

Answer: The layer of white plastic wrap represents the epimysium

24b: Does the human lens converge or diverge light rays?

Answer: The lens converges light rays.

Question 20 What is the relationship between the lens, the ciliary body, and suspensory ligaments?

Answer: The lens is attached to the ciliary body via the suspensory ligaments

18f: What happens to the lungs?

Answer: The lungs bronchoconstrict.

9f: What happens to the lungs?

Answer: The lungs bronchodilator.

39b: What is the macula of the retina?

Answer: The macula of the retina is an indentation in the retina off-center from the optic disc.

11g: Some individuals are advised to not take over-the-counter Sudafed. Why?

Answer: The main ingredient in Sudafed is pseudoephedrine, which is anα1 agonist. Taking this medication would cause vasoconstriction, thereby increasing blood pressure. Individuals with high blood pressure should no take Sudafed for this reason.

Question 2 2a: What are the CNS control centers of the ANS?

Answer: The medulla oblongata, the pons, and the hypothalamus - unconscious behavior - never reach to cerebral cortex

5b: What germ layer is the skeletal muscle stem cell derived from?

Answer: The mesoderm.

Question 24 24a: The enteric nervous system (ENS) is composed of what two nerve plexuses?

Answer: The myenteric and submucosal plexuses

27a: When is the near reflex triad employed?

Answer: The near reflex triad is employed in response to focusing on an ear object, meaning that the object is closer than 20 ft from the eye.

7b: How does it differ from a synapse?

Answer: The neuroeffector junction differs from a synapse in that the presynaptic neuron has swollen regions known as varicosities, instead of terminal knobs. - smooth muscle cells - monoamine oxidate enzyme - more epi - 1st gen antidepressants MAOI

22c: What is the optic disc, why is it also known as the blind spot?

Answer: The optic disc optic is the point of exit for ganglion cell axons leaving the eye. There are no photoreceptors in this area. Therefore, it is known as the blind spot

51c: Where is the organ of Corti specifically located?

Answer: The organ of Corti is located within the cochlea.

51a: What is the sensory organ of audition?

Answer: The organ of Corti.

56e: How does the function of the macula relate to that of the organ of Corti?

Answer: The otolith membrane of the macula functions like the tectorial membrane in the organ of Corti

52b: What is the function of the outer hair cells of the organ of Corti?

Answer: The outer hair cells push the tectorial membrane and they selectively amplify the vibration of the basilar membrane.

Question 18 18a: What is the rest-and-digest division of the ANS?

Answer: The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS).

Question 30 30a: What is a patellar reflex ( stretch reflex)?

Answer: The patellar reflex is the kicking movement of the lower leg in response to a sharp tap on the patellar tendon. .

.Question 11 11a: Which adrenergic receptor is responsible for vasoconstriction and bronchoconstriction?

Answer: The α1 adrenergic receptor

Question 9 9a: What is the fight-or-flight division of the ANS?

Answer: The sympathetic nervous system. - Preganglionic sympathetic neurons are located in the spinal segments and synapse with post ganglionic neurons in sympathetic chain ganglia, collateral ganglia, and the adrenal medullaE - preganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete acetylcholine (ACh) which binds to nicotinic receptors (nAChR) on postganglionic sympathetic neurons - post ganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine (NE_, which is also known as noradrenaline (NA) - chromaffin cells of the adrenal medullae are neurosecretory (neuroendocrine) cells that secrete epinephrine (Epi), which is also known as adrenaline (A) - the effector cells have α- and β-adrenergic receptors

a: How is a tendon related to muscle?

Answer: The tendon attaches the muscle to the bone

30b: Can you provide a specific example and explain how it works in detail?

Answer: The tendon below your kneecap connects to the quadriceps muscle on the top of your thigh. The hammer's tap on the tendon slightly stretches the muscle. Sensory nerves in the muscle are stimulated by the stretching and send an impulse to an interneuron in the spinal cord. Moto nerves in the spinal cord then conduct the impulse right back to the quadriceps, triggering a muscle contraction that makes you kick. IN addition, they also activate an inhibitory neuron that will prevent the hamstring muscles from contracting.

50a: The inner ear has a bony labyrinth and a membranous labyrinth. What are the three fluid-filled chambers of the cochlea?

Answer: The three fluid-filled chambers include the scala vestibuli (the vestibular duct), the scala media (the cochlear duct) and the scala tympani(the tympanic duct).

50c: What are the three membranes associated with these chambers?

Answer: The three membranes include the vestibular membrane, the tectorial membrane and the basilar membrane.

What are the three neurons involved and how do they communicate with oneanother?

Answer: The three neurons involved include: afferent neurons, interneurons and motor neurons. These neurons communicate through the neurotransmitters that are released in the synaptic clefts between them.

29c: What muscle is contracted and what muscle is relaxed?

Answer: The triceps contract and the biceps relax.

8b: What are the two major types of myofilaments?

Answer: The two major types of myofilaments are thick and thin filaments.

47d: What anatomical structure separates the external ear from the middle ear?

Answer: The tympanic membrane.

Question 38 38a: A person's eyeglass prescription is -2.5. What are the units of this prescription?

Answer: The units are in diopters.

56d: How are the utricle and saccule involved in the detection of head movements?

Answer: The utricle and saccule are at a 90º angle to one another. The utricle is in the horizontal plane, so it detects horizontal acceleration and deceleration (i.e., driving a racecar), and additionally, head tilt. The saccule is in the vertical plane, so it detects vertical acceleration and deceleration (i.e., riding in an elevator).

50b: What are the fluids that each chamber contains?

Answer: The vestibuli and tympani contain the fluid perilymph, while the media contains the fluid endolymph.

3d: Where are the visceral sensory nuclei specifically located within the gray matter of the spinal cord?

Answer: The visceral sensory nuclei are located in the posterior-lateral horn.

22b: What is the visual axis (i.e., principal optical axis)?

Answer: The visual axis is an imaginary straight line that passes through the center of the pupil and lands on the center of the fovea centralis.

21b: Where is the vitreous humor located?

Answer: The vitreous humor is located in the posterior chamber of the eye.

10d: What is the zone of overlap? What can you find there?

Answer: The zone of overlap is the region of the sarcomere where actin and myosin overlap one another. Myosin, actin, and titin can be found in the zone of overlap.

31b: Can you provide a specific example and explain how it works in detail?

Answer: When a person steps on a nail, the leg that is stepping on thenail pulls away, while the other leg takes the weight of the whole body. You activate the nociceptors that will send sensory information to the spinal cord. This will activate an inhibitory neuron that will prevent the quadriceps from contracting. The sensory neuron will also activate the hamstring muscles and contraction will occur.

44b: What does it mean when your retina is "bleached"?

Answer: When exposed to light, there is a conformational change that causes opsin to dissociate from retinal, resulting in bleaching.

44a: When light hits rhodopsin, what conformation is retinal converted into?

Answer: When light hits rhodopsin, retinal is converted into the trans conformation.

Question 10 What is the difference between an agonist and an antagonist?

Answer: When something (a drug, for example) binds to a receptor and increases its function, that would be considered an agonist. If the drubbings to the receptor and inhibits its function, that would be considered an antagonist

29b: Can you provide a specific example and explain how it works in detail?

Answer: When you pick up a dumbbell that is too heavy, you will immediately drop it due to the Golgi tendon reflex. Increased tension stimulates sensory receptors and the sensory neuron is excited. In the spinal cord, the sensory neurons activate inhibitory neurons and the motor neuron is inhibited. The effector muscle relaxes and relieves excesstension. This protects the muscle fibers and tendons from potential damage.

5c: Are skeletal muscle cells classified as a true syncytium? Why or why not?

Answer: Yes, because skeletal muscle fibers are formed by the fusion of several individual cells

55b: Are they motile structures?

Answer: Yes, they are motile structures.

31d: What receptors and neurotransmitters are responsible for mydriasis?

Answer: α1 receptors are responsible for mydriasis and norepinephrine is the neurotransmitter.

Antihistamine drugs

Medication administered to block and control allergic reactions, ex. benadryl, zyrtec - they inhibit histamine, which can stimulate no receptors, also vasodilator blood vessel

retinoid cycle

Process in which retinal is restored to a form capable of signaling photon capture - photon hits > 11-trans retinal> gets kicked out or bleached > opsin > enzyme called retinal isomerase where it converge 11-trans-retinal, ATP to 11-cis-retinal, ADP > it regeneration where 11-cis-retinal and opsin are reassembled to form rhodopsin

optic disc

Region at the back of the eye where the optic nerve meets the retina. It is the blind spot of the eye because it contains only nerve fibers, no rods or cones, and is thus insensitive to light. - where all the neuron or axon exit the eyeball,

Gustation (taste)

Responds to chemicals in the mouth - papillae- dot in your tongue - taste buds are in down of ur tongue, open up to taste pore which open to taste buds - taste has taste receptor cell, they synapse with bipolar sensory neuron - 5 different test - sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami or savory (glutamate) - spicy are not sense of taste, which is tharmoreceptors (heartburning)

Cochlear Frequency discrimination

Sounds with a frequency of 19,000 Hz would deform the basilar membrane at the base, while sounds with a frequency of 20 Hz would deform the basilar membrane at the apex

What are the anatomical components of the peripheral nervous system(PNS)?

The components of the PNS are the cranial and spinal nerves

How many "I" bands are present in one sarcomere: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a 0 b 1 c 2 d 4

a 0

Erectile dysfunction medications, such as Viagra and Cialis: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a are cGMP phosphodiesterase inhibitors b are NOS inhibitors c are M3 agonists d are guanylyl cyclase stimulators

a are cGMP phosphodiesterase inhibitors

Which of the following is located in the posterior horn of the spinal cord: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a cell bodies of somatic sensory interneurons b cell bodies of somatic motor neurons c cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons d cell bodies of autonomic (visceral) sensory neurons

a cell bodies of somatic sensory interneurons

Which of the following is the proper sequence of cells that light comes into contact with as it passes though the retina: a ganglion cells : bipolar cells : photoreceptor cells b photoreceptor cells : ganglion cells : bipolar cells c bipolar cells : ganglion cells : photoreceptor cells d photoreceptor cells : bipolar cell : ganglion cells

a ganglion cells : bipolar cells : photoreceptor cells

Where are myofibrils located: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a in the sarcolemma b in the sarcoplasm c in the sarcoplasmic reticulum d in the endomysium e in the perimysium

a in the sarcolemma

Which of the following is most responsible for feeling horizontal acceleration as you begin to drive a car: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a macula of the utricle b crista ampularis c macula of saccule d organ of corti

a macula of the utricle

If you need (-) diopters for an eyeglass prescription, you are: a myopic b hyperopic

a myopic

Based on the anatomy you've just learned about the eye, what is the "white" of the eye: a sclera b retina c cornea d choroid

a sclera

Which of the following is incorrect regarding spinal reflexes: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a sensory information enters through the ventral ramus b the hand is removed from the tack before the brain perceives pain c efferent information is sent via a multipolar neuron d a unipolar, sensory neuron synapses with an interneuron in the spinal cord

a sensory information enters through the ventral ramus

Which of the following does not occur when a sarcomere contracts: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a the H zone gets wider b the length of the A band remains unchanged c the distance between the Z lines decreases d the zone of overlap increases

a the H zone gets wider

Which of the following is incorrect regarding the receptors of the iris: a the α1 receptor is ionotropic b M3 receptors are located on pupillary constrictor muscle c CNS depressants, like fentanyl, cause miosis d norepinephrine (NE) stimulates the contraction of pupillary dilator muscle

a the α1 receptor is ionotropic

Do myofibers contain myofibrils or do myofibrils contain myofibers: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a umm...the former b umm...the latter

a umm...the former

So, basically, a person with myopia can see better under water than a person with hyperopia: a well, yeah, in theory b no, it's the other way around

a well, yeah, in theory

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses - vestibular duct - Tympanic duct - cochlear duct

laser vision correction

a laser removes cells from part of the cornea to change its shape to better focus the light where needed - PRK 1st gen - procedure for the treatment of astigmatism, hyperopia, and myopia in which an excimer laser is used to reshape (flatten) the corneal surface by removing a portion of the cornea, reshaped it, band light ray the we want to from image (surface ablation) - LASIK - laser procedure that reshapes the corneal tissue (flap surgery) - SMILE - minimally invasive, flapless surgery - we are reshaping cornea because most converging happens in cornea

nucleus

aggregation of nerve cell bodies in the central nerve system

ganglion

aggregation of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system

Which of the following is incorrect regarding the ENS: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a its activity is reduced by sympathetic nerve activity b Auerbach's plexus is primarily responsible for secretory functions of the GI tract c is it sometimes referred to as the "little brain in the gut" d the myenteric plexus controls motility functions of the GI tract

b Auerbach's plexus is primarily responsible for secretory functions of the GI tract

Which of the following would never be found in the H-zone of a relaxed or compressed sarcomere: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a myomesin b actin c myosin d titin e b and d

b actin

Why is it odd that endolymph has a high concentration of K+: a because there should be a high concentration of cytosolic proteins outside the cell b because ISF normally has a low concentration of K+ c because K+ is normally found in high concentration outside the cell d because the Na+/K+ pump normally pumps potassium into the interstitial fluid

b because ISF normally has a low concentration of K+

Why is the pseudoephedrine-containing compound Sudafed tightly regulated by the FDA: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a because it causes hypotension (low blood pressure) b because it is easily converted to methamphetamine c because it causes pupilary constriction d because it causes anxiety and seizures

b because it is easily converted to methamphetamine

You are microscopic and walking along a sarcolemma. You clumsily fall inside a T-tubule. Where are you now: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a in the lumen of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) b on the outside the cell c swimming in the sarcoplasm of the cell d inside a junctional fold e no clue...

b on the outside the cell

Everyone's house has it's own aroma, or smell. You go over to a new friend's dorm to "study physiology" and as soon as you enter their dorm room you're like (to yourself), "Whoa...barf!" However, after a few minutes, the smell seems to vanish. Our sense of olfaction (or smell) is clearly: a tonic b phasic

b phasic

You have a shirt/top/sweater on right now. However, you likely forgot that (i.e., lost sense of it) until I just reminded you of it right now (you're welcome ;-)). Therefore, tactile receptors in the skin are clearly an example of: a tonic receptors b phasic receptors

b phasic receptors

What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA): Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a pump calcium out of the SR b pump calcium back into the SR c pump calcium into a T-tubule d pump calcium out of a T-tubule

b pump calcium back into the SR

Perilymph is a ________-rich fluid, whereas endolymph is a ________-rich fluid: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a potassium : calcium b sodium : potassium c calcium : chloride d chloride : sodium

b sodium : potassium

The two subdivision of the efferent autonomic nervous system are: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a somatic : peripheral b sympathetic : parasympathetic c somatic : autonomic d central : peripheral

b sympathetic : parasympathetic

What happens when baroreceptors in your carotid arteries detect elevated blood pressure: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a sympathetic activity to the heart increases b sympathetic activity to the blood vessels decreases c parasympathetic activity to the heart decreases d parasympathetic activity to the blood vessels increases

b sympathetic activity to the blood vessels decreases

Nociceptors are an example of: a phasic receptors b tonic receptors

b tonic receptors

The sense of heat, or a burning sensation, when eating spicy food is mediated by: a bipolar neurons b unipolar neurons c multipolar neurons d northpolar neurons

b unipolar neurons

Disc degeneration with osteophyte formation

bone spicules form and obliterate the space

bulging disc

bulging in the space of the hole

What generates the popping sounds you hear in your ears when ascending in an airplane: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a air bubbles exiting the ear canal and into the atmosphere b the tympanic membranes bulging outwards c air bubbles exiting the Eustachian tubes and into the throat d the tympanic membranes bulging inwards

c air bubbles exiting the Eustachian tubes and into the throat

Which of the the following is incorrect regarding anaphylaxis and the EpiPen: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a with anaphylaxis, histamine causes vasodilation and bronchoconstriction b an EpiPen causes bronchodilation because there are more β2 receptors on lung bronchioles than α1 c an EpiPen causes vasoconstriction because there are more β1 receptors on blood vessels than α1 d while an EpiPen is first-line treatment for anaphylaxis, anti-histamines are second-line

c an EpiPen causes vasoconstriction because there are more β1 receptors on blood vessels than α1

Which of the following types of lenses makes up the "near" region of bifocals: a diverging b cylindrical c convex d lenses that correct for myopia

c convex

Which of the following is incorrect of a rod cell in darkness: . a ligand-gated sodium channels are open b rhodopsin is inactive c guanylyl cyclase activity is low d it is depolarized e a, b, and c

c guanylyl cyclase activity is low

When the stereocilia of hair cells bend toward the kinocilium, which of the following will occur first: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a voltage-gated K+ channels open b voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open c mechanically-gated K+ channels open d mechanically-gated Na+ channels open

c mechanically-gated K+ channels open

Which of the following is incorrect regarding ANS neuronal pathways: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a postganglionic parasympathetic neurons have shorter axons than preganglionic parasympathetic neurons b preganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete acetylcholine c postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine d cell bodies of chromaffin cells have ACh nicotinic receptors

c postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete norepinephrine

What glial cells are found in this ganglion: a Schwann cells b oligodendrocytes c satellite cells d astrocytes

c satellite cells

What happens when peripheral chemoreceptors sense elevated levels of CO2: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a sympathetic activity to the blood vessels decreases b parasympathetic activity to the heart increases c sympathetic activity to the heart increases d parasympathetic activity to the blood vessels increases

c sympathetic activity to the heart increases

Which of the following statements is correct: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a when the ciliary body contracts, the lens becomes less convex b a diopter is a measure of diverging power c the near reflex triad is a parasympathetic response mediated by muscarinic receptors d someone that is myopic has a focal point that forms far behind their retina

c the near reflex triad is a parasympathetic response mediated by muscarinic receptors

What is sympathetic tone: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a tonic sympathetic neuron action potential durations b tonic sympathetic neuron action potential velocities c tonic sympathetic neuron action potential frequencies d tonic sympathetic neuron action potential amplitudes

c tonic sympathetic neuron action potential frequencies

When retinal is in the ________ conformation, rhodopsin is considered "bleached." As a result, the cell undergoes a ________: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a cis : hyperpolarization b cis : depolarization c trans : hyperpolarization d trans : depolarization

c trans : hyperpolarization

thinning disc

can get degenerated disc

Chili peppers: Capsaicin

can inhibit substance P

vertebral foramen

canal through which spinal cord passes

Somatic nervous system (SNS)

conscious information, only thing we can control is skeletal muscles

Miosis

constriction of the pupil -

convergence of visual axes

contract muscles they pull the eyeballs inward: convergence, binocular vision

PNMT (phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase) enzyme

converts norepinephrine to epinephrine - only place to find enzyme in adrenal medullae

Adrenergic receptors: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a are G protein-coupled receptors b are ionotropic c bind catecholamines d a and c e a, b , and c

d a and c

Which of the following is not a component of a thin filament: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a nebulin b G actin c troponin d actinin e tropomyosin

d actinin

If you have taken an antihistamine, like Benadryl, before, you likely took it for: a the common cold b the flu c a cut on your hand d an allergic reaction

d an allergic reaction

Which association regarding analgesia is incorrect: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a capsaicin : substance P b NSAIDs : prostaglandins c lidocaine : voltage-gated Na+ channels d aspirin : histamine

d aspirin : histamine

Which of the following associations is incorrect: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a nearsightedness : elongated eyeball b hyperopia : converging lenses c concave lenses : divergence of light rays d astigmatism : convex lenses

d astigmatism : convex lenses

Why are middle ear infections a relatively common thing: a because the middle ear is directly connected to the nasal cavity by the internal auditory meatus b because the middle ear is directly connected to the trachea (windpipe) by the internal auditory meatus c because the middle ear is directly connected to the esophagus by the internal auditory meatus d because the middle ear is directly connected to the pharynx (throat) by the internal auditory meatus

d because the middle ear is directly connected to the pharynx (throat) by the internal auditory meatus

The hairs of these hair cells are called stereocilia. What are stereocilia: a dendrites of a bipolar sensory neuron b apical surface motile structures c cytoplasmic structures supported by microtubules d long microvilli

d long microvilli

Which of the following is correct regarding the order of sound transduction through the auditory ossicles: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a incus : stapes : malleus b stapes : malleus : incus c incus : malleus : stapes d malleus : incus : stapes

d malleus : incus : stapes

Which of the following is incorrect regarding the receptors of the ciliary body: . a the β2 receptor is metabotropic b M3 receptor activation makes the lens more convex c ACh causes lens accommodation d norepinephrine (NE) causes a decrease in suspensory ligament tension

d norepinephrine (NE) causes a decrease in suspensory ligament tension

Dark vs. light adaptation

dark adaptation - the process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination - maximum rod sensitivity (20-30min0 - cones are sensitivity light adaptation - the process in which eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination - rod cells get bleached, cones reduce sensitivity

The PNS is composed of: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a cranial nerves b spinal nerves c sensory organs d a and b e a, b, and c

e a, b, and c

What effect can Viagra have on the eye: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a enhances vision b impairs vision c prevents rods/cones from becoming hyperpolarized d a and c e b and c

e b and c

Which of the following contains the cell bodies of postganglionic autonomic neurons: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a dorsal root ganglia b collateral (prevertebral) ganglia c ventral root ganglia d sympathetic chain ganglia e b and d

e b and d

Which of the following is not located in a T-tubule: Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a voltage-gated Na+ channels b K+ leak channels c voltage-gated K+ channels d Na+/K+ pumps e ligand-gated Na+ channels

e ligand-gated Na+ channels

Neurophysiology - PNS afferent Tophat The PNS is composed of: a. cranial nerves b. spinal nerves c. sensory organs d. a and b e. a, b, and c

e. a, b, and c

The dorsal root ganglion is an aggregation of nerve cell bodies in the PNS. What type of neurons are these: a bipolar b unipolar c multipolar d sensory e motor f interneuron g b and d h a and f

g. b and d

Equilibrioception

perception of balance and is related to the vestibular system in the inner ear - the vastibular system has bulb region is called ampullae - What is the sensory structure or sensory organ of hearing - organ of corti - what is the sensory structure of Equilibrium and balance is - crista ampularis (cristae and macula

Nociception

perception of pain

Photoreceptors

photoreceptors (vision)

Mechanoreceptors

tactile receptors (touch) , nociceptors (pain), baroreceptors(pressure), proprioceptors (position), auditory receptors (hearing) ,and equilibrioceptors (equilibrium and balance)

vestiblue and macule

the utricle and saccule are at a 90º angle to one another. The utricle is in the horizontal plane, so it detects horizontal acceleration and deceleration (i.e., driving a race car), and additionally, head tilt. The saccule is in the vertical plane, so it detects vertical acceleration and deceleration (i.e., riding in an elevator)

spinal nerves

there are 31 pair, only 30 vertebrae,

Thermoreceptors

thermal receptors (cold and hot) and nociceptors (pain)

Opiates : endorphins and morphine

they inhibit center nerve system - reduce our sensation of pain

hair cell processing

tip-link mechanoreceptor

Organ of Corti

tissue containing the hair cells necessary for hearing - basilar membrane, hair cells (sterocilia has machenical rescptor ), support cells, and the tectorial membrane

Benign positional paroxysmal vertigo

triggered by certain changes in head position, such as tipping the head up or down

referrred pain

when you have heart attach, feeling pain in Left arm as well - the reason is when nociceptor from your heart and from ur hand coming into spinal cord, you see these neuron are close to each other - In the gray matter, when ur having heart attach, the sense is get through red neuron, which also has connection with blue neuron which getting sensory information to you arm, that activate blue neuron by a nociceptor from the heart, where both neuron goes to brain

Sclera

white of the eye - become cornea of the eye - connective to epithelia tissue - it transparent

α2-adrenergic receptor (NE/EPI)-

↓ gastrointestinal (GI) tract activity