Exam 2 - The Science of Psychology

The embryonic stage of pregnancy is

a stage when miscarriage might occur without the mother knowing she was pregnant.

When this dimension of temperament is high in an infant, he or she should be able to inhibit inappropriate behaviors.

effortful control

All of the following are stages in Elisabeth Kubler-Ross's Death and Dying descriptions, EXCEPT

hostility

Children are said to construct these units of knowledge that serve as cognitive models of the world.

schemas

Good evidence of the importance of peers in the United States comes from observations that adolescents engage in this activity more than anything else, besides schoolwork.

talking with peers

One problem with conclusions about the benefits of the authoritative parenting style is that

the personality characteristics that led to the parenting style may have also been passed to the offspring.

Among the reflexes, which of the following is NOT a survival reflex?

the plantar reflex.

Because the quantity of _____________ increases in the brain during adolescence, there is an increase in the speed and efficiency of neural transmission in some parts of the brain.

white matter

This feeling results from a conflict between our attitudes and our behavior.

15 cognitive dissonance

When people bring their attitudes and behaviors in line with what is perceived as the norm for the group, it is known as

15 conformity

One way that dehumanization of outgroups may occur is through the emotion of

15 disgust

This is the ability to take another person's perspective, or to feel how that person feels.

15 empathy

According to research on age and attractiveness, it seems to be the case that

15 facial attractiveness declines with age in both sexes.

Saying "I'll pass, thanks" if you are trying eat healthy and you are offered a donut is an example of_____________________; deciding to follow in a physical training regimen is an example of __________________.

15 self-control; self-regulation.

Computer-mediated communication is most beneficial to adolescent boys because it provides a safe place to experiment with

15 self-discourse

The presence of others may reduce the effort a person gives to a cooperative task, such as a group assignment in a college course. This is called

15 social loafing.

An attitude is more likely to predict your behavior if

15 the attitude emerges from personal experience.

The tendency to attribute other people's behavior to dispositional factors, while ignoring or underestimating the possibility of situational factors is called

15 the fundamental attribution error.

The stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and then associated with it is called the

7 conditioned stimulus.

Many operant conditioning programs set up in substance abuse treatment facilities, which work by reinforcing desired behaviors with prizes, chances to win prizes, or tokens that may be redeemed for various privileges, use this technique.

7 contingency management.

If your professor ended certain class days by sounding a bullhorn and then offering sweet-smelling cookies to the class, you would start to salivate to the sound of the bullhorn. If, on other days, your professor ended class by ringing a hand bell, and not offering cookies, you would not salivate to the sound of the hand bell. The aspect of classical conditioning responsible for that phenomenon is

7 discrimination

In the original version of Bandura's experiment, preschoolers were left in the company of an adult model who would either punch and kick an inflatable clown doll ("Bobo")—the kind with a rounded, weighted base that springs back up when knocked down—or, in the control conditions, the adult would

7 do nothing to the doll.

This concept states that any neutral stimulus can be associated just as easily with one unconditioned stimulus as with any other.

7 equipotentiality.

Tolman's research on latent learning focused on distinguishing between learning and

7 performance

When the frequency or probability of a behavior is increased as a result of the addition or presentation of something following the performance of the behavior, it is called

7 positive reinforcement.

A light can be an unconditioned stimulus in a secondary conditioning experiment, if

7 the light is paired with a previously conditioned stimulus.

In classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus can only be associated with the unconditioned stimulus if

7 the neutral stimulus prepares the organism for the other stimulus.

According to a study by Breland and Breland (1961), it was no trouble to condition a raccoon to slip coins into the slot on a laboratory "piggy bank." However, the raccoon would not let the coins go, but dipped them in and out of the slot, and rubbed them together in his paws. This was because

7 the raccoon had come to associate the coins with receiving food and was treating the coins as food.

When a dog has food placed in its mouth, the dog begins to salivate. The salivation behavior is called the

7 unconditioned response.

On a multiple-choice exam, identifying the correct answer is really a matter of

8 recognition

When information becomes conscious, it has been activated in this store.

8 shot term memory

This retrieval phenomenon works when mood and other psychological states, including drug-induced changes in consciousness, act as retrieval cues.

8 state-dependent memory.

Studies of language learning with primates like Kanzi, Nim, and Washoe demonstrated that primates are able to communicate with human language

9 about as well as a human toddler. null.

Young children have relatively little control over their lives, but as they grow older their ability to seek out environments, relationships, and experiences more in keeping with aspects of their genetic heredity increases. This is consistent with a(n)

9 active gene-environment correlation.

This procedure for solving problems will work as long as you input information in the appropriate manner.

9 algorithm

When our thoughts about certain events are easily "accessible" to our consciousness, we tend to overestimate their likelihood of occurrence of the event. This is known as the

9 availability heuristic.

An IQ score between about 50 and 70 may reflect mild mental retardation, if the person also demonstrates

9 behavioral difficulties.

When humans use language to converse about things that do not exist, are abstract, or have yet to occur, linguists refer to it as

9 displacement.

Humans are able to use a relatively small number of words and grammatical structures of a language to compose a theoretically infinite number of sentences. This is called

9 generativity

In order to experience insight while solving a problem, one must first experience this state.

9 impasse

In Daniel Kahneman's theory, the system of thought that is rapid, intuitive, effortless, and automatic, is called

9 system 1

This popular-science term refers to the normal distribution of IQ scores throughout the population.

9 the bell curve

The tragic case of "Genie," a girl who was subjected to physical abuse and prohibited from speaking for the first 13 years of her life, supports the idea that

9 there is a critical period for language development.

The percentage of participants that obeyed the experimenter and administered shocks to the danger level in Milgram's original obedience study was

15 65%

The tendency of people to be less likely to help strangers in need if there are other people present at the scene is called the

15 bystander effect

Janet Polivy and Peter Herman use this term to describe the result of repeated attempts at self-change that are based on unrealistically high expectations.

15 false-hope syndrome

In a study of the mere exposure effect using online chatting, participants who were randomly assigned to chat with the same partner for a greater number of consecutive days

15 grew to like their chatting partners.

This special kind of conformity results from group members not wanting to adversely affect group morale, make waves, or appear disloyal to the group leader.

15 groupthink

This is the tendency to favor and extend loyalty to members of one's own group over members of other groups.

15 in-group bias

This kind of influence on conformity is based on a rational desire to seek realistic information about some situation from the group and adjust behavior accordingly.

15 informational influence

The conclusions from most studies of intergroup relations, such as the Robber's Cave experiment, are generally consistent with Gordon Allport's

15 intergroup contact theory.

Research on the fundamental attribution error is most limited by the fact that

15 it is very difficult to define where a situation ends and a person begins.

According to Robert Zajonic, it is adaptive to be cautious around unfamiliar objects and people, and to be more open to familiar stimuli and individuals. This is the hypothesized basis for the

15 mere exposure effect.

People are more likely to seek employment with companies whose names begin with the same letter as their own. This is evidence for the

15 name-letter effect

Baumeister and colleagues used this analogy to describe the ability for one to exert self-control.

15 physical strength

When we are attracted to mates that are similar to us, social psychologists refer to it as

15 positive assortment.

In contrast with early research on the bystander effect, the more dangerous the circumstance and the more clear-cut the physical danger

15 the more likely an individual is to offer aid.

Women tend to rate highly masculinized faces in all of the following contexts, EXCEPT:

15 when evaluating a male as a potential long-term partner.

All of the following are examples of habituation, EXCEPT:

7 Latoya's last boyfriend was emotionally abusive and now she has more trouble trusting possible new mates..

Which of the following does NOT describe one of the four stages in the process of vicarious conditioning?

7 One must have been previously conditioned to seek rewarding consequences for acting aggressively..

Which of the following best captures the essence of the law of effect?

7 The presence of reward strengthens actions that prove to be successful while actions that prove unsuccessful become less likely to occur..

All of the following statements about Watson and Rayner's (1920) "Little Albert" experiment are true, EXCEPT:

7 Watson and Rayner planned to recondition Albert away from the conditioned fear of rats..

If a behavior, like playing a slot machine, is continuously reinforced, the behavior is initially strong but

7 is extinguished soon after the slot machine ceases delivering rewards.

In an attempt to get his class to quiet down more quickly, Dr. Johnson continuously sounds a very loud bullhorn until the class stops talking. This is an example of

7 negative reinforcement.

Among other things, food, water, and sex have been found to be the best

7 primary reinforcers.

Knowing how to do something, like drive a car or play a sport, is referred to as

7 procedural knowledge

In the Tolman and Hoznik (1930) experiment on latent learning, the group of rats that were reinforced only after several days of navigating the maze without reinforcement showed a(n)

7 reduction in the rate of errors across subsequent trials compared to other groups.

Addicts who recover in the context of a drug treatment facility may experience a resurgence of craving for their drug of choice once they leave the facility and come into contact with people, places, or things associated with the drug. In classical conditioning, this is called

7 renewal

Because of this learning mechanism, your sensitivity to pain generally increases the longer the pain continues, both in the affected area of your body and in surrounding areas.

7 sensitization.

This schedule of reinforcement, sometimes reinforcing hunting strategies in animals, and shopping strategies in humans, generally produces the lowest rate of responding because reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals.

7 variable-interval.

Slot-machine players do not typically pause for rest following reinforcement, but rather, they continue to respond at high rates to reach the next pay-off. The schedule of reinforcement in effect here is

7 variable-ratio.

The "positive" and "negative" terms applied to reinforcement and punishment refer to

7 whether something is added or removed as a consequence.

All of the following are examples of episodic memories, EXCEPT:

8 Adam remembers that New York is in the Eastern time zone of the United States..

All of the following are examples of proactive interference, EXCEPT:

8 Julia lost the combination lock to use at the gym, but she cannot use her old one because she only remembers the new combination..

Which of the following best describes the consensus of most researchers about the recovered memory controversy?

8 Most people who recover memories of traumatic sexual abuse in therapy are actually rebelling against the suggestions of the therapist..

There has recently been a shift among memory researchers away from quantitative questions of how much and how long to the question of how

8 accurate

The false memory effect demonstrated by Ceci and colleagues particularly affects

8 autobiographical memory.

This part of the multicomponent model of working memory allows us to have several short- and long-term memory "programs" open at the same time.

8 central executive.

Researchers demonstrated this phenomenon when they had scuba divers memorize lists of words either under water or on land, and later tested them for recall of these words both on land and under water.

8 context-dependent memory.

Studies that demonstrate this effect of schemas also highlight the importance of the context in which an event occurs for subsequent accurate recall.

8 distorted recall of schema-inconsistent material.

This memory process involves making meaning out of our perceptions.

8 encoding

Most modern psychologists view memory like a "theater" of experience where events may be interpreted and reinterpreted over time. This means that memories are

8 fixed, not variable.

This memory phenomenon is a highly vivid and detailed remembrance of one's personal circumstances at the moment of learning of some shocking and unexpected event.

8 flashbulb memory

When we recall something, but have no awareness that we are doing so, we are using

8 implicit memory.

You might use this strategy to remember a telephone number if you have nothing with which to write.

8 maintenance rehearsal.

An experimenter is hoping to measure this when asking you to quickly repeat back a string of digits like 2,3,5,6,1,2,6.

8 memory span.

Which of the following is NOT a way that long-term memories are encoded?

8 mental encoding

If you make a list of items to buy at the grocery store but forget your list at home, you will probably be able to remember the first few items on the list as an example of this serial position effect.

8 primacy effect.

A schema is necessary to represent which of these bits of information?

8 psychology lecture lasts for 50 minutes.

Supporters of the idea of distinct memory systems claim that this serial position effect is evidence of the existence of a separate short-term memory store.

8 recency effect

Which of the following was NOT among the list of habits known to reduce exam performance?

8 studying in frequent, manageable sessions.

Your confidence in autobiographical memories for events that occurred before your fourth birthday are most likely based on

8 the existence of photographs of the event.

Craik and Lockhart did not adhere to the notion that memory consists of separate stores and stages such as STM and LTM. Instead they proposed that

8 the more deeply an item is processed, the more likely it is to be recalled at a later date.

This part of the multicomponent model of working memory holds visual information in short-term memory.

8 visuospatial sketchpad.

Nintey-six percent of people's IQ scores fall between these two scores.

9 70 and 130.

According to Sternberg's triarchic theory, all of the following are examples of the use of practical intelligence, EXCEPT:

9 How can I best solve this anagram?.

When children make language errors like saying "taked" instead of "took," or "badder" instead of "worse," linguists believe it is evidence for an innate language faculty because

9 children persist in making these grammatically logical mistakes even after being corrected.

When nonhuman animals communicate with one another, the system of communication is always

9 closed-ended

This theoretical idea states that the mind was designed to process and manipulate information.

9 computational theory of mind.

When people pay more attention to events that are consistent with their own predictions while ignoring other events, this is an example of

9 confirmation bias

To say that the base rate of Americans with depression is 5 percent, whereas the base rate of having the first name "John" is 20 percent, it means that

9 it is less likely for an American to be depressed than to be named John.

Susan Hespos and Elizabeth Spelke (2004) observed that the Korean language, but not the English language, uses entirely different verbs to describe whether an object fits loosely or tightly inside or on top of another. This is an example of the

9 linguistic relativity hypothesis.

The two primary components of thinking in terms of representing information are called:

9 mental images and concepts.

Which mental representation would we need to utilize to think about abstract words like time, ambivalence, and fatigue?

9 null.

All of the following would be characterized by a cognitive scientist as natural concepts, EXCEPT:

9 speed

This type of measurement is the defining method of psychometrics.

9 standardized testing.

In linguistic theory, children use this innate knowledge to acquire the specific language spoken by the caregivers.

9 universal grammar

Which of the following describes the most reliable and valid use of IQ scores?

9 using IQ to predict academic performance and achievement.

Though the statistics regarding divorce are discouraging, all of the following are true of married couples, EXCEPT:

Married people are less financially secure than unmarried people..

All of the following are true regarding temperament, EXCEPT:

Temperament is not a biologically based phenomenon..

When Fabio was about 13 months old, he had just learned the word dog. One day he looked out of the car window, pointed to a cow in a field and delightedly observed, "dog!" This is an example of

assimilation

This parenting style, characterized by firm but fair rules and warm parental care, is viewed most positively in Western cultures.

authoritative

Fourteen-month-old Elsie shows little distress when her mother leaves her with her aunt, but also shows little interest in interacting with her when she returns. Elsie's attachment style is

avoidant

The stage in which a child begins to develop the understanding that an object may retain its identity even if its appearance is changed for some reason is known as the _______________ stage.

concrete operational

Nine-year-old Michael knows that when his teacher pours liquid from one of two identical containers into a taller, slimmer container, the amount of liquid is the same in both containers. Michael is most likely in this developmental stage.

concrete operational.

This level of morality is characterized by an application of societal rules and is most common in early adolescence.

conventional

Haidt (2001) proposed that members of Western cultures often utilized this foundation of morality when evaluating moral scenarios.

fairness and justice

Two-year-old Brandon is always on high alert. When his mother leaves him in the care of his grandmother, he is often inconsolable, even when his mother returns to try and ease the stress of the situation. Brandon exhibits this attachment style.

insecure-ambivalent

Children develop an ______________ of the world as they begin socially interacting with caregivers.

internal working model.

According to Erikson, the conflict that follows the search for identity in early adulthood is

intimacy v. isolation

One of the main differences between Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment is that the brains of Alzheimer's patients

lose brain cells because of plaques and tangles.

Babies exhibit consistent patterns of behaviors from birth that range from fussy to calm. These patterns are called

temperament

Alcohol is one of the most harmful of the_____________, and can cause congenital malformation.

teratogens

The unique experiences of each infant that contribute to the environmental portion of temperament and other developmental phenomenon are termed the

unshared envrionment

In the later years of life, activity level is the best predictor of

vitality and endurance.