Exam 2

Herbert Spencer

(1820-1903) most prominent advocate of social Darwinism, English philosopher, in 1852 essay coined the phrase, "survival of the fittest." influenced by writings of Thomas Malthus. Following Malthus, argued that population pressure led to a struggle for existence among people, with the most intelligent people surviving this struggle. Modern capitalism as the pinnacle of human evolution. Opposed any gov't programs that might assist the poor or the weak, including state support for education or health care, antipoverty programs, or state regulation of housing. Spencer felt without these, the weakest would perish and the strong would survive, and society would improve. Supporter of laissez-faire, individualism and idea of limited gov't were strongly ingrained.

Thomas Malthus

An Essay on the Principle of Population (1838)- argues that population increases geometrically, whereas food supply increases only arithmetically and that periodic famines and disease hold population growth in check. when population is greater than food supply, that is when famine and war occurs.

3 themes of congress of Vienna

1. Legitimacy- any gov't with legit right to rule in Europe would be restored. old monarchs are restored, Louis XVIII restored. 2. Encirclement- France would be encircled by powers who can control them. countries bordering France are strengthened, the Netherlands and Belgium united. Piedmont and Sardinian united. Austria strengthened on border. Contain Frances expansive tendencies. 3. Compensation- if anyone lost territory in exchanges, they would receive land in other places. EX: Belgium controlled by Austria; Austria loses and gains territory in SE France, what you lose, you gain elsewhere. Small Poland given to Russia (Congress Poland), Prussia gets 2/5ths of Saxony, to maintain the balance of power and avoid war.

First Coalition

1793, Austria, Britain, Prussia and Spain- defeated by France and only Britain remained opposed. Napoleon forced Austrians to accept Peace treaty of Campo Formio

Thermidorean Reaction

1794- revolt in the French revolution against the excesses of the reign of terror. ended most radical phase of the French revolution. remaining period until national convention was superseded by the Directory. Fall of Robespierres.

Directory

1795-99. new constitution written by the national convention. middle class type of gov't. 5 man board of directors and 2 house legislature. never strong, corruption, and a lot of fighting. but they will have success against foreign opponents. preserve gains of the revolution without returning to radicalism or monarchy.

Brumaire

1799- means November- napoleon makes him move; goes to upper house of directory and asks for more power- granted emergency power. then goes to lower house- they give napoleon a hard time and are not enthusiastic. Napoleon establishes they give him what they want or the military will take over. staged a coup d'état which went in his favor.

Consulate

1799-1804. was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the Napoleonic Empire in 1804. By extension, the term The Consulate also refers to this period of French history.During this period, Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul, had established himself as the head of a more conservative, authoritarian, autocratic, and centralized republican government in France while not declaring himself head of state. Ruled by 3 councils- Napoleon is the only one who matters.

Napoleonic Code

1804. highly patriarchal code, Equality before the law, freedom of religion, and rights of property owners. Women and children subordinate and dependent on their husbands and fathers, inheritance divided equally among all sons and daughters. Napoleon felt this was his most enduring legacy. Position in the military based on skill, permitted use of torture in trial procedures, divorce by mutual consent, some slavery brought back. freedom of religion, trial by jury, freedom of speech, national religion is Catholicism, gave Jews full citizenship, Jewish homeland is Israel.

Napoleons suppression of public opinion

1805- letter to Joseph Fouche, minister of police, Napoleon reveals his intention to regulate public opinion. Repress the journals, the revolution is over and there is one party in France, journals will produce wholesome articles and newspapers can never say anything contrary to his interests.

Giuseppe Mazzini

1805-72, Italian nationalist and revolutionary that popularized the principle of nationalism.

Congress of Vienna

1814-1815; what will happen to the colonies; Baulkens, Finland, and Turkey off the table. Baulkens for Russia. England's territories stay theirs. 100 years after this, no war. Talleyrand joins with Metternich and Castlereagh against Prussia and Russia; Europe resurrected at Vienna. Italy and Germany (39 independent states) are still divided, and not much is done about the slave trade- congress issued a declaration of slave trade but it's not enforced.

Peterloo massacre

1819, 60000 gathered outside Manchester to hear speakers on parliamentary reform, local aristocracy got scared and opened fire on them. couple 100 casualties

Karlsbad Decrees

1819; Metternich got Prussia to accept, restriction of German fraternity and censors books and newspapers.

Friedrich Engels

1820-95. German-born manager of Manchester cotton business, provided crucial link between industrialization and socialism. on top of industrial hierarchy but shocked by poverty and wrote The Conditions of the Working Class in England. Befriended Karl Marx and in 1848 they collaborated in writing The Communist Manifesto.

Treaty of Adrianople

1829; creates small, independent Greece

Chartists

1838, a working class group called the Chartists drew up a people's charter, demanded universal suffrage for all adult males and the abolition of property requirements for elected members of Parliaments. House of commons rejected this. workers turned toward ideas of socialism and revolutionary overthrow of capitalism.

The peoples spring

1848; in the course of a few months, popular revolts and revolutions occurred all over Europe; effected every country except England and Russia. Monarchies were overthrown, constitutions proclaimed, or national independence declared in France, Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Germany, Italy, and elsewhere. All of the 1848 revolutions failed. Enlightenment had set the stage w/ ideas of individualism, human rights and popular sovereignty, romantic movement in literature, and increasing assertiveness of the new middle class and the proletariat, all led to this. The years after 1815 was a reaction of the monarchs as they tried to stuff the ideas of revolution back in the bottle. The changes during these few months were phenomenal; revolutionaries, nationalists, and patriots demanding constitutions, representative assemblies, responsible gov't, extended suffrage, jury trials, the right of assembly, and freedom of the press. Another revolution in France in 1848 sparked everything. The continent was an accumulation of nation-states, empires, principalities, and mini-states.

Napoleonic Wars

5/7 coalitions were defeated by France. France defeated 1st and 2nd during French Revolutionary wars, third (Austerlitz) and fourth and fifth (Wagram). France defeated in 6th coalition at Leipzig in the peninsular war and seventh at waterloo wars resulted in dissolution of the Italy roman empire and created nationalism in Italy and Germany. Spanish empire begin to unravel as French occupation of Spain weakened Spain's hold over its colonies- providing opening for Spanish revolutions in Mexico. 1803- renewed declaration of war between Britain and France (resulting from collapse of treaty of Amien) ended one year old peace. second treaty of Paris officially ended wars on Nov. 20 1815.

phalanxes

5000 acres, consist of 1620 people, this land would be devoted to agriculture and industry and all property owned jointly and no one would be exploited. everyone able to do work that was pleasant and no one would do work that they didn't want to do. do 8 different jobs a day, everyone would be healthy. central kitchen, kids would clean, marriage- laws of passion retraction- sexual freedom. Brook Farm tried in U.S but failed.

Egyptian expedition

After two months of planning, Bonaparte decided France's naval power was not yet strong enough to confront the Royal Navy in the English Channel and proposed a military expedition to seize Egypt and thereby undermine Britain's access to its trade interests in India.His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists: mathematicians, naturalists, chemists and geodesists among them; their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone. 1798.

Second Coalition

Austria, Great Britain, Kingdom of Naples, Ottoman empire, Portugal, Russia, Sweden. Bonaparte was campaigning in Egypt. When he returned he seized control of French gov't in coup of 18 Brumaire, replacing directory with consulate. reorganizing army and created reserve army positioned to support campaigns on the Rhine or Italy. Caught Austrians off guard, knocked Russia out, in Italy Bonaparte won against Austrians at Marengo in 1800 and forced Austrians to sign peace treaty and Britain had to sign "peace of Ambien" with France.

Charles Darwin

Born in 1809, England, dropped out of med school, went on sail as an unpaid companion on the Beagle to survey the east and west coasts of South America. 5 years, kept notes and diaries and sent back geological and biological specimens to England. Read Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology. began formulating ideas about the evolution of species. The natural world was seen as one in which the spirit of God was involved in the creation of new species of plants and animals. In 1859, "on the origin..." was published and did not directly address the evolution of human until The descent of man (1871) was published. Expanded scope of evolution theory. Pointed out humankinds psychological as well as physical similarities to great apes.

France July Revolution of 1830

Charles X succeeded to throne in 1824, and quickly moved toward a more absolutist regime, threatening to roll back most of the gains of the 1789 revolution. In July, Charles declared the elections invalid, outlawed public assembly, and stepped up censorship. Workers and students and intellectuals massed in the streets, defying army and police, who did not resist, and Charles fled England. Word of the uprising spread throughout Europe sparking similar uprisings everywhere. Nationalist revolt in Poland against Russia was brutally repressed.

Influence of Darwinism

Constituted a scientific revolution, so persuasive evidence that theory was eventually accepted by virtually all scientists and evolution remains the foundation of the biological sciences. Another step in the gradual secularization of European society; over time churches and most people accept evolution. Changed religion; moved away from literalist interpretations of the old testament and incorporated evolution. Can be compared to Marx in that they both attempted to develop theories of human development that were comprehensive and universal in their application.

Colonialism

Darwin's and Spencer's writings coincided with rapid expansion of colonialism. In that age of imperialism, European states created colonial empires all over the Southern Hemisphere, especially in Africa, during the closing decades of the century. England justified domination of other cultures, especially Africa, with claims of racial superiority. "white mans burden"- to bring European virtues, religion, law, and civilization to lesser, uncivilized races.

French revolution 1848

Economic depression accompanied by political repression, The chamber of deputies did provide a check on the power of the monarch, Louis Philippe, but the chamber was virtually irrelevant. The king resolutely opposed popular campaign for broader voting rights and other reforms, peaceful protests demonstrated from Paris, which led to police presence, and once again barricades and a revolution. Louis Philippe fled like Charles X. By 1840s France was in an industrial revolution, with the emergence of a working urban class, many of which insisted on a social revolution. In Paris, a provisional government had established national workshops to provide work for the unemployed, and this became a source of demands from workers for improved working conditions. that April, elections produced a new National Assembly that resolved the national workshops and workers took to the streets in protest. stormed the assembly, declared it dissolved and established their own provisional gov't, calling for social reform. Restored constituent assembly- who called for popular election of a president, who by a landslide vote was Louis Napoleon, the nephew of the great. but he undermined the democracy that elected him and in 1851 seized absolute control in a coup d'état and dissolved the constituent assembly, in 1852 declared himself emperor.

Causes of the Industrial revolution

England had an educated and mobile population, a ready supply of coal and iron, an extensive trade network of rivers, canals, and coastal sea-lanes, small internal distances, a growing population, and political stability. In part caused by agricultural revolution.

Lord Castlereagh

England- wants balance of power in Europe. England is neutral/ helpful because England has what it wants; and wants to prevent future wars. this is the main guy.

Prince Metternich

Host of congress, Austrian foreign minister- 40 years- the dominant person in Austria- people like him, opinionated, forceful, and socially successful. Arranges Napoleons marriage to Marie Louise of Austria. Wants a stable balance of power. Wants a conservative status quo, and fears revolutionary ideals. Symbol of conservatism. Makes it where you have to get gov't approval to leave Austria because so afraid of revolutionary ideals. Driving force behind Concert of Europe

Napoleon Bonaparte

French military and political leader. Was emperor of France from 1804-15. Legal form, Napoleonic code, has been a major influence on many civil law jurisdictions but best remembered or his roles in the wars against France by a series of coalitions called Napoleonic wars. established hegemony over most of Europe and sought to spread ideas of French revolution, while consolidating an imperial monarchy. generally regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time. 1799 staged a coup d'état and installed himself as first consul and 5 years later named emperor following a plebiscite. French empire engaged in a series of Napoleonic wars involving every European power. after wins, napoleon maintained French sphere of influence and through formation of alliances and putting friends and family members to rule other European countries as French satellite republics. Peninsular war and invasion of Russia in 1812 were turning points. army was damaged in campaign and never fully recovered. in 1813, sixth coalition defeated his forces at Leipzig, following year in 1814 the coalition invaded France and forced Napoleon into exile in Elba, off the coast of Italy, and less than a year later he escaped, rallied the French troops, but then was defeated at waterloo (led by general Wellington) in 1815. he remained at St. Helena until 1821 when he died.

Factors that brought about decline of the International Working Men's Association

International was split by yet another revolution in Paris, in 1870, that resulted in the establishment in that capital of short-lived radical revolutionary gov't called Paris Commune. Commune executed archbishop of Paris, with defeat of commune, gov't put to death some 25,000 Parisians. Marx and Engels saw this as "dictatorship of the proletariat" and supported it. but the others did not see it that way. another factor that weakened the international was the increasing possibility of evolutionary reform. The English Reform Bill of 1867, enfranchised part of the male urban working class and opened up broad new political opportunities for trade unions. these evolutionary reformist trends drew workers away from the more radical orientation of the International.

Marxism

Marx's theory. attempted to create a science of history and economics. branded other versions of socialism as utopian, his socialism was scientific though. One can understand history and one's stage in history by recognizing the means of production. what is it that produces material things of value. in feudalism- based mostly on agriculture, land is the means of production. In capitalism- it is capital, which takes the form of factories, that produces material goods. in every society the owners of the means of production dominate every aspect of society and form the basis of class structure. these material and economic relationships constitute the foundation, or substructure, of society. forms of economic production determine the dominant class, and the dominant class controls the economy, political system, social relationships, and culture. Even consciousness and human nature are parts of the superstructure and are also changeable. so when the substructure changes, so will all aspects of the superstructure, including human consciousness and nature. religion is also apart of this and is used to keep the lower classes in their place, "expectation of a better existence hereafter." History of every society is just moving from one stage to another after a clash between dominant and subordinate classes. All societies begin in the primitive-communal stage, move through a system of slavery, then feudalism, then capitalism, and eventually communism, at which point classes would no longer exist. Marx's writing mostly focused on capitalist stage and the way capitalism would be overthrown by a proletarian revolution and replaced with communism. He believed this process would occur naturally and inevitably in every society. Capitalism, according to Marx, sowed the seeds of its own destruction in a process called dialectic. Capitalism, through factories and mass production of goods generates enormous amounts, enough to provide the basics for everyone, but the proletariat find themselves not being able to afford the very products they produce. The bourgeoisie pays the proletariat class a fraction of what it costs to make the product and so they keep that money as a surplus value. but now that there is an accumulation of goods that people cant afford to buy, there is a periodic crisis of overproduction and so they have to scale back production and lay off workers. Two consequences: periodic and increasingly severe economic crises and increasing immiseration of working class as wages decline and more people become unemployed. this will cause a class consciousness of the working class that they have nothing to gain from the system. finally, during one of the economic depressions, workers will simply seize control of the factories in a revolution that will displace the bourgeoisie and initiate a new stage in history.

Why were the Latin American revolts successful?

Munroe document. western hemisphere is not a place for European settlement, The British are going to take care of it for the U.S because they are known for their smarts and navy. Trade increases by 13% so made sure that Latin American revolutions were successful.

Napoleon allies at peak of control

Napoleon controlled Swiss confederation, confederation of the Rhine, the duchy of Warsaw, and kingdom of Italy. territories allied with France: kingdom of Spain (napoleons eldest bro), kingdom of Westphalia (napoleons youngest bro), kingdom of Naples (husband of Napoleons sister) and Prussia and Austria.

Lombardy

Napoleon invaded Lombardy in 1797, Napoleon defeats. Bonaparte left Paris to take command of the Army of Italy and led it on a successful invasion of Italy. At the Battle of Lodi he defeated Austrian forces and drove them out of Lombardy. dictates terms and writes a Peace treaty.

Josephine Beauharnais

Napoleons wife

Quadruple Alliance

Nov.1815- signed by England, Prussia, Russia, and Austria- directed against France- if any of those 4 powers attacked by France- others will join together and act against. each country will supply 60,000 men. Alliance says- meetings are fixed times to consult on common matters of mutual interest. try to maintain peace and order. No war till 1914. France added in 1818.

Second treaty of Paris

Nov.1815. France gets 1789 borders- loses some territories, indemnity would have to be paid, debt paid in 3 years to Russia, Prussia, England, and Austria. Army of occupation until debt paid, and some art taken away. Second treaty issued because during congress of Vienna, Napoleon escaped and remained back in power for 100 days.

Revolt spread throughout Europe

Revolt of the Austrian empire of Habsburg monarchy. had three major geographic divisions, Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. Empire being vulnerable to both liberalism and nationalism b/c contained dozens of nationalities. soon after the revolt in Paris, workers and soldiers invaded imperial palace, forcing Metternich to flee the city to England. Radical nationalists in Hungary declared a constitutional separation from the empire, Ferdinand of Bohemia gave up and fled Vienna. In Italy, nationalists drove out Austrian garrisons and Venice declared itself an independent republic. Rioting in Berlin compelled the Prussian king to promise a constitution, an assembly was finally called in Frankfurt to unite all of Germany under one single rule. German assembly was defeated by divisions within, and composed of elected representatives from all over Germany, the assembly wrote a constitution for Germany. The assembly decided not to include Austria and made the Prussian king the emperor of the newly united Germany. But the Prussian king made a complete dismissal of the Frankfurt assembly and the popular-revolutionary-nationalist sentiment of 1848. The tsar of Russia, Alexander II began a series of liberalizing reforms, most importantly, the emancipation of serfs in 1861.

Natural Selection

Those organisms with the most useful characteristics tend to survive and pass those characteristics on to succeeding generations.

Darwin's pigeons

When on the beagle, astonished by the variety of plants and animals, one of which is singular group of finches, consisting of thirteen different species, each w/ different characteristics. Intrigued by variety of shape and size of beaks; wrote that it would seem that one species had been taken and modified for different ends. Interested in the idea of plant and animal breeding and the ways in which breeders could cross different breeds to develop different/better varieties. Hypothesized that all of his pigeon breeds descended from the rock pigeon. They must have descended from one, either by natural selection or by artificial selection through breeding.

Romanticism

a movement in literature and the arts. a reaction to both the enlightenment and to the two revolutions of the 18th century, rejecting the pure reason for the enlightenment. Romantics stressed the importance of feelings and emotions as well as reason, and believed that the world could not be understood completely on the basis of reason and scientific evidence. many of these writers struggled with the ambiguous results of the industrial revolution and the tensions between tradition and change.

The Communist Manifesto

Written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848, the manifesto called for a worldwide workers revolution that would overthrow capitalism and establish a society in which all property would be publically owned. Marxist-based socialist parties were challenging gov'ts all over the continent. the ideas of Marx and Engels were tied to the enlightenment, French revolution, and industrial revolution.

Phalanxes

infantry troops

Impact of industrial revolution

accelerated the western territorial expansion of the U.S and eastern expansion of Russia. Victoria in 1837 ascended to English throne, her rule of 64 years known as Victorian era. emerging middle class was coming to dominate British society and shape its system of values. Gender roles redefined, men go to work in the cities and women take care of home and children, whereas preindustrial era the family often worked together in the field.

Greek Revolt

against the Ottoman empire. The Greeks won sympathy from Europe as a Christian nation struggling against Muslim domination and from the European sense that western civilization had begun in Greece. so Greece won support of the monarchies in Europe and won their independence in 1829.

Evolution Theory

all species are mutable and can and do change over time. all species develop through small changes from those species that went before in a slow process. Changes occur through natural selection. Darwin saw competition for survival within each species, such that within a local population, an individual with favorable characteristics, like brighter colors or sharper beak, has a better chance of reproducing than others. Those individuals possessing advantageous characteristics survive and reproduce; those that do not are more likely to perish and disappear from the population all together.

Holy Alliance

all the specters of old Europe; pope and tsar, Metternich and Guizot, French radicals and German police spies

Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology

argued that the features of the earth changed gradually over time through the cumulative effects of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, erosions, etc.

Thomas Malthus

assumed that population tended forever to outgrow the resources needed to sustain it. the balance between population and its life-sustaining resources was elementally maintained by war, famine, etc. Sexual abstinence as means of limiting population growth; little need to better condition of the poor. they would just breed faster and off set the balance of population/resource- poverty was an iron law of nature.

city life during industrial revolution

before 18th century, most people lived on farms, in villages, or in small towns, and most work was done in the field, home or in small shops. population of Manchester grew 10 fold, in 1785- 4 cities in England, pop. 50,000, 70 years later, 32 cities with pop. 50,000. Cities were set up for industrial production but were not pleasant to live in. Until 1835 no normative procedures existed to incorporate cities, so new factory towns had no municipal gov't or provisions for taxation, no representation in national parliament. Few financial and administrative resources like police protection, water and sewer, garbage disposal.

England and industrial revolution

began with cotton. increased production of cotton eventually exceeded domestic demand, but for the industry to continue to grow, needed outside markets, found these in the Americas. Eli Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton gin caused for a two way enterprise of trade. Britain had before imported its raw cotton from the Ottoman empire, but now they import from the U.S and export finished product back to them. But steam engine was the single most crucial invention of this era. James Watt perfected in 1763. new machines led to the factory. Manchester, textile-manufacture center became the first industrial city. Now that England cotton didn't need protection, lobbied for free trade. The railroad also accelerated transportation (1830)- 1830-50 called railway mania, iron output in Britain more than tripled.

Karl Marx

born 1818 in Prussia, was editor of the leading journal in Prussia but it got shut down for being too outspoken. Marx moved to Paris and a year and a half later got expelled and moved to Brussels. In Paris he met Friedrich Engels. In 1847 they both joined a secret society called the "Communist League" whose aim was "the abolition of the old bourgeois society based on class antagonisms, and the establishment of a new society without classes or private property. Worked with Engels on behalf of the independent workers' candidates to the Frankfurt assembly, which was to draw up a constitution for a unified democratic Germany. Marx was poor, had a wife and two kids, and major source of income was Engels. Became active in 1864 with the London-based International Working Men's association, grew in prestige and membership. but had a downfall.

Coup d'état

brought napoleon to power as first consul of France and ended French revolution. overthrew directory and replaced it with French consulate.

Louis Blanc Commission

came up with the national workshops, not exactly what happened; study labor and come up with solutions- and then national workshops happened

Alexander 1st

czar of Russia, at conference argues liberal but not, wants to strengthen Russia, he was said to be under the spell of a religious mystic, felt he could communicate straight to God.

The Oxford Declaration

eleven thousand Anglican clergymen signed this declaring that if any part of the bible were admitted to be false, the whole book might be brought into question. over the years people gradually accommodated but it wasn't until the 20th century that most churches and theologians come to terms with evolution by accepting that faith and science were separate spheres. But came to a peaceful coexistence by saying that only God can create the human soul.

Political liberalism

grew out of the enlightenment ideas of Locke, Rousseau, and others who favored gov't by consent and elaborated principles of popular sovereignty, constitutionalism (powers of gov't limited by constitutions), and tolerance of divergent points of view. Promoted individual rights, respect for private property, the rule of law, and stronger parliaments, most accepted presence of limited monarchy. John Stuart Mill, liberalist, argued that one person's freedom could be restricted only if it impinged on the individual freedom of another.

Historical Materialism

history should not be understood as a story of great individuals or of conflict among states but of social classes and their struggles with each other. each stage was characterized by conflict between the dominant class and the subordinate class. In capitalism, these classes were the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, overtime, conflict between classes would erupt in a revolution in which the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a classless, egalitarian society. Marx advocated constitutional democracy.

The great potato famine

in the years after 1845, contributed to a continent-wide economic recession. 1846-47; especially hit hard in Ireland, a million starved an the emigration of another million. This fueled popular unrest everywhere.

Adam Smith and industrial revolution

intellectual and philosophical underpinnings for industrialization and early capitalism had been provided by Adam Smith in publication of Wealth of Nations. contends that there are natural laws of production and exchange and of supply and demand and that, if left to their own devices, these laws will naturally regulate the economy in the best possible way. Gov't in this view should largely stay out of economic management, limiting itself to providing a stable environment for economy, maintaining political stability, providing legal protection for property rights, and enforcing the laws.

state ownership of property

many believe private property should be abolished and replaced by state/public property. like land, factories, etc.

1st peace treaty of Paris

may 1814, treaty signed with new French gov't Louis XVIII, France given 1792 orders year old revolution- 1789. Comes out with more land, no army of occupation, no fines or restitution, art that Napoleon stole (Mona Lisa) stays in France. England, Prussia, Russia, and Austria, are writing the peace treaty b/c France gets a good deal- they want France as an ally; just want peace.

Abbe Sieyes

member of 5 man ruling directory, dominant figure in the gov't, eventually resigns. Said that France needed a stronger government

French war with Russia

napoleon sees Russia as great rival; launches invasion June 1812. Napoleon goes out w/ 600,000-700,000- a lot are from countries he conquered. thinks it'll be easy, Russia destroys crops and backs up, luring the French further and further into Russian territory. the French never actually engage with Russia until mid summer. Battle of Borodino- huge loss of life. French victory. Sept. 1812 Napoleon moves into Moscow, Napoleon assumes Alexander in St. Petersburg (capital) will make a peace. alexander does not show and so French start to retreat back. winter set in and men and horses started to fall apart. napoleon left his troops on horseback- said he had to get back because the gov't needed him. Russians come up behind the army and 100,000 are taken prisoner. thousands die. alliances are continuously formed against napoleon.

Agriculture revolution

one of the causes to the industrial revolution. had two components- the development of scientific agriculture and the enclosure movement. enlightenment led to many practical inventions, such as the seed drill in 1700 by Jethro Tull that produced seeds in neat rows, scientific breeding of cows, farmers planting turnips that enriched the soil, these new techniques made it possible to feed the rapid growing population.

The enclosure movement

part of the agriculture revolution that led to the industrial revolution. involved the efforts of landowning aristocrats and country gentry to enclose common lands with fences, walls, etc. so that they could be used for private pastures. overall farm sizes increased, allowing economies of scale, increased productivity, and greater food production. changes in agriculture had two major consequences.

Factory life during the industrial revolution

perform same task over and over with few breaks and worked up to 14 hours a day in silence, fast pace, and intense quarters. little opportunity for socialization, factories inside and out covered in black dust. wages typically so low that men couldn't feed there wife and children. some children as young as 6 went to work. Charles Dickens himself was a product of this environment. The cramped and dirty working environments created tension and opportunity for laborers to gather and discuss the conditions. They organized labor unions. Parliament passed an electoral reform act in 1832 that doubled the electorate but even with that only 1 in 5 adult males could vote.

Social Darwinism

popularized by Herbert Spencer. Refers to the many and varied sets of ideas that try to apply Darwinian evolutionism to descriptions of the way society is, or should be, constituted. Competition between social groups or nations, not only that the fittest had survived but that only the fittest had the right to survive. In rawest form called for the elimination of any gov't programs that might assist the poor, weak or "inferior," so that they might be allowed to die off in the natural struggle for survival.

Darwinism and Religion

posed a major challenge to religion and especially to the conservative and fundamentalist Christianity of Victorian England. Creationism- which understood God and his creations based on reason rather than scripture. in this view, the beauty, complexity, and harmony of nature could be explained by Gods design. But evolutionary theory was seen as more critical of religion because it focused on the nature of human beings, a central element to all religious doctrines. Fundamentalism was still dominant in England for clergy and population.

continental system

prevent European trade with England. attempt of blockade 1811- Russians decide they will not obey system, they will trade with England- there was an attempt to stop trade with England to ruin their economy. Russians resume trade with Britain and napoleon decides to invade Russia in 1812 to punish them.

Six Acts (1820)

put restrictions on freedom of press and public meetings, couldn't complain without permission basically, authors couldn't write about gov't in a bay way.

Economic Liberalism

related to enlightenment ideas of private property, derived more directly from Adam Smith and David Ricardo who emphasized laissez-faire, the "invisible hand," of the market, and free trade. Economic liberals wanted to limit the power of gov't but especially in terms of its regulation of the economy. Dismantle mercantilist system. elimination of protectionist tariffs; and reduction of gov't rules and regulations that inhibited or hampered commercial and industrial activity. both liberalists grew stronger with the emergence of the middle class- whose members advocated increased power and influence for themselves in both political and economic spheres.

Talleyrand

represents France. Defeated power but still major player. participated in every French gov't- Louis XVI--> everything. opportunist, charming, keeps France from harsh treatment. advocates balance of power, knows his place.

Hardenburg

represents Prussia. Frederick William III, king of Prussia. Hardenburg is old and dull, expressed desire of Prussia to expand. Part conquered by Napoleon

Imperial Catechism of 1806

schoolchildren required to memorize.- Why are the French bound to say duties toward the emperor- 1. Because of God, who creates empires and distributes them according to His will. "To honor and serve our emperor is then to honor and to serve God himself" What happens when someone lacks in duty to their emperor- render them worthy of eternal damnation.

Empiricism

science that is proven/disproven by direct observation.

Legacy of Marxism

socialist parties today favored broad-based equality, social welfare, and public ownership of the means of production, while rejecting the proletarian revolution that was intrinsic to Marx's theory.

Egyptology

study of ancient Egypt. discovery of Rosetta stone- a block where you can translate Egyptian hieroglyphics- hugely important discovery- translation of Egyptian writing.

economic determinism

that the economy determines much else in society.

The Industrial Revolution

the era in which economic production shifted from the use of hand tools to the use of power machinery, fueled primarily by coal and steam. Most of process took place between 1750 and 1850, most intense changes occurring in Britain. Impact was as great as French revolution. Mechanization of production allowed a huge increase in productivity and economic output, laying the ground work for modern industrial society. far reaching political and social consequences, advent of assembly-line factories, urbanization, transformation of the family, and rise of a new social class, the working class, or proletariat.

Civic nationalism

the forging of centralized, unified, national states by monarchs from the top down

Popular nationalism

the forging of states from the bottom up, is more recent and linked to the enlightenment and revolutionary ideas of the people as the source of power. Assumes that people who share a common language, culture, and identity- a nation- should be in charge of their own political destiny. Sees the people as a whole. Working people, referred to as "sans-sulottes (without fancy pants).

Decembrists

those in Russia who attempted to establish a constitutional monarchy, called Decembrist revolt of 1825. Effort was crushed, but Decembrists were later inspiration for the revolutionaries to follow.

Nationalism

ultimate goals is to create a unified nation-state, in which the citizens of that state identify with both the nation (the people) and with the state (the political community).

Charles Fourier

utopian socialist. hated wage labor system, envisioned new way to organize society, wanted new self-sufficient communities called phalanxes.

Plebiscite

vote where you ask the people about something. a yes or a no vote. Napoleon used this as a public opinion pole, whether or not he's popular or not. 1799-1800. over 3 mil said yes and less than 2,000 said no. So in 1804 he took another pole about whether or not to make France and empire, same ratio. So in 1804, Napoleon declares himself emperor of France.

Adam Smith

wealth of nations- different from other economies because did not focus on keeping economy in country. Man should be able to compete with any other man- looking out for self interest will regulate economy by itself without gov't intervening. Capitalism/laissez-faire- "the invisible hand"- cant see, but you know it's regulating, free competition- opposition to mercantilism.

Communism

when workers own the means of production, the entire economic substructure will collapse and reform. social classes will disappear. without the bourgeoisie to skim off surplus value, workers and peasants will benefit from the full fruits of their labor. Everyone's basic needs will be satisfied. each person will contribute to society what he or she does best and will get whatever he or she needs. But what about the greedy people? human nature (part of the superstructure) will also have changed. communism will foster human values of cooperation and solidarity. without exploitation of labor and with adequate reward for one's work, workers will not feel the need to compete in the workplace. when social classes disappear, so too will poverty, exploitation, resentment, greed and crime, so that there will be no need for a police force. without social classes, there will be no need for gov't at all. as states disappear, so will national boundaries, national conflicts, and wars, and the planet will evolve into a global community of workers joined in solidarity. this might have remained a footnote in history were it not for the Russian revolutionaries who revived and adapted it.

Admiral Nelson

while Napoleon was off the boat, Nelson and the British fleet snuck up behind him and destroyed the French fleet. facing illnesses (from water), can't get word back home, and do not know the language, the French are in a tight spot. napoleon thinks it's maybe time to head back, so gets a boat and leaves Egypt and his army. he said there was a coalition moving against France and that he had to go back.

Two major consequences of changes in agriculture

with fewer people working the land, many left the countryside to find work in the cities, and the more efficient farms produced more food for the urban markets. industrialization itself began in Britain with cotton