Exam 2 - Soil Management & Conservation 2022

What is deep tillage? In what conditions would it be necessary to perform deep tillage? When would it not be considered beneficial?

-"ripping" or fracturing the subsoil (depends on the purpose as to how successful you can be) 1. if you have a plow pan/compaction this will alleviate some of the problems, but is usually a temporarily fix 2. if you have a fragipan, this will usually only work for a brief time and go back to a bigger problem

Define the term crop rotation. Be able to draw or design a crop rotation system.

-2 or more crops grown in a sequence on the same piece of land

What are some of the problems specific to conventional tillage?

-leaves land susceptible to water runoff and erosion -soil aggregates are reduced in size -susceptible to surface sealing

What are some advantages to crop rotation?

-often improve yields and reduce diseases, insects, and weed problems 1. maybe only row crops are involved, but better if a grass/pasture is rotated in for a couple of seasons 2. four field examples using grasses, corn, and soybeans 3. reduces erosion (in comparison to monoculture) 4. improves soil productivity - i.e. soil moisture, fertility, structure, etc.

What are some problems with the use of monoculture systems from a cropping and erosion standpoint? What factors need to be evaluated for a monoculture system?

-only one crop is grown year after year -evaluated factors: 1. soil selection - best possible grounds with very little slope 2. need to try and keep close row spacing (tight/together) 3. encourage vigorous plant growth - high fertility 4. the tillage systems need to use residues and conservation 5. need to return or add organic matter - i.e. cover crops, residues, manures, etc.)

Be able to define tillage and list the purposes behind tillage.

-the mechanical manipulation of the soil...to modify soil conditions and/or manage crop residues and/or weeds and/or incorporate chemicals for crop production -purposes: 1. to prepare seedbed (especially in transplanted crops) 2. to prepare rootbed (need goof root to soil contact) 3. to eliminate competing weeds (some) 4. to manage crop residues

What is the native vegetation of the southeastern U.S.?

1. Was in hardwood trees, with some sparse grasses, weeds, etc. 2. Plant cover needs to correlate with the climate (need adequate moisture at the correct times)

How do we decide which soil drainage to use?

1. amount of water to be removed (surface) 2. soil characteristics (damage least amount of land that you can) 3. cost and convenience factor (surface>subsurface) 4. availability of equipment and materials 5. personal preferences and land ownership

Be able to define the differences between conventional tillage, conservation tillage (reduced tillage), and no-till. Be able to define an implement that would be used in each of those situations.

1. conventional: complete inversion of soil (moldboard plow, several disking, possibly a harrow) 2. conservation: 30% residue left (moderate depth of plowing [often chisel] and little secondary tillage [disking or harrowing]) 3. no-till: no equipment used (control of weeds is entirely chemical)

What are some of the potential environmental impacts of irrigation? What about freshwater depletion?

1. depletes water from lakes, rivers, and aquifers 2. degrades and destroys wildlife habitat 3. degrades soil quality 4. degrades water quality 5. decreases agricultural productivity and profitability

What factors need to be considered when choosing a cropping system?

1. economics - short-term and long-term (sustainability) 2. how easy it is to manage - equipment, the number of passes, pesticide/herbicide needs, etc. 3. soil erosion control - maintain productivity 4. physical and chemical soil conditions - what happens to structure, tilth, fertility, organic matter, etc. 5. environmental concerns - needs to be an improvement on whatever is currently occurring

What are the 4 groups of irrigation methods? Be able to describe each briefly and list one benefit and one concern for each.

1. flood - low cost & requires flat fields so water doesn't pond 2. furrow - relatively inexpensive & requires furrows designed to distribute water evenly 3. sprinkler - some slope & water loss through evaporation 4. micro-irrigation - programmable & expensive to install and maintain

What are some factors to consider when choosing which tillage system is right for the erosion you are experiencing?

1. how much loss is due to erosion? 2. evaporation losses - tillage increases evaporation 3. infiltration rates - increased/decreased 4. weed control 5. seed germination 6. organic residue buildup 7. disease and insect problems 8. availability of nutrients 9. soil temperature 10. labor and equipment requirements 11. soil structure and maintenance

What are the main methods of surface drainage? What are some advantages and disadvantages of these methods?

1. land smoothing advantage: no maintenance required disadvantage: removal of topsoil 2. drainage ditches advantage: less surface runoff disadvantage: channels, and banks occupy land that could be cropped; a hazardous obstacle to moving equipment, people, and animals around and maintenance is required (removing sediment and unwanted vegetation)

What conditions make it necessary for soil drainage?

1. low soil permeability 2. heavy rainfall 3. heavy run-on to a field

What are the best principles to use with tillage management in order to minimize erosion?

1. minimize the intensity of surface tillage and traffic 2. leave the surface rough and cloddy 3. use crop to crop residues for soil surface protection 4. maximize the permeability of the subsoil

What are some ways to reduce irrigated acres? What are some ways to increase irrigation efficiency?

1. reduce seepage 2. reduce evaporation in fieldsw 3. schedule irrigation based on soil moisture and plant needs 4. do not over-fertilize crops 5. control weeds that compete for water 6. time planning to take advantage of natural precipitation

Be able to list and define the main types of crops grown in the U.S.

1. row crops - plants grown in long rows on large acreages i.e. corn, soybeans, tobacco 2. small grains - cereal crops grown in large acreages i.e. oats, wheat, barley 3. forage crops - crops grown for feeding livestock i.e. alfalfa, clover, fescue, orchardgrass (usually very close growing crops) 4. horticultural crops - includes a wide variety of plants (usually on relatively small acreages) -trees: from ornamental to nut or fruit production -vegetables: asparagus to zucchini, usually very high-value -flowers/grasses: mostly greenhouse production but some field 5. cover crops - grown for many purposes such as increasing organic matter, protecting soil over the winter, legumes also add N and micronutrients, etc.

How do we protect water outlets from terraces and diversion channels?

1. vegetated waterways are the cheapest and most effective man-made structures 2. underground outlets draw water to a low point in the field and drain it through a pipe that has been installed (tile drains are similar to these) 3. these types of outlets need to be specified to handle a 1-in-10 year storm event with runoff up to 48 hours 4. installation is just the same as with tile drain lines

Make sure you understand and can define each factor in the USLE equation.

A = R * K * LS * C * P A = average annual soil loss in tons/acre/year R = rainfall factor (energy/acre/year) K = soil erodibility factor (tons/energy) LS = length and percent slope factor C = cropping/vegetation management factor P = conservation structure factor T = tolerable soil loss for this system to be sustainable

What are diversion ditches used for?

A ditch or channel with an accompanying ridge on the downhill side, that intercepts runoff water and carries it away at a slow velocity.

What are some problems and/or advantages of companion and sequential cropping systems?

Companion - works well if you are letting animals graze this area Sequential Objectives: -reduce some pest organisms associated with specific crops -money increases production from the same land -decreases soil erosion

What is companion cropping and how is it different from sequential cropping systems?

Companion cropping - one crop grows along with another. More common in forage crops i.e. clover and fescue, small grains (rye) and clover, etc. Sequential cropping - on the field is used to produce more than one crop per season i.e. double-crop soybeans wheat followed by soybeans, etc.

What are some of the soil exhaustion causes mentioned in this chapter? Look closely at those specifically related to the south on page 133. Do you think these are still common issues in modern-day agriculture or do you think we have different issues in relation to soil degradation?

Continuous planting without crop rotation, inadequate provision for livestock to provide manure, and improvident tilling straight up and down sloping hillsides that left bare soil exposed to rainfall. I think we still face similar issues today, but a large factor is poor irrigation, no or little use of cover crops, and production practices on slopes. Lack of coverage for topsoil. They would plant with a slope, not contour. Crop rotation. No government input, cheap and abundant land, slavery. Water and erosion issues today. Lack of public agriculture education. Population growth, urbanization, travel... things that move the soil.

How have humans impacted their surrounding landscape and changed the shape of the landscape? (86)

Excessive plowing. Forest stripping. Yes, cities, ag, mines, good and bad. Water and cities change shape (air pollution).

The basic perspectives of Malthusian pessimism and Godwinian optimism still frame debates about the relationships between human populations, agricultural technology, and political systems. (107) Which do you believe to be more accurate, or which do you agree with more?

Godwinian more but mainly in between (both).

How are water rights currently decided? What problems can occur?

Ground and surface water rights vary by state. 1. California: first person to claim ownership rights to water 2. South Dakota: all water is the property of the state Problems: 1. Who owns the water? 2. Water banking (storage and reserve) 3. Water pricing: urban vs. rural, large vs. small farms 4. Water futures (stock trading

Marcus Terentius Varro advocated adapting farming practices and equipment to the land. He recognized over 100 soil types. They practiced crop rotation, resting the land (fallow), added manures, added marl plus others but recommended 3-4 plowings per year. What were they wanting to accomplish by that? Were they successful?

High yields and variety, yes. But erosion still occurred. Utilize the land to produce what will best grow in certain soils. Replenish nutrients, plowing to get a good seed bed because they did not have the technology.

On page 118, the book quotes Avery Craven, a Historian, about the input that the cycle of soil degradation has on frontier colonization. "Men may, because of ignorance or habit, ruit their soils, but more often economic or social conditions, entirely outside of their control, lead or force them to a treatment of their lands that they can end only in ruin". Describe more in-depth what Craven meant by "economic or social conditions" and do you believe this is true?

Humans take more than what they give or know how to give. I think what Craven is saying is that a society that did not take care of the land and kept taking from it to live, led to uncontrollable erosion outcomes. In the past, humans would strip the soil to produce crops and use water and destroy forests to build homes, and ultimately overwork the land in front of them. Profit over the care of the land. The highest value crop was tobacco, they were stuck in their ways and doing it for the money.

The very beginning of chapter 6 explains how Amazon civilizations continued to move deeper and deeper into the rainforest searching for the most productive soil. Today, we see a lot of deforestation in the United States to provide housing and more farmland. Do you believe that deforestation is beneficial to our society?

I think deforestation has become a large factor as our population grows. I think it is beneficial to try and gain "more usable land" for developments and farming. However, this is only a short-term solution to a long-term problem. More problematic than a benefit in the long run. Amazon's issue is they clear large portions at a time with no time to replenish.

George Washington saw the depletion of soil as an effect of "ignorance" and poor farming methods. However, Thomas Jefferson saw that greed is the reason behind soil degradation. In today's agriculture, how much does greed play a role in ag and where should we draw the line between being greedy and "ignorance" of poor methods?

I think in today's society, greed is more used by the developers who are in constant battle with agriculturalists about who gets the land and they typically win. The line is drawn when someone is aware of the problem and is offered alternatives or better solutions but still refuses to change their ways. When it comes to greed, the line needs to be drawn when someone has more than they know what to do with it or if it is more than they can take care of. Larger corporations are more greedy compared to small farmers.

Throughout the chapter, there were multiple people who discussed the importance of manure in maintaining soil fertility. Would you agree that manure is the key to better soil? What could be/are some complications not mentioned in the book with relying heavily on manure?

I think spreading manure is a great way to add more (natural) nutrients back into the soil. Manure can raise the acidity in the soil overtime while decreasing the amount of calcium. It can decrease compaction and bulk density. It can increase aggregate soil stability. Increase water infiltration. Transport can be costly and labor-intensive. Manure warms the soil, this speeds the decomposition process. Increases soil organic matter. Saves money on fertilizer and time. Too much can affect waterways. The economic problem is not the right equipment. The concern of contamination. Calcium to neutralize acidic soils.

How did the fertility of the soil affect the populations of the first European communities. (84)

It drove them away for about five hundred to a thousand years. Did good and all of a sudden it could no longer sustain them.

Define Amazon's term terra perta and discuss it in relation to the culture's practices.

It is fertile black soil, has twice as much organic matter as adjacent soils, better retains nutrients, and has more soil microorganisms. Ash, fish, animal bones, and urine. This culture's practices were very different from others because their soils were fertilized naturally by the Amazon river and these nutrients are what make the soil black and rich. Organic matter, ash, fish, animal bones, and urine... recycled for nutrients. Amazon knew how to replenish nutrients back into the soil. Pretty mother earth - terra perta.

Using an ox and plow saved labor but required twice as much land to feed a family. As plowing became standard practice, the demand for land increased faster than the population. Is this statement true today? Why or why not?

It is true today because with an ever-increasing population, more land is being used and not just for agriculture. We are to feed more people with less land. Max of land use. Alternative farming.

Why do you think in medieval times they had communal land and what benefits do you think it gave?

Labor and food supply. Not everyone could afford land or maybe help so sharing helps strengthen production. Benefits, but not an equal reward for unequal labor. Self sufficient. Blame for bad harvest.

What are some advantages of the following tillage systems: minimum (conservation) reduced tillage, mulch tillage, and no-till.

Minimum (Conservation) Reduced Tillage: 1. increases surface roughness 2. increases porosity 3. normally increases water holding capacity 4. reduces surface sealing Mulch Tillage: 1. loosens soil with a smaller inversion 2. soil mixing occurs under the surface 3. residues remain at the soil surface 4. upheaval roughens the surface 5. resists raindrop impact No-Till: 1. greatly reduces soil erosion losses 2. no problems with surface sealing 3. improves soil structure 4. reduces labor inputs 5. lessens the amount of equipment and fuel required

The northern European rush to America did not kick into full gear until the late 19th century. Relatively few people from northwestern Europe migrated to America while there was still fertile land at home. (100) Do you think that soil erosion still plays a role in human immigration today?

No, and if so it is very minimal. Today people move for a variety of reasons. Not as much as other factors.

On page 51, it "showed that even the dramatic climate change at the end of the last glaciation did not increase erosion." Does climate change play a role in erosion today?

Possibly a small part, but the overuse of the land and stripping of nutrients is what is affecting erosion today. Indirect role of climate change (tornadoes, droughts) thunderstorms and rains (water erosion).

What is sustainable irrigation? Give several qualifications.

Practices that farmers can continue to use while ensuring that irrigation and drainage do not degrade the quality of the land, water, or other natural resources.

What effect did slavery (and the Civil War) play on the soil and the rapid rate of degradation? Think in terms of expansion, involuntary work, erosion, etc.

Slavery was the backbone for the South as these people were needed in the fields in order for production profit to be made. This accelerated the rate of erosion because the humans were constantly interfering with it by working in the fields by hand. Teenagers, do poor work when made to do chores, this is the same concepts with slavery. Day by day on the land affects soil more than a few passes over the year with equipment.

Be able to describe what strip cropping and contouring would consist of.

Strip cropping - planting long strips of different crops to try and slow runoff water i.e. corn, soybeans, grass Contouring - planting with the lay of the land. In most cases, we do this on a normal basis. Strip cropping and contouring - most effective control of erosion

In England did a growing human population drive up demand for agricultural products or did increased agricultural production allow for fast population growth? (99)

They happened together, hand-in-hand.

What is the main method of subsurface drainage? What are some advantages and disadvantages of this method? What types of tiles are used in this method? Which one is the most popular?

Tile drainage. 1. used to reach the interior of a field to achieve a uniform depth to the water table 2. may also have surface inlets to drain depression or terraces above 3. drainage tiles have been around for 100's of years as early as the 14th and 15th centuries, came to US in 1835 4. most tiles are laid with trenching machines, which can dig to about 6 ft deep 5. the biggest disadvantage is the cost 6. will not work on: shallow soil, excessive stoniness, or low hydraulic soils Types: 1. clay 2. concrete 3. PVC - most popular

Why must farm on terraces be done parallel to the terrace?

To minimize water and soil movement between terraces and reduce tillage damage on the terrace ridges.

What do earthen dams do in an agricultural system?

Trap sediment, stabilize drainage ways, reduce erosion, store excess water to reduce flood damage, store freshwater for livestock, irrigation, households, or municipal use.

On page 67, Montgomery asks "still, how could Italy's soil decline when Romans knew about agriculture husbandry, crop rotations, and manure? Such practices require using a portion of the farmer's income to improve the soil, whereas maximizing its immediate yield involves cashing in soil fertility." If farmers today had better income or better incentives, do you think they would put more effort into soil conservation practices?

Yes because farmers care for the land but finances can greatly influence if conservation practices are used or not. Rented or leased land is hard for farmers to commit to conservation practices and everything that contributes to conservation farming practices.

Caius Plinius Secundus....attributed the decline of Roman agriculture to city-dwelling landlords, leaving large tracts of farmland in the hands of overseers running slave labor. Pliny said the general practice of growing cash crops for the highest profit to the exclusion of good husbandry would ruin the empire. Do you think he was correct? Are there similarities in our society today?

Yes, he is correct and there are similarities today.

It is stated that "societies increasingly left vulnerable to hostile neighbors, internal sociopolitical disruption, and harsh winters or droughts," are we experiencing similar parallels today? How might we prevent such an outcome?

Yes, we can learn from the past, but agriculture and its importance should be known to all and greatly considered before a political decision is made while we cannot change the weather, we can use data and new technology to our advantage now, and in the future. Technology for droughts, but still limited. Impact on resources and trade, political. Not as vulnerable.

Why is rotary tillage considered the worst for the soil?

beats the soil into small pieces

What are some materials used to protect these waterways?

mulching 1. used often when waterways are first developed before vegetation can be established 2. mulch intercepts raindrop impact and runoff waters 3. the biggest problem is most are only stable for 2 to 6 months 4. broken rocks are often placed in gullies to lessen erosion and slow water runoff 5. a series of man-made drop structures can also be used in a gully to slow the velocity of runoff waters

What are the two general types of soil drainage?

surface and subsurface